What is the mutually beneficial relationship of living organisms called? Types of ecological relationships. What is called biocenosis

Detailed solution paragraph § 77 in biology for students of grade 10, authors Kamensky A.A., Kriksunov E.A., Pasechnik V.V. 2014

• Gdz workbook in Biology for grade 10 can be found

1. What biotic environmental factors do you know?

2. What types of competition do you know?

Answer. Competition - in biology, any antagonistic relationship associated with the struggle for existence, for dominance, for food, space and other resources between organisms, species or populations of species that need the same resources.

Intraspecific competition is competition between members of one or more populations of a species. Goes for resources, intra-group dominance, females/males, etc.

Interspecific competition is competition between populations of different species of non-adjacent trophic levels in a biocenosis. It is due to the fact that representatives of different species jointly use the same resources, which are usually limited. Resources can be both food (for example, the same types of prey for predators or plants - for phytophages), and of another kind, for example, the availability of places for breeding, shelters for protection from enemies, etc. Species can also compete for dominance in the ecosystem. There are two forms of competitive relationships: direct competition (interference) and indirect (exploitation). With direct competition between populations of species in a biocenosis, antagonistic relationships (antibiosis) develop evolutionarily, expressed by various types of mutual oppression (fights, blocking access to a resource, allelopathy, etc.). With indirect competition, one of the species monopolizes a resource or habitat, while worsening the conditions for the existence of a competitive species in a similar ecological niche.

Both evolutionarily (taxonomically) close species and representatives of very distant groups can compete in nature. For example, ground squirrels in the dry steppe eat up to 40% of plant growth. This means that pastures can support fewer saigas or sheep. And during the years of mass reproduction of locusts, neither gophers nor sheep have enough food.

3. What is symbiosis?

Usually, symbiosis is mutualistic, that is, the cohabitation of both organisms (symbionts) is mutually beneficial and arises in the process of evolution as one of the forms of adaptation to the conditions of existence. Symbiosis can be carried out both at the level of multicellular organisms and at the level of individual cells (intracellular symbiosis). Plants with plants, plants with animals, animals with animals, plants and animals with microorganisms, microorganisms with microorganisms can enter into symbiotic relationships. The term "symbiosis" was first introduced by the German botanist A. de Bari (1879) as applied to lichens. A vivid example of symbiosis among plants is mycorrhiza - the cohabitation of the mycelium of a fungus with the roots of a higher plant (hyphae braid the roots and contribute to the flow of water and minerals from the soil into them); some orchids cannot grow without mycorrhiza.

Nature knows numerous examples of symbiotic relationships from which both partners benefit. For example, the symbiosis between leguminous plants and soil bacteria Rhizobium is extremely important for the nitrogen cycle in nature. These bacteria - they are also called nitrogen-fixing - settle on the roots of plants and have the ability to "fix" nitrogen, that is, to break down strong bonds between the atoms of atmospheric free nitrogen, making it possible to incorporate nitrogen into plant-available compounds, such as ammonia. In this case, the mutual benefit is obvious: the roots are the habitat of bacteria, and the bacteria supply the plant with the necessary nutrients.

There are also numerous examples of symbiosis that is beneficial to one species and does not bring any benefit or harm to another species. For example, the human intestine is inhabited by many types of bacteria, the presence of which is harmless to humans. Similarly, plants called bromeliads (which include, for example, pineapple) live on the branches of trees, but get their nutrients from the air. These plants use the tree for support without depriving it of nutrients.

A type of symbiosis is endosymbiosis, when one of the partners lives inside the cell of the other.

The science of symbiosis is symbiology.

Questions after § 77

1. What examples of positive and negative interactions do you know between organisms of different species?

2. What is the essence of the "predator-prey" relationship?

Answer. Predation (+ -) is a type of relationship between populations in which representatives of one species eat (destroy) representatives of another, i.e., the organisms of one population serve as food for the organisms of another. The predator usually catches and kills its prey itself, after which it eats it in whole or in part. Such predators are characterized by hunting behavior. But besides hunter-predators, there is also a large group of predator-gatherers whose way of feeding is simply to search for and collect prey. Such, for example, are many insectivorous birds that gather food on the ground, in grass or on trees.

Predation is a widespread form of communication, not only between animals, but also between plants and animals. So, herbivory (eating plants by animals), in essence, is also predation; on the other hand, a number of insectivorous plants (dew, nepenthes) can also be classified as predators.

