Methods of conducting forensic psychological examination. Methods of psychodiagnostics in expert research. Reasons for the mandatory appointment of a forensic psychological examination

There are four relatively independent memory processes and four corresponding functions: memorization, preservation, reproduction and forgetting.

memorization- this is the process of capturing (fixing) information that can be presented in the form of sensations, images, thoughts, emotional experiences, movements, practical actions, acts of communication. On the basis of memorization, there is an expansion of life experience and the mental development of a person, his formation as a person, as a subject of activity. Memorization is an active process, its source is the needs and motives of the individual. It is connected with the activity of the subject and the awareness of the facts necessary for the activity.

A number of factors affect the effectiveness of memorization: Meaningfulness of the material . In the experiments of Guilford and McGech, it was proved that a person spends less time memorizing meaningful material than when cramming meaningless material. And, indeed, when we comprehend the material, it is remembered better.

In the works of A.A. Smirnova, V.Ya. Laudis, V.D. Shadrikov and other scientists, the role of specially organized actions in memorization, acting as mnemonic devices or ways of memorization in educational activities: material grouping for any reason; selection of strong points(title, theses, questions, etc.); planning as a set of strong points; classification- distribution of phenomena and objects into classes, groups based on certain common features; structuring- establishing the relative position of the parts, the internal structure of the memorized, schematization - a picture or description of something; analogy - establishing the similarity or similarity of objects or phenomena; transcoding- verbalization or pronunciation, presentation of information in a figurative form, transformation of information, building up memorized material and bringing into it by the subject something from other areas; serial organization of material– establishment of intergroup relations, connections, etc.

plays a special role repetition . It allows you to: 1) retain information for a long time; 2) to transfer information from short-term memory to long-term; 3) Strengthen memory traces. When memorizing the material, it is necessary to organize it correctly, distributing repetitions in time. R. Yost experimentally proved: if the material is such that it can be memorized with a small number of repetitions, then the method of concentrated memorization should be used, and if a large number of repetitions are required, then the method of distributed memorization with a sufficient number of repetitions is more economical.

plays an important role in memory motivation , which is associated with the interests, inclinations of the individual, her attitude to certain activities, emotional mood. Experiments Z.M. Istomina showed that memorization reaches its maximum level in a situation of practical activity, high motivation for its implementation.

Memory setting. It should be noted that activities aimed at memorization can be no less difficult than understanding the material. This is especially true for memorizing concepts and definitions. The lack of an attitude to memorization, motivation to remember this or that material affects the results of activities (for example, an exam). And it is important to remember the setting for a long time.

Preservation is the accumulation of material in memory. This process contributes to the retention of the acquired life experience, including the personality as a whole, from disintegration. Its subject is not only knowledge, skills and abilities, but also any personal education. Preservation gives meaning to memorization because what is important is preserved. This is not a simple conservation of material, but an active process, during which information is continuously processed and structured.

There are many ways to organize information in memory: spatial organization, it allows you to establish reference links and "reference points" in the physical and social space (allows you to find the right word in the dictionary, navigate in the days of the week, months, etc.); association organization- grouping of elements with some common features (for example, by the first letter, etc.); hierarchical organization, when each element of information belongs to a certain level, depending on which category - more general or more specific, it corresponds (according to Godefroy).

The preservation of the material is ensured by: the meaningfulness of memorization, as well as active repetition. Interesting data were obtained in 1924 by Jenkins and Dallenbach. Scientists have proven that daily activities speed up forgetting, while sleep improves memory as a result of its inherent ability to reinforce memory traces. Therefore, the Russian proverb is not accidental: "The morning is wiser than the evening."

In experiments conducted in 1924-1926. in the laboratory of K. Levin by our compatriot B.V. Zeigarnik, when studying the memorization and resumption of interrupted actions, it was proved that an action that remained unfinished is stored in our memory. On the contrary, we forget the completed action ( pending effect).

