What is the name of the special cognitive position occupied by the subject. The problem of the development of thinking in the early works of J. Piaget. Periodization of the development of thinking

J. Piaget “Psychology of the intellect. The genesis of the number in a child. Logic and psychology» The main provisions of the theory of J. Piaget. According to Jean Piaget's theory of intelligence, human intelligence goes through several main stages in its development: From birth to 2 years, it continues sensorimotor intelligence period; from 2 to 11 years - the period of preparation and organization of specific operations, in which sub-period of pre-operational representations(from 2 to 7 years old) and sub-period of specific transactions(from 7 to 11 years); from 11 years old to about 15 lasts period of formal operations. The problem of children's thinking was formulated as qualitatively unique, having unique advantages, the activity of the child himself was singled out, the genesis was traced from "action to thought", the phenomena of children's thinking were discovered, and methods for its research were developed. ^ Definition of intelligence Intelligence is a global cognitive system consisting of a number of subsystems (perceptual, mnemonic, mental), the purpose of which is to provide information support for the interaction of the individual with the external environment. Intelligence is the totality of all cognitive functions of an individual.

Intelligence is thinking, the highest cognitive process.

Intelligence- flexible at the same time stable structural balance of behavior, which in essence is a system of the most vital and active operations. Being the most perfect of mental adaptations, the intellect serves, so to speak, as the most necessary and effective tool in the interactions of the subject with the outside world, interactions that are realized in the most complex ways and go far beyond the limits of direct and instantaneous contacts in order to achieve pre-established and stable relations. ^ The main stages in the development of a child's thinking Piaget identified the following stages in the development of intelligence. Sensorimotor intelligence (0-2 years) During the period of sensory-motor intelligence, the organization of perceptual and motor interactions with the outside world gradually develops. This development proceeds from being limited by innate reflexes to the associated organization of sensory-motor actions in relation to the immediate environment. At this stage, only direct manipulations with things are possible, but not actions with symbols, representations in the internal plan. ^ Preparation and organization of specific operations (2-11 years old) Sub-period of pre-operational representations (2-7 years) At the stage of preoperational representations, a transition is made from sensory-motor functions to internal - symbolic, that is, to actions with representations, and not with external objects. This stage of intelligence development is characterized by dominance assumptions and transductive reasoning; egocentrism; centralization on the conspicuous features of the subject and neglect in reasoning of its other features; focusing attention on the states of a thing and inattention to its transformations. ^ Sub-period of specific operations (7-11 years) At the stage of specific operations, actions with representations begin to be combined, coordinated with each other, forming systems of integrated actions called operations. The child develops special cognitive structures called factions(For example, classification^ Formal operations (11-15 years old) The main ability that appears at the stage of formal operations (from 11 to about 15 years old) is the ability to deal with possible, with the hypothetical, and perceive external reality as a special case of what is possible, what could be. Knowledge becomes hypothetical-deductive. The child acquires the ability to think in sentences and establish formal relationships (inclusion, conjunction, disjunction, etc.) between them. The child at this stage is also able to systematically identify all the variables that are essential for solving the problem, and systematically sort through all possible combinations these variables. ^ 5. The main mechanisms of cognitive development of the child 1) the mechanism of assimilation: the individual adapts new information (situation, object) to his existing schemes (structures), without changing them in principle, that is, he includes a new object in his existing schemes of actions or structures. 2) accommodation mechanism, when an individual adapts his previously formed reactions to new information (situation, object), that is, he is forced to rebuild (modify) old schemes (structures) in order to adapt them to new information (situation, object). According to the operational concept of intelligence, the development and functioning of mental phenomena is, on the one hand, the assimilation or assimilation of this material by existing patterns of behavior, and on the other, the accommodation of these patterns to a specific situation. Piaget considers the adaptation of the organism to the environment as a balancing of the subject and the object. The concepts of assimilation and accommodation play the main role in Piaget's proposed explanation of the genesis of mental functions. In essence, this genesis acts as a succession of various stages of balancing assimilation and accommodation. . ^ 6. Egocentrism of children's thinking. Experimental studies of the phenomenon of egocentrism Egocentrism of children's thinking - a special cognitive position taken by the subject in relation to the surrounding world, when the objects and phenomena of the surrounding world are considered from their own point of view. The egocentrism of thinking causes such features of children's thinking as syncretism, the inability to focus on changes in the object, the irreversibility of thinking, transduction (from particular to particular), insensitivity to contradiction, the combined effect of which prevents the formation of logical thinking. Piaget's well-known experiments are an example of this effect. If, in front of the child's eyes, equal amounts of water are poured into two identical glasses, then the child will confirm the equality of volumes. But if in his presence you pour water from one glass into another, narrower one, then the child will confidently tell you that there is more water in the narrow glass. - There are many variations of such experiences, but they all demonstrated the same thing - the child's inability to focus on changes in the object. The latter means that the baby fixes well in memory only stable situations, but at the same time the process of transformation eludes him. In the case of glasses, the child sees only the result - two identical glasses with water at the beginning and two different glasses with the same water at the end, but he is not able to catch the moment of change. Another