However, in a narrow, ecological sense, it is customary to consider only the eating of animals by animals as predation.

4. What are the most famous examples of symbiotic relationships that you know of?

Answer. A symbiotic relationship in which there is a stable mutually beneficial cohabitation of two organisms of different species is called mutualism. Such, for example, are the relationships between the hermit crab and sea anemones or highly specialized plants for pollination with insect species pollinating them (clover and bumblebee). The nutcracker, feeding only on the seeds (nuts) of the cedar pine, is the only distributor of its seeds. Mutualism is very widely developed in nature.

5. How do you understand mutualism and symbiosis?

Species of any organisms living in the same territory and in contact with each other enter into different relationships with each other. The position of the species in different forms of relationships is indicated by conventional signs. The minus sign (?) denotes an adverse effect (individuals of the species are oppressed). The plus sign (+) denotes a beneficial effect (individuals of the species benefit). The zero sign (0) indicates that the relationship is indifferent (no influence).

Biotic connections? relationships between different organisms. They can be direct (direct impact) and indirect (indirect). Direct connections are carried out with the direct influence of one organism on another. Indirect links are manifested through influence on the external environment or another species.

Thus, all biotic bonds can be divided into 6 groups:

1 Neutralism - populations do not affect each other (00);

2a. Protocooperation - populations have mutually beneficial relationships (++) (Interaction with each other is useful for both populations, but is not mandatory);

2c. Mutualism - populations have mutually beneficial relationships (++) (Required interaction, useful for both populations);

3. Competition - relationships are harmful to both species (? ?);

5. Commensalism - one species benefits, the other does not experience harm (+0);

6. Ammensalism - one species is oppressed, the other does not benefit (? 0);

Interaction types

In nature, cohabitation of two or more species is often found, which in some cases becomes necessary for both partners. Such cohabitation is called the symbiotic relationship of organisms (from the combination of sim? together, bio? life) or symbiosis. The term "symbiosis" is general, it denotes cohabitation, a prerequisite for which is living together, a certain degree of cohabitation of organisms.

A classic example of symbiosis is lichens, which are a close mutually beneficial cohabitation of fungi and algae.

A typical symbiosis is the relationship between termites and single-celled ones living in their intestines? flagella. These protozoa produce an enzyme that breaks down fiber into sugar. Termites do not have their own cellulose-digesting enzymes and would die without symbionts. And flagellates find favorable conditions in the intestines that contribute to their survival. A well-known example of symbiosis? cohabitation of green plants (primarily trees) and fungi.

A close mutually beneficial relationship, in which the presence of each of the two partner species becomes mandatory, is called mutualism (++). Such, for example, are the relationships of highly specialized plants for pollination (figs, bathing suit, Datura, orchids) with insect species that pollinate them.

A symbiotic relationship in which one species gains some benefit without harming or benefiting the other is called commensalism (+0). The manifestations of commensalism are diverse, therefore, a number of variants are distinguished in it.

Freeloading? consumption of the host's leftover food. This, for example, is the relationship between lions and hyenas, picking up the remains of half-eaten food, or sharks with sticky fish. Companionship? consumption of different substances or parts of the same food. Example? the relationship between various types of soil bacteria-saprophytes, processing various organic substances from decayed plant residues, and higher plants, which consume the mineral salts formed in this process. Housing? the use by one species of others (their bodies, their dwellings) as shelter or dwelling. Is this type of relationship widespread in plants? an example is lianas and epiphytes (orchids, lichens, mosses) that settle directly on the trunks and branches of trees.

In nature, there are also such forms of relationships between species when coexistence is not mandatory for them. These relationships are not symbiotic, although they play an important role in the existence of organisms. An example of mutually beneficial relationships is proto-cooperation (literally: primary cooperation) (++), which can include the spread of seeds of some forest plants by ants or pollination by bees of different meadow plants.

If two or more species use similar ecological resources and live together, there may be competition between them (? ?), or a struggle for possession of the necessary resource. Competition occurs where ecological resources are in short supply, and rivalry inevitably arises between species. At the same time, each species experiences oppression, which negatively affects the growth and survival of organisms, and the number of their populations.

Competition is extremely widespread in nature. For example, plants compete for light, moisture, soil nutrients and, consequently, for the expansion of their territory. Animals fight for food resources and for shelters (if they are in short supply), that is, ultimately, also for territory. Competition weakens in areas with a sparse population, represented by a small number of species: for example, in arctic or desert areas, there is almost no competition of plants for light.

