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Corruption in the modern world. Corruption in modern society. Anti-corruption methods

Translated from Latin corruption ("corruptio") means bribery, bribery and corruption of public and political figures, government officials and officials for the purpose of personal enrichment. Even in Roman law, the term "sogshtrege" was interpreted as "damage, break, destroy, bribe" and meant illegal actions in judicial practice. This term comes from a combination of the Latin words "correi" - several participants in one of the parties of a binding relationship about a single object, and "rumpere" - to break, damage, cancel. As a result of this combination, an independent term was formed, which in Roman law assumed the participation in the activities of several (at least two) persons, the purpose of which was to damage or damage the normal course of the judicial process or the process of managing the affairs of society.

Society's views on corruption in general represent a huge range of opinions. They can vary significantly depending on many factors. There are also different opinions about the meaning, causes and influence of this phenomenon on the socio-economic, cultural, national and other processes in the life of society. The literature on this subject is vast and varied, especially foreign. We emphasize that the study of corruption should be clearly interdisciplinary in nature.

Virtually all studies on corruption and revealing the relationship between it and economic growth result in a disappointing conclusion: the lower the level of corruption, the higher the growth rate of gross domestic product. In addition, economists note the negative impact of corruption on income distribution, which ultimately leads to the oppression of the poor in education and health, small and medium-sized businesses, especially in developing countries. But, worst of all, corruption establishes public cynicism as a public fodder for behavior, corrupts the political system, and leads to the political instability of the state.

Political scientists, on the other hand, speak of corruption as different ways of using power and political influence exerted by interested persons, groups, parties, movements on the political processes in the country. For them, the main causes of corruption lie primarily in political structures, where there is a lack of democracy. Recognizing that corruption exists in democratically developed states, they note that here, unlike non-democratic regimes, a system of checks and balances comes into force, which are clearly developed in democratic states. 2

Lawyers view corruption as a deviation from a binding legal norm, arbitrariness in the exercise of powers, and illegal use of public resources. Corruption is most often defined by them as "the act of an official or proxy who unlawfully or improperly uses his position or act to gain profit for himself or another person, acting against the interests and rights of others." Lawyers attribute corruption to the scope of economic, administrative and criminal law and note that corruption has a devastating effect on the rule of law, which, as a result of its action, is replaced by rules dictated by those who, firstly, have influence; secondly, it is able to influence; third, willing to pay.

2 Murdal G. Corruption - Its causes and Effects, in Asian Drama; An Equiry into the Poverty of Nations. - 1968. - Vol.II. - P.951,952; Friedrich C. The Pathology of Politics; Violence, Betrayal, Corruption, Secrecy and Propaganda. - 1972. - p. 127.128. Lawyers divide corruption into petty (grassroots, everyday) and large (elitist). They note that between them there are often relationships of mutual dependence, conditionality and commonality of a centralized, paternalistic, other organizational or socio-psychological nature. Petty corruption daily sucks out the material well-being of people, large-scale corruption swallows up huge pieces of the state and private economy. And both together they mercilessly destroy the legal foundations of society and state power.

Sociologists see in corruption, first of all, a "social attitude", which is expressed in violation of the norms of obligatory behavior and social well-being accepted in society. Corruption is defined by them as "the enslavement of social relations, where two or more persons commit a substitution of relations by successfully transforming money or power, bypassing legal procedures and replacing them with personal relations" 3 , or as a "client-master" relationship. Some researchers define corruption as a form of "patrimonialism", which is clearly manifested in those societies where communities are small and interactive ties are deeply personalized, while the need for the accumulation of "social capital" is great. 4 Many sociologists view corruption in the context of historical, social and cultural factors stemming from conflicts between different groups and different values in society. They state the fact that corruption thrives on conflicting values. 5

Public administration specialists define corruption as the misuse of public resources and the use of public structures to achieve private profits contrary to existing norms. 6 Attributing the causes of corruption to insufficient wages for public officials, a monopoly on the provision of public services, great freedom of action, a weak system of financial control, excessive regulation and excess procedures, a lack of internal culture and ethical rules of the civil service, they note, that corruption does not allow rational formation and implementation of public policy. 7