effect of egocentrism consists in the irreversibility of thinking, i.e., the inability of the child to mentally return to the starting point of his reasoning. It is the irreversibility of thinking that does not allow our baby to follow the course of his own reasoning and, returning to their beginning, imagine the glasses in their original position. The lack of reversibility is a direct manifestation of the child's egocentric thinking. ^ 7. The concept of "subject", "object", "action" in the concept of J. Piaget Subject is an organism endowed with the functional activity of an adaptation, which is hereditarily fixed and inherent in any living organism. ^ An object- it's just material to manipulate, it's just "food" for action. Scheme actions- this is the most general thing that remains in action when it is repeated many times in different circumstances. The scheme of action, in the broad sense of the word, is a structure at a certain level of mental development. ^ 8. The concept of "operation" and its place in the concept of J. Piaget Operation - a cognitive scheme that ensures, at the end of the preoperational stage of the development of the intellect, the child's assimilation of the idea of ​​preserving quantity. Operations are formed in the period from 2 to 12 years. - At the stage of specific operations (from 8 to 11 years), various types of mental activity that arose during the previous period finally reach the state of "mobile equilibrium", i.e., acquire the character of reversibility. In the same period, the basic concepts of conservation are formed, the child is capable of logically specific operations. It can form both relations and classes from concrete objects. ^ 9. Laws of grouping and the operational development of the intellect The construction of operational groupings and groups of thought requires inversion, but the paths of movement in this area are infinitely more complicated. We are talking about the decentering of thought not only in relation to the actual perceptual centering, but also in relation to one's own action as a whole. Indeed, thought born out of action is egocentric in its very starting point, precisely for the reasons that the sensorimotor intellect is first centered on the actual perceptions or movements from which it develops. The development of thought comes, first of all, to a repetition, on the basis of a wide system of displacements, of that evolution that, on the sensorimotor plane, seemed already complete, until it unfolded with renewed vigor in an infinitely wider space and in an infinitely more temporally mobile sphere, in order to reach before structuring the operations themselves. ^ 10. The concept of structure in the concept of J. Piaget Structure, according to Piaget, it is a mental system or integrity, the principles of activity of which are different from the principles of activity of the parts that make up this structure. Structure- self-regulating system. New mental structures are formed on the basis of action. During the entire ontogenetic development, Piaget believes, the main functions (adaptation, assimilation, accommodation) as dynamic processes are unchanged, hereditarily fixed, independent of content and experience. Unlike functions, structures are formed in the process of life, depend on the content of experience, and differ qualitatively at different stages of development. Such a relationship between function and structure ensures the continuity, succession of development and its quality. . ^ 11. Skills and sensorimotor intelligence ‑­ Skill- the primary factor explaining intelligence; from the point of view of the trial and error method, the skill is interpreted as the automation of movements selected after a blind search, and the search itself is considered as a sign of intelligence; from the point of view of assimilation, intellect yields as a form of equilibrium to the same assimilation of activity, the initial forms of which form a habit. ^ Sensorimotor intelligence- the type of thinking that characterizes the pre-verbal period of a child's life. The concept of sensorimotor intelligence is one of the main concepts in Jean Piaget's theory of the development of the child's intellect. Piaget called this type, or level of development of thinking, sensorimotor, since the child's behavior during this period is based on the coordination of perception and movement. J. Piaget outlined six stages of the sensorimotor development of the intellect: 1) exercise of reflexes (from 0 to 1 month); 2) the first skills and primary circular reactions (from 1 to 4-6 months); 3) coordination of vision and grasping and secondary circular reactions (from 4 - b to 8-9 months) - the beginning of the emergence of one's own intelligence; 4) stage of "practical" intellect (from 8 to 11 months); 5) tertiary circular reactions and the search for new means to achieve the goal, which the child finds through external material samples (from 11-12 to 18 months); 6) the child can find new means of solving the problem through internalized combinations of action schemes that lead to sudden insight or insight (from 18 to 24 months). ^ 12. Stages of intuitive (visual) thinking. Conservation Phenomena Intuitive (visual) thinking- a type of thinking in which we directly see the conclusion, that is, we feel its obligatory nature, without even being able to restore all the reasoning and premises by which it is conditioned; its opposite is discursive thinking. Intuitive thinking is characterized by the fact that it lacks clearly defined stages. It is usually based on a folded perception of the whole problem at once. The person in this case arrives at an answer, which may or may not be right, with little or no awareness of the process by which he got that answer. As a rule, intuitive thinking is based on familiarity with the basic knowledge in a given area and with their structure, and this makes it possible for it to be carried out in the form of jumps, quick transitions, with the omission of individual links. Therefore, the conclusions of intuitive thinking need to be verified by analytical means. Picture of conservation in the concept of J. Piaget acts as a criterion for the emergence of logical operations. It characterizes the understanding of the principle of conservation of the amount of matter when changing the shape of an object. The idea of ​​preservation develops in the child under the condition of weakening the egocentricity of thinking, which allows him to discover the points of view of other people and find in them what they have in common. As a result, children's ideas, which were previously absolute for him (for example, he always considers large things heavy, and small things light), now become relative (a pebble seems light to a child, but turns out to be heavy for water). ^ 13. The concept of invariance and mental development of the child Invariance- knowledge about the object in relation to one or another subjective "perspective" is provided