Predation (+ ?) ? a type of relationship between organisms in which representatives of one species kill and eat representatives of another. Predation? one of the forms of food relations.

If two species do not affect each other, what is it? neutralism (00). In nature, true neutralism is very rare, since indirect interactions are possible between all species, the effect of which we do not see due to the incompleteness of our knowledge.

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Tests in the discipline "Ecology and basics of life safety"

1. The term "ecology" is translated from Greek as the science of.............

e) about the house, dwelling

In what year was the term "ecology" introduced?

Which of the scientists first proposed the term "ecology" .........

b) E. Haeckel

Select the scientists with whom the second stage of the development of ecology is associated (after the 60s of the XIX century - the 50s of the XX century.

e) K.F. Rulye, N.A. Severtsov, V.V. Dokuchaev

5. What does ecology study:

d) laws of existence (functioning) of living systems in their interaction with the environment.

The subject of ecology research are

f) biological macrosystems and their dynamics in time and space

Three main areas of ecology:

d) Autecology, synecology, de-ecology.

When did ecology finally take shape as an independent science?

d) at the beginning of the twentieth century

What branch of ecology studies the interaction of geophysical conditions of life and factors of the inanimate environment ...

e) geoecology

13. The interaction between individual organisms and environmental factors studies the section of ecology ....

a) Autecology

14. The section of ecology that studies the relationship of a population with their environment is called:

a) demoecology

Synecology studies

d) community ecology

16. The shell of the Earth inhabited by living organisms is called:

a) biosphere

17. A group of organisms with a similar external and internal structure, living in the same territory and giving fertile offspring is called:

a) population

The level at which a natural system was formed, covering all manifestations of life within our planet is called .....

c) biospheric

A set of pelagic actively moving animals that do not have a direct connection with the bottom. Represented mainly by large animals that are able to overcome long distances and strong water currents.

20. The totality of pelagic organisms that do not have the ability for rapid active movement:

21. The totality of organisms living at a depth (on the ground or in it) of water bodies:

b) Plankton

What levels of organization of living systems belong to a microsystem .....

a) molecular, cellular

23. Abiotic conditions that determine the field of existence of life:

a) oxygen and carbon dioxide

Which factor is not abiotic?

c) agricultural development

25. Plant communities are called:

e) phytocenosis

26. According to the type of nutrition, green plants and photosynthetic bacteria are:

a) Autotrophs.

27. Organisms permanently living in the soil:

a) Geobands

28. Reducers are:

a) bacteria and fungi

29. Organisms producing organic substances are called:

b) producers

The main source of oxygen to the atmosphere

d) plants

31. Organisms with a mixed type of nutrition:

e) Mixotrophs.

32. Light-loving plants:

b) Heliophytes

33. Shade-loving plants:

e) Sciophytes.

34. Plants growing in conditions of high humidity:

a) Hygrophytes.

35. Adaptation of organisms develops with the help of:

c) Variation, heredity and natural selection.

36. Types of adaptation of organisms:

d) Morphological, ethological, physiological.

37. What is photoperiodism…..

a) Adjustment to the length of the day;

38. What factors limit during some process, phenomenon or existence of an organism: a) Limiting.

39. Environmental factors are divided into:

a) Abiotic, biotic, anthropogenic.

40. What is the limiting factor in water….

d) Oxygen.

41. The microbiogenic biotic factor of the environment includes:

b) Microbes and viruses.

What law states that the endurance of an organism is determined by

the weakest link in the chain of its environmental needs:

d) Liebig's Law of the Minimum.

When was the law of "tolerance" discovered?

44. Which of the scientists discovered the maximum law:

c) W. Shelford.

45. The law of the minimum discovered:

e) J. Liebig.

Two species cannot sustainably exist in a limited space if the growth of both is limited by one vital resource, the quantity and availability of which is limited.

b) Gause's law

What law testifies that the endurance of an organism is determined by the weakest link in the chain of its ecological needs.......

c) Gause's law (rule of competitive exclusion)

48. In 1903, V. Johansen introduced the term ....

d) population

What is population homeostasis.

d) Population stability;

50. Types of population growth are:

e) Exponential and logistic.

51. The territory occupied by a population is called:

52. Population size is:

e) The number of individuals included in it.