3 Defleur M.Corruption, Law and Justice//Journal of Criminal Justice. - 1995. No. 23.-R. 243.

4 Tanzi V.Corruption, Governmental Activities and Markets. - International Monetary Fund, 1994.

5 Easterly W. & Levine R. Africa's Growth Tragedy: Policies and Ethic Divisions 2. - World Bank Draft Paper, 1996.

6 Gaiden G. & Gaiden N. Administrative Corruption//Public Administration Review. - 1997. -№37.-R. 301, 302.

7 Schaffer B. Access: A theoty of Corruption and Bureaucracy//Administration and Development. - 1986. - No. 6. - P.357.

Entrepreneurs are primarily concerned about the volume and price of transactions, as well as the uncertainty that corruption brings to business relations when concluding transactions, the unpredictability of the results of competition in the context of widespread corruption. In the Rules of Conduct 1977 and 1996. The International Chamber of Commerce, an international non-governmental organization of more than 7,000 companies and business associations in more than 130 countries, has condemned corrupt practices related to international commercial transactions for their negative impact on international trade and competition. In 1995, in accordance with the decisions of the World Economic Forum in Davos (Switzerland), the "Davos Group" was created to work to accelerate the adoption of international standards of business ethics and regulation. Thus, corruption is defined as an indicator of a diseased (dysfunctional) society. In fact, everyone who speaks publicly about corruption condemns this phenomenon, although such a widespread occurrence would not have been possible without the participation of many of them. In the least developed countries, the majority of the population looks at corruption as part of life, the rules of the game, which, due to lack of choice, must accept. Most people view corruption as an additional cost for allowing what can be done and done faster, thus contributing to the development of corruption. Some understand corruption more broadly: as a violation of human rights and, in the most extreme sense, as a "crime against humanity" 8 .

Everyone agrees that corruption can increase the wealth of those engaged in these relationships and almost certainly reduces the income of the state and the welfare of society as a whole.

I. Shihata uses the word "corruption" in a broad sense, affecting various forms of behavior. This behavior, he notes, usually results from two situations. The first has to do with the distribution of benefits, or even just the granting of permission to distribute, when the temptation to gain personal profit prevails over the obligation to serve other interests, usually the public interest. The second situation is when the application of the rules reveals the possibility of granting special benefits to the detriment of the rules of public importance (public rules), excluding discrimination.

In situations where rules can be circumvented, or applied without predetermined differentiation, or there is simply no such differentiation, the corrupt agent usually favors special interests over the interests he is required by law to serve. The resources at his disposal or at the disposal of the department he leads are used for other purposes, in a way different from that which was prescribed to him by his principal. Principals change depending on the situation. These can be controllers (supervisors) of the agent, institutions within which the agent works, the owners of the institution or society as a whole. nine

8 Corruption in government. - United Nations 1990. - No. 24.

9 Shikhata I. Legal reform. Theory and Practice: Textbook / Perev. from English. ed. Doctor of Law Doronina N.G. - M.: White Alvy, 1998. - S. 234.

Some economic researchers define corruption as a situation where, in a relationship between two persons (an agent - a corrupt person and a principal), the benefit received by the agent significantly exceeds the actual value (price), or as a situation where public goods, services or a system Services are or are being provided in the public domain for the benefit of a private individual. ten

Others describe corruption in economic terms as a rent that results from the monopoly position of some public officials.

In any case, corruption "provides a market price where the market is not allowed to do so".)

Economists believe that the causes of corruption lie in the economic and administrative structures of the country. They pay attention to its prevalence where state intervention is most strong and where discretionary rights in the distribution of public goods and services, or subsidies, are large, the risk of punishment is low, and payment for deal is attractive enough.

The broader view also takes into account public policy (eg civil service wage levels or import tariffs) and even the honesty and integrity of public officials and private individuals. However, if these factors are considered constant, then it is possible to determine the likelihood and extent of corruption by comparing the levels of income received, the riskiness of corrupt transactions and consumer demand (bargaining power) in the relationship between the source and the beneficiary. Economists also talk about the impact of corruption on the development of the economy. They regard a bribe, when it is freely offered and accepted, as serving the direct interest of the parties. In the public interest, some authors see corruption as an important source of capital formation that can maintain market flexibility and efficiency and promote entrepreneurship. Others, based on the results of questionnaires and interviews with businessmen, believe that political mistrust (lack of faith in the stability of the government's course) is much more harmful than corruption, which they see "more as a variable cost than as an Uncertainty Factor" that divide corruption into different forms and suggest that some forms, while widespread, may not hurt the entire economy too much.