by the real interaction of the subject and the object, is associated with the action of the subject and is quite unambiguously determined by the object's own properties. The invariance of knowledge progresses with intellectual development, being directly dependent on the subject's experience of operating with real objects. In the system of genetic psychology of J. Piaget, mastering the principle of "preservation" (invariance, constancy) is an important stage in the intellectual development of the child. The concept of conservation means that an object or a set of objects is recognized as unchanged in terms of the composition of elements or in any other physical parameter, despite changes in their shape or external location, but on the condition that nothing is taken away or added to them. According to Piaget, mastery of the conservation principle serves as a psychological criterion for the emergence of the main logical characteristic of thought - reversibility, which indicates the child's transition to a new, concrete-operational thinking. The mastery of this principle is also a necessary condition for the formation of scientific concepts in the child. ‑­ ^ 14. Stage of concrete operations Stage of specific operations(7-11 years old). At the stage of specific operations, actions with representations begin to be combined, coordinated with each other, forming systems of integrated actions called operations. The child develops special cognitive structures called factions(For example, classification), thanks to which the child acquires the ability to perform operations with classes and establish logical relationships between classes, uniting them in hierarchies, whereas earlier his abilities were limited to transduction and the establishment of associative links. The limitation of this stage is that operations can be performed only with concrete objects, but not with statements. Operations logically structure the performed external actions, but they cannot yet structure verbal reasoning in a similar way. ^ 15. Stage of formal-logical operations Stage of formally - logical operations (11-15 years). The main ability that appears at the stage of formal operations is the ability to deal with the possible, with the hypothetical, and perceive external reality as a special case of what is possible, what could be. Cognition becomes hypothetical-deductive. The child acquires the ability to think in sentences and establish formal relationships (inclusion, conjunction, disjunction, etc.) between them. The child at this stage is also able to systematically identify all the variables that are essential for solving the problem, and systematically sort through all possible combinations these variables. ^ 16. Social factors of intellectual development Manifestations of intelligence lies in: language (signs) the content of the subject's interactions with objects (intellectual values) the rules prescribed for thinking (collective logical or pre-logical norms). On the basis of language acquisition, that is, with the onset of the symbolic and intuitive periods, new social relations appear that enrich and transform the thinking of the individual. But there are three different aspects to this problem. Already in the sensorimotor period, the infant is the object of numerous social influences: he is given the maximum pleasures available to his little experience - from feeding to the manifestation of certain feelings (he is surrounded by care, he is smiled at, he is entertained, soothed); he is also instilled with skills and regulations associated with signals and words, adults forbid him certain types of behavior and grumble at him. At the pre-operational levels, spanning the period from the appearance of a language to approximately 7-8 years, the structures inherent in the emerging thinking exclude the possibility of the formation of social relations of cooperation, which alone can lead to the construction of logic. ^ 17. Research methods proposed by J. Piaget Piaget critically analyzed the methods that were used before him, and showed their failure to elucidate the mechanisms of mental activity. In order to identify these mechanisms, hidden, but determining everything, Piaget developed a new method of psychological research - the method of clinical conversation, when not symptoms (external signs of a phenomenon) are studied, but the processes leading to their occurrence. This method is extremely difficult. It gives the necessary results only in the hands of an experienced psychologist. ^ clinical method- this is a carefully conducted statement of facts, an age cut of speech and mental development. The researcher asks a question, listens to the child's reasoning, and then formulates additional questions, each of which depends on the child's previous answer. He expects to find out what determines the position of the child and what is the structure of his cognitive activity. In the course of a clinical conversation, there is always a danger of misinterpreting the child's reaction, getting confused, not finding the right question at the moment, or, conversely, suggesting the desired answer. Clinical conversation is a kind of art, "the art of asking." ^ 18. Correlation between logic and psychology in the study of intellectual development- Logic is the axiomatics of the mind, in relation to which the psychology of intelligence is the corresponding experimental science. Axiomatics is an exclusively hypothetical-deductive science, that is, one that reduces reference to experience to a minimum (and even seeks to completely eliminate it), in order to freely build its subject on the basis of unprovable statements (axioms) and combine them between in all possible ways and with the utmost rigor. The problem of the relationship between formal logic and the psychology of the intellect receives a solution similar to that which, after centuries of discussion, put an end to the conflict between deductive geometry and real or physical geometry. As in the case of these two disciplines, the logic and psychology of thought initially coincided without being differentiated. Due to the preserved influence of the original indivisibility, they still continued to consider logic as a science of reality, lying, despite its normative character, on the same plane as psychology, but dealing exclusively with “true thinking”, in contrast to thinking in general, taken in abstraction from no matter what the rules. Hence the illusory perspective of the "psychology of thinking", according to which thinking as a psychological phenomenon is a reflection of the laws of logic. On the contrary, as soon as we understand that logic is an axiomatic, immediately - as a result of a simple reversal of the original position - the false solution to the problem of the relationship between logic and thinking disappears. Logic schemes, if skillfully constructed, always help the analysis of psychologists; a good example of this is the psychology of thinking