Playback- this is the revival, actualization of previously formed connections in the brain by extracting from long-term memory and transferring it to operational memory. There are the following forms of reproduction:

Recognition- occurs when objects are re-perceived. It always connects our experience with new situations of life, makes it possible to correctly orientate ourselves in the surrounding reality. Recognition plays a huge role in the processes of human self-identification, being a condition for self-awareness of the individual.

Remembrance is the most active form of memory. The effectiveness of recall depends on the clarity of the tasks set, on the degree of logical ordering of the information stored in memory. Difficulties that arise in recalling are often associated with the fact that at the right moment there was no symbol-means necessary for recalling. The correct organization of memorized information increases the efficiency of recall. The context in which the memorization took place plays a huge role. Therefore, the re-creation of identical conditions will contribute to a better recall of the material.

Proper reproduction (or recollection)- carried out in the absence of an object of perception. It can be involuntary and arbitrary, purposeful. Arbitrary reproduction is caused by the reproductive task that a person sets for himself. Sometimes it can be very difficult to remember, especially when there are no reference points or objects. Therefore, it is always easier to find out information, but this “lightness” actually indicates the existing level of memory in a person. Therefore, training tests in which you need to choose the correct answer reflect the level of knowledge more accurately than direct questions.

In the studies of the French psychologist A. Pieron in 1913, it was proved that the reproduction of the learned material is better 2-3 days after memorization. This effect is called reminiscence .

Reminiscence represents a quantitative improvement in retention during subsequent reproduction of the material without additional exercises and repetitions of the memorized. It is, as it were, an involuntary reproduction of material that already seemed forgotten.

Forgetting is the process of freeing a person from unnecessary experience or knowledge. Forgetting is any inability to retrieve information.

G. Ebbinghaus was the first to study changes in memory over time. He proved that stored information begins to decline sharply immediately after memorization. Further decline slows down and stops at about the same level (20% of the material) after a month. The criterion of forgetting is subjective and lies in the personality itself, in its needs, interests, life goals and tasks. Sometimes a person forgets what he needs. In this regard, it must be remembered that the meaningfulness, significance for a person of this or that knowledge makes it possible to avoid this fact.

Forgetting performs a number of important functions in the human psyche. First, it prevents the brain from being overloaded with information. Second, forgetting useless information makes it easier to access useful information. Thirdly, forgetting performs a special psychotherapeutic work, freeing us from the burden of unpleasant, traumatic experiences.

There are a number factors affecting forgetting.

Forgetting material is associated with person's age: in the elderly, mechanical imprinting begins to deteriorate, figurative memory weakens, a decrease in memorization is observed. However, what is significant and related to current activities, professional and everyday skills mastered in the process of life, is forgotten less.

Forgetting sometimes occurs also because the event in our mind is described in a way that does not distinguish it from others, and therefore it is not possible to retrieve it from memory. For example, when a student learns all the material “in one sitting” before an exam without differentiating it, it can be very difficult to remember a specific question.

An important role is played by the nature of the information and the frequency of access to it. If we do not repeat the acquired knowledge and do not use it in experience, they are forgotten. So, for example, foreign languages. A large number of people do not use them after graduation and forget. On the contrary, what is important to us, associated with interest, is forgotten less.

Interesting research has been done by Gestalt psychologists in the field of forgetting intention(the so-called "forgetfulness" of a person) Sometimes we forget the intention, because it has not passed from short-term memory further to long-term (for example, we have to transfer information to a friend and forget about it) - we are talking about insufficient duration of intention.

associated with forgetting interference phenomenon, which is interpreted as a violation of memorization, due to the imposition of one material on another. There are several types of interference:

a) proactive interference is associated with events that occurred before memorization (for example, important or emotionally significant information communicated at the beginning interferes with subsequent concentration and memorization);

b) negative transfer during learning (for example, a previously learned method of solving makes it difficult to master a new one);

c) the influence on memorization of homogeneous activity (when, immediately after studying one material, we take up another, similar to it, for example, studying two foreign languages ​​in a row);

d) retroactive interference, it is connected with the fact that if, immediately after mastering knowledge or acquiring a skill, we start a new one, and especially a relatively similar activity, the new material will overlap the old one and displace it. This phenomenon will not occur when performing different activities or when performing very similar activities (for example, when studying two sections of the same textbook or when, after studying psychology, we will comprehend mathematics, however, if after psychology we begin to learn philosophy, then we will remember the first one worse) .