In this sense, corruption is not limited to the public sector, but within this sector - to the administrative bureaucracy. It is not limited to giving and receiving bribes. Corruption takes many forms and exists in all forms of government, including well-developed democracies. It can be found in the legislative, judicial and executive branches of government, as in all forms of private sector activity. It is not only related to ethnic, racial or religious affiliation. However, the level, scope and impact of it vary greatly between countries and may change, at least temporarily, within a country. Corruption in one form or another can exist in any community, the level and scope of its application is greatly influenced by the management system. Systems can corrupt people just as much, if not more, than people can corrupt systems.

10 Klitgard R. Controlling Corruption. 1988. - P.22; Schlieffer A.R., Vishny R.W. Corruption//Quartely Journal of Economics. - 1993. - No. 108. - R. 599.

Some cultures seem more tolerant than others when it comes to certain forms of corruption, especially favoritism and petty bribes. In certain communities, favoritism is so ingrained in the human mind that those who, in the performance of their public duties, refuse patronage to their friends and relatives are condemned as unresponsive or unkind people. In many countries, petty bribes are seen as a charity, an incentive or expression of gratitude, or as an acceptable substitute for the low pay of public officials, rather than extortion, as in other countries. Such cultural peculiarities, although they exist, should not be taken as an excuse for what in principle are called corrupt practices.

Once corruption finds its way into one place or sector, it spreads like a virus to other areas and sectors. It is not stopped by political boundaries and develops much faster in an environment that is over- or under-regulated. Corrupt and corrupt individuals have a legitimate interest in spreading the notion that corruption is dominant and pervasive. Thanks to them, corruption becomes a natural phenomenon. Entrepreneurial activity of foreigners, especially in developing countries, often contributes to the spread of corruption, assuming that payments and connections are the inevitable companions of trade (this often turns against the businessmen themselves). If cases of corruption are not identified, it will eventually lead to a distortion of the values of society, except for those few who can protect themselves with strong moral principles, often based on strict religious and ethical concepts. Corruption affects society and individuals as destructively as it is allowed to go. Any short-term gains it may bring (easing the regulation of an over-regulated economy or "greasing the wheels" in business transactions) is most likely to be offset by the overall damage done by corruption in pumping funds into one's own pocket. Even at the transaction level, corruption often increases the inefficiency of government projects and can drive up the cost of both public and private supplies. Quite often, large illegal payments, instead of being invested in the country, are transferred abroad or invested in other illegal businesses. Corruption can also increase a country's public debt as a result of increased spending on externally financed contracts won in bidding as a result of corrupt or fraudulent activities.

Thus, in modern scientific economic and legal literature there are many different definitions of corruption. If we try to generalize a little the definition of corruption, which is used by foreign and domestic sources, then corruption can be reduced to the following definitions:

- "criminal activity in the sphere of politics or public administration, which consists in the use by officials of the rights and power opportunities entrusted to them for personal enrichment. Corruption is not an independent crime, but a collective concept that covers a number of official crimes ( such as bribery, abuse of office)"; eleven

- "bribery, venality of public and political figures, employees of government bodies.

11 Big Law Dictionary / Ed. AND I. Sukharev, V.D. Zorkina, V.E. Krutskikh. - M.: INFRA-M, 1997. - S. 320.

Corruption means abuse of official position, direct use by an official of rights and powers for the purpose of personal enrichment" 12 ;

- "corruption includes the abuse of power (powers) or position of power (a position endowed with powers) for the sake of pursuing one's personal goals" 13 .

In the Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan dated July 2, 1998 "On the fight against corruption", corruption is understood as "acceptance, personally or through intermediaries, of property benefits and advantages by persons performing state functions, as well as persons equated to them, using their official powers and related opportunities, as well as bribery of these persons by illegally providing them with the specified benefits and advantages by individuals and legal entities. 14 At the same time, Kazakh experts note that Kazakhstan's legislation interprets the concept of "corruption" somewhat differently than the international one. The subjects and objects of corruption crimes in the international sense are considered much more broadly, they say.