The turn of the early-late Piaget 30-40s of the XX century.

The theory of confrontation of two factors is the concept of two worlds, the displacement of natural man and his replacement with a social one.

1. identification of subject and object, inability to separate oneself and the outside world

2. egocentrism - the cognitive position taken by the subject in relation to the surrounding world, when phenomena and objects are considered only in relation to themselves. Absolutization of one's own cognitive perspective, inability to coordinate different points of view on the subject.

3. decentration

Separation of subject and object

Coordination of various cognitive positions (one's own point of view with others)

The main directions of development of thinking:

From realism (identification of one's ideas about things with things themselves) to objectivity

From absoluteness (realism) to reciprocity (reciprocity, the ability to establish connections between objects)

From realism to relativism (understanding of relationships) - the unit of thinking is the relationship between objects

Features of egocentric thinking:

juxtaposition - inability to synthesize ("lack of connection")

syncretism - perception with the help of global images, without analysis, the tendency to connect everything with everything (“excess connection”)

participation - the law of participation ("there is nothing accidental")

More specific features of the child's thinking:

animism - universal animation

Artificalism - understanding of natural phenomena as a product of human activity

Transduction - the transition from the particular to the particular, bypassing the general

precausality - the inability to establish causes

weakness of children's introspection

"Impenetrable" to experience

Correlation of speech and thinking

direct connection between thought and speech. Speech is the direct expression of thought.
(in early works, then this thesis was refuted).

Stages of development of the child's thinking:

autistic thinking - 0 - 2-3 years

egocentric thinking 2-3 years - 11-12 years

socialized thinking - over 12 years old

Egocentric speech - does not perform a communicative function

Forms - echolalia, monologue, collective monologue

Number of egocentric statements: coefficient of egocentric speech = the ratio of egocentric statements to the total number of statements.

The change in the coefficient of egocentric speech is evidence of the development of thinking from autistic to egocentric and socialized.

From 3 to 5 years there is an increase in the coefficient of egocentric speech, then it decreases to 12 years, but the value of the coefficient never reaches 0.

According to Piaget, this reflects the stages of development of thinking.

The transition to egocentric thinking is associated with relations of coercion (the relationship of a child with an adult).

Two phases of egocentric thinking:

· The beginning of correlating the principle of pleasure and reality (3-7 years). Domination of egocentrism both in the sphere of perception and in the sphere of pure thought.

· Displacement of egocentrism from the sphere of perception (7-12 years). The victorious march of socialized thought and the gradual displacement of egocentrism from the sphere of perception. Egocentrism persists only in the realm of pure thought.

The development of a child's thinking, according to J. Piaget, is a change in mental positions, which is characterized by a transition from egocentrism to decentration.

19. The problem of egocentric speech and egocentric thinking
(J. Piaget, L.S. Vygotsky). Modern approaches to understanding the phenomenon of egocentric speech.

Correlation of speech and thinking

direct connection between thought and speech. Speech is a direct expression of thought (in early works, then this thesis was refuted).

The method of clinical conversation - as a method of studying the thinking of the child.

The role of verbal communication in the development of the child's thinking.

Criticism L.S. Vygotsky:

The stage of autistic thinking cannot be the initial stage of the development of thinking (the pleasure principle is not the leading development of the child)

It is necessary to take into account the subject practical activity of the child in the development of thinking (if the child does not interact with objects, he will not develop)

a hypothesis about the nature, function and fate of egocentric speech

Vygotsky believed that "egocentric speech is a transitional form from external, social speech, performing the function of communication, to internal, individual speech, performing the function of planning and regulating activity, acting as an internal way of thinking."

When a child encounters difficulties in his activity, his coefficient of egocentric speech increases. There is an external regulation of one's own activity.

Piaget in the 1960s agreed with Vygotsky's correspondence criticism that:

autistic thinking is not an initial stage in development

It is necessary to take into account the practical activities of the child

there is no direct correspondence between speech and thinking, there is a more complex relationship between them

However, Piaget continued to insist not that egocentric speech is a direct expression of the cognitive egocentric position of the child.

Modern researchers believe that Piaget and Vygotsky simply had different things in mind.

Egocentrism of children's thinking- a special cognitive position taken by the subject in relation to the surrounding world, when the objects and phenomena of the surrounding world are considered from their own point of view. The egocentrism of thinking causes such features of children's thinking as syncretism, the inability to focus on changes in the object, the irreversibility of thinking, transduction (from particular to particular), insensitivity to contradiction, the combined effect of which prevents the formation of logical thinking. Piaget's well-known experiments are an example of this effect. If, in front of the child's eyes, equal amounts of water are poured into two identical glasses, then the child will confirm the equality of volumes. But if in his presence you pour water from one glass into another, narrower one, then the child will confidently tell you that there is more water in the narrow glass.

There are many variations of such experiments, but they all demonstrated the same thing - the child's inability to focus on changes in the object. The latter means that the baby fixes well in memory only stable situations, but at the same time the process of transformation eludes him. In the case of glasses, the child sees only the result - two identical glasses with water at the beginning and two different glasses with the same water at the end, but he is not able to catch the moment of change.

Another effect of egocentrism consists in the irreversibility of thinking, i.e., the inability of the child to mentally return to the starting point of his reasoning. It is the irreversibility of thinking that does not allow our baby to follow the course of his own reasoning and, returning to their beginning, imagine the glasses in their original position. The lack of reversibility is a direct manifestation of the child's egocentric thinking.

7. The concept of "subject", "object", "action" in the concept of J. Piaget Subject is an organism endowed with the functional activity of an adaptation, which is hereditarily fixed and inherent in any living organism. An object- it's just material to manipulate, it's just "food" for action. Scheme of action- this is the most general thing that remains in action when it is repeated many times in different circumstances. The scheme of action, in the broad sense of the word, is a structure at a certain level of mental development.

8. The concept of "operation" and its place in the concept of J. Piaget Operation- a cognitive scheme that ensures, at the end of the preoperational stage of the development of the intellect, the child's assimilation of the idea of ​​preserving quantity. Operations are formed in the period from 2 to 12 years. At the stage of concrete operations (from 8 to 11 years), various types of mental activity that arose during the previous period finally reach a state of "mobile equilibrium", i.e., acquire the character of reversibility. In the same period, the basic concepts of conservation are formed, the child is capable of logically specific operations. It can form both relations and classes from concrete objects.