Playback and recognition- recovery processes previously perceived. The difference between them lies in the fact that recognition occurs upon re-encountering the object, upon its repeated perception, while reproduction takes place in the absence of the object.

Playback can be involuntary and arbitrary. Involuntary is an unintentional reproduction, without the purpose of remembering, when images pop up by themselves, most often by association. Arbitrary reproduction is a purposeful process of restoring past thoughts, feelings, aspirations, and actions in the mind. Sometimes random playback is easy, sometimes it takes effort. Conscious reproduction associated with overcoming known difficulties, requiring volitional efforts, is called recollection.

The qualities of memory are most clearly revealed during reproduction. It is the result of both memorization and retention. We can judge about memorization and preservation only by reproduction. Reproduction is not a simple mechanical repetition of what is imprinted. A reconstruction takes place, that is, a mental processing of the material: the plan of presentation is changed, the main thing is singled out, additional material known from other sources is inserted.

The success of reproduction depends on the ability to restore the connections that were formed during memorization, and on the ability to use the plan during reproduction.

The physiological basis of recognition and reproduction is the revival of traces of previous excitations in the cerebral cortex. Upon recognition, a trace of excitation is revived, which was beaten during memorization.

Play Forms:

Ø recognition - a manifestation of memory that occurs when an object is re-perceived;

Ø memory, which is carried out in the absence of perception of the object;

Ø recall, which is the most active form of reproduction, largely dependent on the clarity of the tasks set, on the degree of logical ordering of the information memorized and stored in the DP;

Ø reminiscence - delayed reproduction of previously perceived, seemingly forgotten;

Ø eidetism is a visual memory that retains a vivid image for a long time with all the details of the perceived.

Recognition of any object occurs at the moment of its perception and means that there is a perception of an object, the idea of ​​which has been formed in a person either on the basis of personal impressions (memory representation), or on the basis of verbal descriptions (imagination representation). Recognition processes differ from each other in the degree of certainty. Recognition is least certain when we experience only familiarity object, but we cannot identify it with anything from past experience. Such cases are characterized recognition uncertainty. There is much in common between definite and indefinite recognition. Both of these variants of recognition unfold gradually, and therefore they are often close to recall, and, consequently, are a complex mental and volitional process.

Memorization is a mnemonic process through which incoming information is selectively selected for subsequent reproduction and included in an already existing system of associative links. It is characteristic for a person that the development of his memory is, first of all, due to the meaningful processing of memorized information. If in early childhood, first of all, direct memorization is realized, then later, through the use of mediating elements, mediated memory is formed, which is decisive in the life of an adult. A positive role in memorization is played by systematic repetition, when the original elements are included in a new system of associative links.

Storage is the accumulation of material in memory. For long-term storage, as in an archive, an organization is required that would allow not only classifying, but also quickly retrieving information. What a person remembers, the brain stores more or less for a long time. Storage as a process of memory has its own laws. It is established that storage can be dynamic and static. Dynamic storage manifests itself in random access memory, and static storage manifests itself in long-term memory. During dynamic storage, the material changes little, while during static storage, on the contrary, it necessarily undergoes reconstruction, processing.

The storage of information and its modification can only be judged by recognition and reproduction.

Recognition is the recognition, as already known, of an object that is in the center of actual perception. This process is based on the comparison of perceived features with the corresponding traces of memory, which act as standards for identifying features of the perceived object.

Allocate:

individual recognition of an object, as a repeated perception of this particular object;

generic recognition of an object, when a newly perceived object can be attributed to some class of objects.