The United Nations reference document on the international fight against corruption defines corruption as "the abuse of public power for personal gain". The working definition of the interdisciplinary group on corruption of the Council of Europe is much broader. Corruption is bribery and any other behavior of persons who are entrusted with the performance of certain duties in the public or private sector, and which leads to a violation of the duties assigned to them by the status of a public official, private employee, independent agent, or other kind of relationship and is intended to obtain any illegal benefits for themselves and others.

The report prepared by the Council for Foreign and Defense Policy and the Indem Regional Public Foundation (Russia) states that “corruption (in the narrow sense of the word) is understood as a situation where an official makes an illegal decision (sometimes a decision is morally wrong). - acceptable to public opinion), from which some other party benefits (for example, a company that secures a state order against the established procedure thanks to this decision), and the official himself receives illegal remuneration from this party. : a decision is made that violates the law or unwritten social norms, both parties act by mutual agreement; both parties receive illegal benefits and advantages, both parties try to hide their actions.

Russia, unlike other CIS countries, is only now, but very carefully and slowly developing a bill "On Combating Corruption", which provides for a number of tough measures aimed at effectively combating corruption in state and other structures. The main concepts used in the draft law include generally recognized international characteristics. When developing it, such well-known conventions of the Council of Europe as "On criminal liability", "On civil liability for corruption", "On the organization of economic cooperation and development", "On bribery of foreign officials" were used. when concluding commercial transactions.

12 Pavlenok P.D. Brief Dictionary of Sociology. - M.: INFRA-M, 2000. - S. 81.

13 J.S. Nye. Corruption and Political Development; A Cost-Benefit Analysis//American Political Science Review. - 61. - P.P. 417, 419.

14 Regulations. Decree of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan "On measures to improve the system of combating crime and corruption". Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan "On the fight against corruption". - Almaty: LLP "Ayan Edet", 2000. - P.19.

The most important thing in the bill is the definition of "corruption". In this case, corruption is not identified only with giving and receiving bribes (unlike the previous definitions or the definition of corruption in Kazakhstan's Anti-Corruption Law). In the new Russian project, corruption is also understood as "the search, establishment and maintenance of corrupt relations between legal entities and individuals in order to achieve personal or collective goals." fifteen

It seems to us that such a broad concept of "corruption" is a very important and valuable addition, since it implies a wider use of the anti-corruption legislative framework. In addition, according to the logic of things, if corruption is understood only as giving and receiving a bribe, then the fight comes down to only one-time actions. If we understand corruption as a system of actions: searching for, establishing and maintaining corrupt relations, then we are talking about the fight against the corruption system itself, which itself reproduces corruption.

For the first time in Russian legislative practice, individuals and organizations, regardless of their form of ownership, are given the opportunity to claim compensation for losses caused by corrupt practices. Thus, the problem is transferred from a purely criminal and administrative field to an economic one.

As you can see, there is a significant variety of points of view on the definition of corruption, which indicates the complexity of this phenomenon. Therefore, we refer to the definition of corruption adopted in the documents of the UN and the Council of Europe: corruption is "the abuse of state power for personal gain, for the benefit of third parties or groups" 16 . At the same time, corruption cannot be reduced only to giving and receiving a bribe, although US experts estimate the volume of international bribery in 1998 at 30 billion dollars (and this is only for 60 major international transactions that they analyzed).

Corruption can take various veiled forms of misappropriation of public funds for private use, such as lobbying, favoritism, protectionism, nepotism, political contributions, traditions of political leaders and government officials being promoted to honorary presidents of corporations and private firms. , investment of commercial structures at the expense of the state budget, transfer of state property to joint-stock companies, use of connections of criminal gangs, etc.

Thus, corruption, in our opinion, as a socio-economic category expresses the search, establishment and maintenance of corrupt relations that develop between officials and individuals and legal entities regarding the use of the possibilities of their position in order to obtain personal benefit to the detriment of a third party (society, state, company).

15 Gordievsky A. One law is not enough here! /assandi-times. - 2002. - No. 8 dated 06.12

16 Luneev V.V. Corruption: political, economic, organizational and legal problems // State and law. - 2000. - No. 4. - S. 101.

Introduction.

Since ancient times, power and corruption have been inseparable. Throughout history, parallel to the evolution of the state, corruption has evolved. If at the dawn of the formation of statehood, payment to a priest, leader or military commander for a personal appeal to their help was considered as a universal norm, then later, with the complication of the state apparatus, professional officials began to officially receive only a fixed income - which meant the transition of bribes to the shadow economy.