9. Laws of grouping and the operational development of the intellect. The construction of operational groupings and groups of thought requires inversion, but the paths of movement in this area are infinitely more complicated. We are talking about the decentering of thought not only in relation to the actual perceptual centering, but also in relation to one's own action as a whole. Indeed, thought born out of action is egocentric in its very starting point, precisely for the reasons that the sensorimotor intellect is first centered on the actual perceptions or movements from which it develops. The development of thought comes, first of all, to a repetition, on the basis of a wide system of displacements, of that evolution that, on the sensorimotor plane, seemed already complete, until it unfolded with renewed vigor in an infinitely wider space and in an infinitely more temporally mobile sphere, in order to reach before structuring the operations themselves.

10. The concept of structure in the concept of J. Piaget Structure, according to Piaget, it is a mental system or integrity, the principles of activity of which are different from the principles of activity of the parts that make up this structure. Structure- self-regulating system. New mental structures are formed on the basis of action. During the entire ontogenetic development, Piaget believes, the main functions (adaptation, assimilation, accommodation) as dynamic processes are unchanged, hereditarily fixed, independent of content and experience. Unlike functions, structures are formed in the process of life, depend on the content of experience, and differ qualitatively at different stages of development. Such a relationship between function and structure ensures the continuity, succession of development and its quality. .

11. Skills and sensorimotor intelligence. Skill- the primary factor explaining intelligence; from the point of view of the trial and error method, the skill is interpreted as the automation of movements selected after a blind search, and the search itself is considered as a sign of intelligence; from the point of view of assimilation, intellect yields as a form of equilibrium to the same assimilation of activity, the initial forms of which form a habit.

Sensorimotor intelligence- the type of thinking that characterizes the pre-verbal period of a child's life. The concept of sensorimotor intelligence is one of the main concepts in Jean Piaget's theory of the development of the child's intellect. Piaget called this type, or level of development of thinking, sensorimotor, since the child's behavior during this period is based on the coordination of perception and movement.

J. Piaget outlined six stages of the sensorimotor development of the intellect:

1) exercise of reflexes (from 0 to 1 month);

2) the first skills and primary circular reactions (from 1 to 4-6 months);

3) coordination of vision and grasping and secondary circular reactions (from 4 - b to 8-9 months) - the beginning of the emergence of one's own intelligence;

4) stage of "practical" intellect (from 8 to 11 months);

5) tertiary circular reactions and the search for new means to achieve the goal, which the child finds through external material samples (from 11-12 to 18 months);

6) the child can find new means of solving the problem through internalized combinations of action schemes that lead to sudden insight or insight (from 18 to 24 months).

12. Stages of intuitive (visual) thinking. Conservation Phenomena. Intuitive (visual) thinking- a type of thinking in which we directly see the conclusion, that is, we feel its obligatory nature, without even being able to restore all the reasoning and premises by which it is conditioned; its opposite is discursive thinking. Intuitive thinking is characterized by the fact that it lacks clearly defined stages. It is usually based on a folded perception of the whole problem at once. The person in this case arrives at an answer, which may be right or wrong, with little or no awareness of the process by which he got that answer. As a rule, intuitive thinking is based on familiarity with the basic knowledge in a given area and with their structure, and this makes it possible for it to be carried out in the form of jumps, quick transitions, with the omission of individual links. Therefore, the conclusions of intuitive thinking need to be verified by analytical means.

Picture of conservation in the concept of J. Piaget acts as a criterion for the emergence of logical operations. It characterizes the understanding of the principle of conservation of the amount of matter when changing the shape of an object. The idea of ​​preservation develops in the child under the condition of weakening the egocentricity of thinking, which allows him to discover the points of view of other people and find in them what they have in common. As a result, children's ideas, which were previously absolute for him (for example, he always considers large things heavy, and small things light), now become relative (a pebble seems light to a child, but turns out to be heavy for water).

13. The concept of invariance and mental development of the child. Invariance- knowledge about the object in relation to one or another subjective "perspective" is provided by the real interaction of the subject and the object, is associated with the action of the subject and is quite unambiguously determined by the object's own properties. The invariance of knowledge progresses with intellectual development, being directly dependent on the subject's experience of operating with real objects. In the system of genetic psychology of J. Piaget, mastering the principle of "preservation" (invariance, constancy) is an important stage in the intellectual development of the child. The concept of conservation means that an object or a set of objects is recognized as unchanged in terms of the composition of elements or in any other physical parameter, despite changes in their shape or external location, but on the condition that nothing is taken away or added to them. According to Piaget, mastery of the conservation principle serves as a psychological criterion for the emergence of the main logical characteristic of thought - reversibility, which indicates the child's transition to a new, concrete-operational thinking. The mastery of this principle is also a necessary condition for the formation of scientific concepts in the child.

14. Stage of concrete operations. Stage of specific operations(7-11 years old). At the stage of specific operations, actions with representations begin to be combined, coordinated with each other, forming systems of integrated actions called operations. The child develops special cognitive structures called factions(For example, classification), thanks to which the child acquires the ability to perform operations with classes and establish logical relationships between classes, uniting them in hierarchies, whereas earlier his abilities were limited to transduction and the establishment of associative links.