In a more complex form, recognition appears as a reproduction in the representation of objects that are not currently given in actual perception.

Reproduction is a mnemonic process in which the previously formed psychological content (thoughts, images, feelings, movements) is actualized. Reproduction has a selective character, due to the needs, direction of activity, actual experiences. During reproduction, a significant restructuring of the perceived usually occurs, so that the original content loses a number of minor details and acquires a generalized character corresponding to the tasks being solved. Due to the effects of reminiscence and interference, reproduction immediately after the perception of the memorized material (immediate reproduction) does not always give a better result than delayed reproduction.

Forgetting is the loss of the ability to recall previously received information. There are several forgetting theories.

Attenuation theory. Information from short-term memory can be transferred to long-term memory through repetition. If the information is not used or repeated, then over time it is forgotten. As a result of information processing, a “trace” appears - a certain change in the nervous tissue, this trace fades away if it is not used.

Theory of interference. Associative links are formed between specific stimuli and specific responses, which are stored in memory for as long as other competing information does not interfere with them. When studying interference, the greatest attention is drawn to retroactive and proactive inhibition. Retroactive inhibition manifests itself in the effect of the suppression of old material by the new, and proactive inhibition in the suppression of new material by the old.

The theory of situational forgetting. Failure to retrieve information does not necessarily mean that memories are lost, but that they may be inaccessible due to a mismatch between features during encoding and features during recall [Solso, 2006].

Recognition - A mental process located at the intersection of memory, thinking and perception, which consists in the ability of perception to quite quickly interpret images as already familiar, having certain connections in memory. In recognition (as well as reproduction), imprinting and memorization are manifested.

Recognition, in comparison with reproduction, is an earlier manifestation (at least in human ontogeny). In recognition, perception and the processes of preservation and reproduction are presented in a unity that has not yet been dissected. Without recognition, perception cannot exist as a conscious meaningful process. At the same time, recognition is also preservation and reproduction within perception.

In the process of recognition from perception, that activity of correlating, comparing the sensory qualities of the image that arises in the process of perception with the object, which is already contained in perception, stands out and comes to the fore. Any perception, as an act of cognition, contains in itself, in a more or less hidden form, a correlation, a comparison of the image that arises in perception with the object. When not this activity, but its result is represented in consciousness, perception is evident; when this activity comes to the fore in consciousness, the whole process appears as recognition.

Recognition can take place in several ways. The most elementary primary form of recognition is automatic recognition in action. This first stage of recognition manifests itself in the form of an adequate response to the primary stimulus. A typical example is when we mechanically greet a person, and only after that we remember what kind of person we met. Another example is when we see a ball flying at us, we automatically put our hands out to catch it; if a weight were flying at us, we would take a step to the side to dodge. Such recognition in action is possible without recognition in the form of a conscious identification of the new perception with the previous one.

The next stage of recognition is the forms that are associated with a sense of familiarity, without the possibility, however, of identifying a recognized object with a previously perceived one. The subject may feel that this object is not the same or that the word that he has come across is not the one he is looking for, but at the same time the subject is not able to identify this object or name the right word. In these cases, it is partly true that we recognize things not so much by their signs, but by the feelings they arouse in us.

The third stage of recognition is the identification of an object. The object given to the subject in one context, in one situation, is separated from this situation and identified with the object given earlier in another context. Such recognition actually presupposes the formation of perception in a concept, that is, the correlation of an object with one or another concept. This correlation can be made at various levels and for various reasons. But in all cases, this is already a more or less complex cognitive act.

S. L. Rubinshtein notes that recognition refers to the process of perception. But at the same time it is closely connected with both memory and thinking. In a sense, recognition is an extended form of an act of thinking.

The process of recognition can take different forms. In some cases, it is performed on the basis of ideas or memories of a specific situation in which this or a similar object was perceived in the past. In other cases, recognition is generic (generic) in nature, based on the concept of the corresponding category of objects.