53. Define the ecological density of a population:

b) the average number of individuals per unit area or volume occupied by a population of space

What is called biocenosis ..

a) A deeply regular combination of organisms under certain environmental conditions.

Which of the scientists introduced the concept of "biocenosis" .......

B)K. Moebius

56. The term "biocenosis" was introduced:

What characterizes the layering of the biocenosis ..

d) Spatial structure

58. What is a habitat…

a) The entire environment surrounding a living organism;

59. Pollution of the natural environment by living organisms that cause various diseases in humans is called:

a) Radioactive.

60. The totality of abiotic factors within a homogeneous area is ..."

61. What is the name of the last formations of a relatively stable stage of change of biocenoses, which are in equilibrium with the environment ...

d) Successions;

62. What is the name of the community of animals in ecosystems ....

a) Biocenosis;

Biogeocenosis is

c) a group of animals and plants living in the same area

64. What is amensalism….

b) Inhibition of the growth of one species by the products of the excretion of another;

65. What is competition….

d) Suppression of some species by others in biocenoses;

66. This form of relations between species, in which the consumer organism uses a living host not only as a source of food, but also as a place of permanent or temporary residence ....

c) Commensalism

67. Mutualism is….

b) Mutually beneficial cooperation;

68. Commensalism is….

b) Beneficial for one and not beneficial for another relationship;

69. The normal existence of two species that do not interfere with each other is……

d) Neutralism;

70. The coexistence of invertebrates in a rodent hole is called ..

c) lodging;

71. Organisms of one species exist at the expense of nutrients or tissues of other organisms. This form of communication is called:

72. An ecological niche is:

e) + The totality of living conditions within an ecological system.

73. Individuals of one species eat individuals of another species. This relationship is called:

c) predation

The joint, mutually beneficial existence of individuals of 2 or more than 2 species is called:

b) symbiosis

75. The ecological niche of organisms is determined by:

e) + the whole set of conditions of existence

76. The concept of an ecological niche applies to:

b) plants

77. Organisms with a mixed type of nutrition:

Nature is beautiful and varied. Living on the same planet, plants and animals had to learn to coexist with each other. The relationship between organisms is not an easy but interesting topic that will help you better understand the world around you.

Relationship types

There are different types of relationships. But scientists divide them into three large groups.

The first group combines all those types of relationships between organisms that can be called positive, the result of which helps two organisms to exist without contradictions.

The second group includes those types of relationships that are called negative. As a result of the interaction of two organisms, only one benefits, while the other is oppressed. Sometimes the latter may even die as a result of such relationships. This group also includes such an interaction of organisms that negatively affects both the first and second individuals.

The third group is considered the smallest. This group includes relationships between organisms that bring neither benefit nor harm to both parties.

Positive types of relationships between organisms

In order to exist in the world, you need to find allies and helpers. This is exactly what many plants and animals do during their evolutionary development. The result is a relationship where both parties benefit from the relationship. Or those relationships that are beneficial only to one side, and they do not harm the other.

Positive relationships, also called symbiosis, come in many forms. Currently, cooperation, mutualism and commensalism are distinguished.

Cooperation

Cooperation is such a relationship between living organisms when both parties benefit. Most often, this benefit lies in the extraction of food. But sometimes one of the parties receives from the other not only food, but also protection. Such relationships between organisms are very interesting. Examples can be seen in the animal kingdom in different parts of the planet.

One of them is the cooperation of hermit crab and sea anemone. Thanks to anemones, cancer finds a home and protection from other inhabitants of the water. Without a hermit crab, an anemone cannot move. But cancer allows you to expand the radius of the search for food. In addition, what the anemone does not eat will sink to the bottom and get cancer. This means that both parties benefit from this relationship.

Another example was the relationship between rhinos and bullock birds. Such relationships between organisms allow one of the parties to find food. Cowbirds eat insects that live in abundance on the huge rhinoceros. Rhinos also benefit from neighbors. Thanks to these birds, he can lead a healthy life and not worry about insects.

Commensalism

Commensalism is those relationships between organisms in ecosystems when one of the organisms benefits, and the second does not experience inconvenience from these relationships, but does not benefit either. This type of relationship is also referred to as cheating.

Sharks are terrible marine predators. But for stick fish, they become a chance to survive and protect themselves from other aquatic predators, which are weak compared to sharks. Stick fish benefit from sharks. But they themselves do not bring them any benefit. At the same time, there is no harm. For the shark, such relationships go unnoticed.