The limitation of this stage is that operations can be performed only with concrete objects, but not with statements. Operations logically structure the performed external actions, but they cannot yet structure verbal reasoning in a similar way.

15. Stage of formal-logical operations Stage of formally - logical operations (11-15 years). The main ability that appears at the stage of formal operations is the ability to deal with the possible, with the hypothetical, and perceive external reality as a special case of what is possible, what could be. Cognition becomes hypothetical-deductive. The child acquires the ability to think in sentences and establish formal relationships (inclusion, conjunction, disjunction, etc.) between them. The child at this stage is also able to systematically identify all the variables that are essential for solving the problem, and systematically sort through all possible combinations these variables.

16. Social factors of intellectual development Manifestations of intelligence lies in: language (signs) the content of the subject's interactions with objects (intellectual values) the rules prescribed for thinking (collective logical or pre-logical norms). On the basis of mastering the language, that is, with the onset of the symbolic and intuitive periods, new social relations appear that enrich and transform the thinking of the individual. But there are three different aspects to this problem.

Already in the sensorimotor period, the infant is the object of numerous social influences: he is given the maximum pleasures available to his little experience - from feeding to the manifestation of certain feelings (he is surrounded by care, he is smiled at, he is entertained, soothed); he is also instilled with skills and regulations associated with signals and words, adults forbid him certain types of behavior and grumble at him.

At the pre-operational levels, spanning the period from the appearance of a language to approximately 7-8 years, the structures inherent in the emerging thinking exclude the possibility of the formation of social relations of cooperation, which alone can lead to the construction of logic.

1. According to the lecture notes.

Piaget discovered the phenomenon of egocentrism in children's thinking, which ends at the age of 5-7 years (the period of decentration). This phenomenon is due to the principles of perceptual knowledge of the world (for a child, the main channel connecting him with the world around him is perception; mature thinking always has decentration, that is, the ability to “see” events from the side, from different points of view). Egocentrism is associated with the child's attachment to the space around him (he perceives the world only at the moment and in a particular situation). From the age of two, the child begins to adapt to space, thanks to which he can relate himself to different points in space (the beginning of decentration). The most effective way to develop a child's decentered thinking is a group game with rules that allows you to feel the situation from the point of view of different roles (for example, hide and seek)

The egocentrism of the child's thinking is expressed in the fact that the center of the coordinate system for him is his own "I". Egocentrism is a clear sign of pre-conceptual thinking.

2. According to Piaget.

Egocentrism is a factor of knowledge. This is a certain set of pre-critical and, therefore, pre-objective positions in the knowledge of things, other people and oneself. Egocentrism is a kind of systematic and unconscious illusion of cognition, a form of the initial concentration of the mind, when there is no intellectual relativity and reciprocity. On the one hand, egocentrism means a lack of understanding of the relativity of cognition of the world and coordination of points of view. On the other hand, this is a position of unconscious attribution of the qualities of one's own "I". The original egocentrism of cognition is not a hypertrophy of the awareness of "I". This is a direct relation to objects, where the subject, ignoring the "I", cannot get out of the "I" in order to find his place in the world of relations, freed from subjective ties.

Piaget conducted many different experiments that show that up to a certain age a child cannot take a different point of view. For example, an experiment with a layout of three mountains. The mountains on the layout were of different heights and each of them had some kind of distinctive feature - a house, a river descending a slope, a snowy peak. The experimenter gave the subject several photographs in which all three mountains were depicted from different angles. The house, the river and the snowy peak were clearly visible in the pictures. The subject was asked to choose a photo where the mountains were depicted as he sees them at the moment, from this angle. Usually the child chose the correct picture. After that, the experimenter showed him a doll with a head in the form of a smooth ball without a face, so that the child could not follow the direction of the doll's gaze. The toy was placed on the other side of the layout. Now, when asked to choose a photograph where the mountains were depicted as the doll sees them, the child chose a photograph where the mountains were depicted as he sees them himself. If the child and the doll were interchanged, then again and again he chose a picture where the mountains were depicted as he perceives them from his place. This was the case for most of the preschoolers.

In this experiment, children became victims of a subjective illusion. They did not suspect the existence of other evaluations of things and did not correlate them with their own. Egocentrism means that the child, imagining nature and other people, does not take into account his own position as a thinking person. Egocentrism means the confusion of subject and object in the process of the act of cognition. Egocentrism shows that the outside world does not act directly on the mind of the subject. Egocentrism is a consequence of external circumstances among which the subject lives. The main thing (in egocentrism) is the spontaneous position of the subject, who directly relates to the object, not considering himself as a thinking being, not realizing his own point of view.

Piaget emphasized that the decrease in egocentrism is explained not by the addition of knowledge, but by the transformation of the initial position, when the subject correlates his point of view with other possible ones. To get rid of egocentrism means to realize what was perceived subjectively, to find one's place in the system of possible points of view, to establish a system of general mutual relations between things, personalities and one's own "I".

Egocentrism gives way to decentration, a more perfect position. The transition from egocentrism to decentration characterizes cognition at all levels of development. The universality and inevitability of this process allowed Piaget to call it the law of development. Development (according to Piaget) is a change of mental positions. In order to overcome egocentrism, two conditions are necessary: ​​first, to realize one's own "I" as a subject and to separate the subject from the object; the second is to coordinate one's own point of view with others, and not to see it as the only possible one.

3. Experimental facts.

In studies of children's ideas about the world and physical causality, Piaget showed that a child at a certain stage of development considers objects as they are given by direct perception - he does not see things in their internal relations. The child thinks, for example, that the moon follows him during his walks, stops when he stops, runs after him when he runs away. Piaget called this phenomenon "realism." It is this realism that prevents the child from considering things independently of the subject, in their internal interconnection. The child considers his instantaneous perception to be true. This comes from the fact that children do not separate their "I" from things. Children up to a certain age do not know how to distinguish between the subjective and the external world. Realism is of two types: intellectual and moral. For example, a child is sure that the branches of trees make the wind. This is intellectual realism. Moral realism is expressed in the fact that the child does not take into account the inner intention in evaluating the act and judges the act only by the external effect, by the material result.

In experimental studies, Piaget showed that in the early stages of intellectual development, objects appear to the child as heavy or light according to direct perception. The child always considers large things to be heavy, and small things to be light. For a child, these and many ideas are absolute, while direct perception seems to be the only possible one. The appearance of other ideas about things, as, for example, in the experiment with floating bodies: a pebble - light for a child, but heavy for water - means that children's ideas begin to lose their absolute meaning and become relative. The child may not discover that there are different points of view that must be taken into account. Piaget asked, for example: Charles "Do you have any brothers?" - Arthur. "Does he have a brother?" - "Not". “And how many brothers do you have in your family?” - "Two". "Do you have a brother?" "One". "Does he have brothers?" - "Not at all." "Are you his brother?" - "Yes". "Then he has a brother?" - "Not".

Everything is fine, no additions required!

The general task facing Piaget was aimed at revealing the psychological mechanisms of integral logical structures, but first he singled out and investigated a more particular problem - he studied the hidden mental tendencies that give a qualitative originality to children's thinking, and outlined the mechanisms of their emergence and change.

Facts established by Piaget with the help of the clinical method in his early studies of the content and form of children's thought.
discovery of the egocentric nature of children's speech
qualitative features of children's logic
child's ideas about the world, peculiar in their content

However, Piaget's main achievement is the discovery of the child's egocentrism.

Egocentrism.
Egocentrism is a central feature of thinking, a hidden mental position. The originality of children's logic, children's speech, children's ideas about the world are only a consequence of this egocentric mental position.
Egocentrism as the main feature of children's thinking consists in judging the world exclusively from their own direct point of view, "fragmentary and personal", and in the inability to take into account someone else's. Egocentrism is considered by Piaget as a kind of unconscious systematic illusion of cognition, as a hidden mental position of a child. Nevertheless, egocentric thinking is not a simple imprint of the influences of the external world, it is an active cognitive position in its origins, the initial cognitive centering of the mind (Shapovalenko).

Piaget considers egocentrism as the root, as the basis of all other features of children's thinking. Egocentrism is not amenable to direct observation, it is expressed through other phenomena. Let's consider them.

Realism.
In studies of children's ideas about the world and physical causality, Piaget showed that a child at a certain stage of development in most cases considers objects as they are given by direct perception, that is, he does not see things in their internal relations (the moon follows the child during his walks ). It is this realism that prevents the child from considering things independently of the subject, in their internal interconnection. The child considers his instantaneous perception to be absolutely true. This happens because children do not separate their "I" from the world around them, from things.
"Realism" is of two types:
intellectual (for example, the child is sure what the branches of the tree do);
moral (the child does not take into account the internal intention in evaluating the act and judges the act only by the external effect, by the material result)

Animism.
It represents a universal animation, endowing things (primarily independently moving, such as clouds, a river, the moon, a car) with consciousness and life, feelings.

Artificalism.
This is an understanding of natural phenomena by analogy with human activity, everything that exists is considered as created by a person, by his will or for a person (the sun - “so that we have light”, the river - “so that the boats sail”).
Piaget believes that parallel to the evolution of children's ideas about the world, directed from realism to objectivity, there is a development of children's ideas from absoluteness ("realism") to reciprocity (reciprocity).
Reciprocity appears when the child discovers the points of view of other people, when he ascribes to them the same meaning as his own, when a correspondence is established between these points of view.
In experimental studies, Piaget showed a lack of understanding of the principle of conservation of the amount of matter when changing the shape of an object. This once again confirms that the child at first can reason only on the basis of "absolute" ideas. For him, two plasticine balls of equal weight cease to be equal as soon as one of them takes on a different shape, for example, a cup.
In subsequent studies, he used the emergence of a child's understanding of the principle of conservation as a criterion for the emergence of logical operations and devoted his genesis to experiments related to the formation of concepts of number, movement, speed, space, quantity, etc.

The child's thought also develops in a third direction - from realism to relativism. At first, children believe in the existence of absolute substances and absolute qualities. Later, they discover that phenomena are related and that our estimates are relative.

So, in terms of its content, children's thought, at first not completely separating the subject from the object and therefore "realistic", develops towards objectivity, reciprocity and relativity Piaget believed that the gradual dissociation, separation of subject and object is carried out as a result of overcoming the child's own egocentrism.

Other features of children's logic:
Syncretism (global schematicity and subjectivity of children's manifestations; the tendency to connect everything with everything; the perception of details, causes and effects as adjacent).
Transduction (transition from the particular to the particular, bypassing the general).
Inability to synthesize and juxtaposition (lack of connection between judgments).
insensitivity to contradiction.
Inability to self-observe.
Difficulties in understanding.
Impenetrability to experience (the child is not isolated from external influence, upbringing, but it is assimilated and deformed by him).