In the burrows of rodents you can find not only cubs, but also a huge number of different insects. The hole created by the animal becomes their home. It is here that they find not only shelter, but also protection from those animals that love to feast on them. In a rodent hole, an insect is not afraid. In addition, here they can find enough food to lead a life without trouble. Rodents do not experience any difficulties from these types of relationships.

Negative types of relationships between organisms

Living together on the planet, animals can not only help each other, but also cause harm. It is not easy to learn these relationships between organisms. The table will help schoolchildren and students.

Predation

What is predation, anyone can tell without preparation. This is the relationship between organisms when one side benefits and the other suffers. In order to better understand who feeds on whom, one can compose And then it is easy to find out that many herbivores become the food of other animals. At the same time, predators can also be someone's food.

Despite the fact that hedgehogs are often depicted in pictures with apples and mushrooms, they are predators. Hedgehogs feed on small rodents. But they don't feel safe either. They can be eaten by foxes. In addition, foxes, like wolves, feed on hares.

Despite the bloodthirsty predators hunting for weaker animals day and night, competition is considered the most cruel type of relationship between organisms. After all, these include the struggle for a place under the sun among representatives of the same species. And each species has its own means of obtaining the required amount of food or better housing.

Stronger and more dexterous animals win in the fight. Strong wolves get good prey, while others are left to either eat other, less satisfying animals, or die of hunger. There is a similar struggle between plants to get as much moisture or sunlight as possible.

Neutral relationship

There are also such types of relationships between organisms when both parties receive neither benefit nor harm. Despite the fact that they live in the same territory, absolutely nothing unites them. If one of the parties of these relationships disappears from the face of the planet, then the other side will not be directly affected.

So, in warm countries, different herbivores feed on the leaves of the same tree. Giraffes eat those leaves that are on top. They are the most juicy and delicious. And other herbivores are forced to feed on the remains growing below. Giraffes do not interfere with them and do not take away food. After all, low animals will not be able to reach those leaves that are eaten by high ones. And tall, it makes no sense to bend down and take food from others.

There are different forms of relationships between organisms. And learning them all is not easy. But it is important to remember that everything in nature is interconnected. Most often, animals and plants affect each other positively or negatively, less often they do not affect each other at all. But even if they are not directly related, this does not mean that the disappearance of one cannot lead to the death of the other. The relationship between organisms is an important part of the world around us.

This term has other meanings, see Competition. Competition in biology, any antagonistic relationship associated with the struggle for existence, for dominance, for food, space and other resources between organisms or species ... Wikipedia

- (from lat. mensa meal) a type of interspecific relationship in which one species, called amensal, undergoes inhibition of growth and development, and the second, called an inhibitor, is not subject to such tests. Antibiosis and ... ... Wikipedia

- (from Latin com “with”, “together” and mensa “table”, “meal”; literally “at the table”, “at the same table”; earlier companionship) a way of coexistence (symbiosis) of two different types of living organisms, in which one population benefits ... Wikipedia

- (from other Greek ἀντι against, βίος life) antagonistic relations of species, when one organism limits the capabilities of another, the impossibility of coexistence of organisms, for example, due to intoxication by some organisms (antibiotics, ... ... Wikipedia

This term has other meanings, see Symbiosis (meanings). Clownfish and sea anemone are organisms coexisting in a mutualistic symbiosis ... Wikipedia

- (Late Lat. organismus from Late Lat. organizo I arrange, I give a slender appearance, from other Greek ὄργανον a tool) a living body that has a set of properties that distinguish it from inanimate matter. As a separate individual organism ... ... Wikipedia

"Predator" redirects here; see also other meanings. "Predators" redirects here; see also other meanings ... Wikipedia

Between two ants of the species Oecophylla longinoda. Thailand. Trophallaxis ... Wikipedia

Co-evolution of biological species interacting in an ecosystem. Changes that affect any traits of individuals of one species lead to changes in another or other species. The first to introduce the concept of co-evolution was N. V. Timofeev Resovsky ... ... Wikipedia

This article or section has a list of sources or external links, but the sources of individual statements remain unclear due to the lack of footnotes ... Wikipedia

Books

• Semiotic theory of biological life, N. A. Zarenkov. Is it possible to understand what life is, limited to the study of the flesh of organisms - the signs of life: molecules, chromosomes, cells, tissues and organs? This book substantiates the negative answer to ...