All these features of children's thinking, according to Piaget, have one common feature, which is also internally dependent on egocentrism. It consists in the fact that a child under 7-8 years old cannot perform the logical operations of addition and multiplication of a class.
Logical addition is finding a class that is least common to two other classes, but contains both of these classes in itself. (animals = vertebrates + invertebrates).
Logical multiplication is an operation that consists in finding the largest class contained simultaneously in two classes, that is, finding a set of elements common to two classes (Genevians x Protestants = Genevan Protestants).

The absence of this skill is most clearly manifested in the way children define the concept.
It is especially difficult for a child to give a definition for relative concepts - after all, he thinks about things absolutely, not realizing (as experiments show) the relationships between them.
The inability to perform logical addition and multiplication leads to contradictions with which children's definitions of concepts are saturated.
Contradiction is characterized as the result of a lack of equilibrium: the concept gets rid of contradiction when equilibrium is reached.
He considered the appearance of the reversibility of thought to be the criterion of stable equilibrium. He understood it as such a mental action when, starting from the results of the first action, the child performs a mental action that is symmetrical with respect to it, and when this symmetrical operation leads to the initial state of the object without modifying it.

Logical experience is the subject's experience of himself insofar as he is a thinking subject, an experience analogous to that which is performed on oneself in order to regulate one's moral conduct; it is an effort to be aware of one's own mental operations (and not just their results) to see if they are related or contradictory.
For the formation of a truly scientific thinking in a child, and not a simple set of empirical knowledge, it is not enough to conduct a physical experiment with memorizing the results obtained. Here, a special kind of experience is needed - logical and mathematical, aimed at the actions and operations performed by the child with real objects.
In his early work, Piaget associated the lack of reversibility of thought with the child's egocentrism. But before turning to the characteristics of this central phenomenon, let us dwell on another important feature of the child's psyche - the phenomenon of egocentric speech.

(Regardless of the environment, the coefficient of verbal egocentrism decreases with age. At three years, it reaches its highest value: 75% of all spontaneous speech. From three to six years, egocentric speech gradually decreases, and after seven years, according to Piaget, it disappears.)

Verbal egocentrism
It serves only as an external expression of a deeper intellectual and social position of the child. Piaget called this spontaneous mental attitude egocentrism.

The term "egocentrism" has caused a number of misunderstandings. Piaget acknowledged the unfortunate choice of the word, but since the term had already become widespread, he tried to clarify its meaning.
Egocentrism, according to Piaget, is a factor of knowledge. This is a certain set of pre-critical and, therefore, pre-objective positions in the knowledge of things, other people and oneself.
Egocentrism is a kind of systematic and unconscious illusion of cognition, a form of the initial concentration of the mind, when there is no intellectual relativity and reciprocity.
Therefore, later Piaget considered the term "centration" to be a more successful term. On the one hand, egocentrism means a lack of understanding of the relativity of cognition of the world and the lack of coordination of points of view. On the other hand, it is the position of unconsciously ascribing the qualities of one's own "I" and one's own perspective to things and other people. The original egocentrism of cognition is not a hypertrophy of the awareness of "I". This, on the contrary, is a direct relation to objects, where the subject, ignoring the "I", cannot leave the "I" in order to find his place in the world of relations, freed from subjective ties.

The existence of an egocentric position in cognition does not predetermine the fact that our knowledge will never be able to give a true picture of the world. After all, development, according to Piaget, is a change of mental positions. Egocentrism gives way to decentration, a more perfect position. The transition from egocentrism to decentration characterizes cognition at all levels of development.
Piaget believed that only the qualitative development of the child's mind, that is, the progressively developing awareness of one's "I", can lead to this. In order to overcome egocentrism, two conditions are necessary:
the first to realize one's "I" as a subject and to separate the subject from the object;
the second is to coordinate one's own point of view with others, and not to see it as the only possible one.

The development of self-knowledge arises in the child, according to Piaget, from social interaction. The change of mental positions is carried out under the influence of the developing social relationships of individuals. Piaget considers society as it appears to the child, that is, as the sum of social relations, among which two extreme types can be distinguished:

Coercive Relations
cooperation relations

Coercive relations impose a system of binding rules on the child. As a result of coercion, moral and intellectual "realism" arises.

Relationships of cooperation are built on the basis of mutual respect, which is possible only between children of the same age. When cooperating, there is a need to adapt to another person. Rational elements are formed in logic and ethics.

One of the most important concepts in Piaget's system of psychological views is the concept of socialization.
According to Piaget, socialization is a process of adaptation to the social environment, consisting in the fact that the child, having reached a certain level of development, becomes capable of cooperating with other people due to the division and coordination of his point of view and the points of view of other people. Socialization causes a decisive turn in the mental development of the child - the transition from an egocentric position to an objective one.

Each external influence implies two complementary processes on the part of the subject: assimilation and accommodation.
Assimilation and accommodation are the roots of two antagonistic tendencies that appear when an organism encounters something new.
Assimilation consists in the adaptation of the object to the subject, in which the object is deprived of its specific features. ("The child is a slave of direct perception").
Accommodation, on the contrary, consists in adapting the previously formed reactions of the subject to the object with the transition to new ways of responding.
In their functions, these processes are opposite.