The first mention of corruption (and, accordingly, the fight against it) can be attributed to the second half of the 24th century. BC e., when Urukagina - the king of the ancient Sumerian city of Lagash on the territory of modern Iraq - reformed public administration in order to stop the numerous abuses of his officials and judges. However, the fight against corruption in the ancient world usually did not bring the desired results, especially in the eastern despotisms. According to the author of the ancient Indian treatise "Arthashastra", "it is easier to guess the path of birds in the sky than the tricks of cunning officials." Corruption reached its peak in the era of the decline of antiquity in the Roman Empire - and became one of the reasons for its collapse. The word "corruption" itself has a Latin origin - corrumpere means "to corrupt, spoil, damage."

The world has changed, and so has the scale of corruption. Globalization and the formation of the world economy have allowed corruption to reach the international level and become one of the most massive and dangerous phenomena of our time. Corruption is one of the most serious problems in the world today: according to Daniel Kaufmann, Director of Global Programs at the World Bank Institute, in 2007 bribes amounted to more than a trillion dollars - more than 2% of world GDP. About what corruption is, what are its causes and impact on the state, society and economy, and whether it is possible to successfully fight it in the 21st century - all this will be discussed in this work.

1. The concept of corruption

As defined by Transparency International, corruption is the abuse of entrusted power for private interests. The Federal Law of the Russian Federation “On Combating Corruption” provides the clearest possible definition: “abuse of official position, giving a bribe, receiving a bribe, abuse of authority, commercial bribery or other illegal use by an individual of his official position contrary to the legitimate interests of society and the state in order to obtain benefits” .

The United Nations considers corruption to be "a complex social, cultural and economic phenomenon affecting all countries" without providing a more detailed explanation of the term. It is noteworthy that even the text of the United Nations Convention against Corruption (UNCAC) does not contain a definition of what the participating countries are called to fight. However, this is explained by the fact that the phenomenon of corruption is too complex and multifaceted to be able to give a comprehensive and at the same time sufficient detailed definition. A more complete and true picture of corruption can be obtained if all corruption phenomena are classified according to various criteria. Criteria can be formulated in the form of questions - who, how, why and how often?

The main criteria for the classification of corruption relations

The first criterion is the type of activity of a corrupt official

The second criterion is the forms of corrupt relations (how and why):

bribery, bribery, obtaining illegal income (extortion, kickbacks);
theft and privatization of public resources and funds;
misappropriation (forgery, forgery, falsification, theft; misappropriation of money, property by fraudulent means), abuse in the use of state funds, embezzlement;
nepotism or nepotism, favoritism (appointment of relatives and friends to posts and positions);
promotion of personal interests, collusion (granting preferences to individuals, conflict of interest);
accepting gifts to expedite problem resolution;
protection and protection (“covering”, perjury);
abuse of power (intimidation or torture);
manipulation of regulation (falsification of elections, decision-making in favor of one group or person);
electoral violations (vote buying, electoral fraud);
rent seeking - extortion (civil servants illegally set fees for services or artificially create shortages);
clientelism and patronage (politicians provide material services in exchange for the support of citizens);
illegal contributions to election campaigns (gifting gifts to influence the content of the policy).

The third criterion is how often corruption occurs

Having understood the essence of corruption relations, let us briefly outline the approaches to interpreting these phenomena. These concepts, however, are rather not alternative, but complementary.

Concept	Summary
Rational Approach (Economics of Crime)	An individual weighs all the costs and benefits of his criminal actions and rationally decides to commit a crime if the expected utility of such actions is higher than if he remained honest and spent his time and resources in other ways.
The theory of rent-seeking behavior	Economic rent - payment for resources in excess of the maximum value of opportunity costs in the non-monopoly use of these resources. Rent-oriented behavior - efforts aimed at the implementation of state intervention in the market distribution of resources in order to appropriate the income artificially created in this way in the form of rent. Corruption is understood as a form of illegal rent-seeking behavior
institutional approach	Corruption is a contractual interaction between economic agents with the aim of abusing position for private gain.
principal-agent model	Corruption exists due to the asymmetry of information and the high costs of monitoring the activities of an agent-official
Theory of opportunistic behavior	Corruption is a special case of opportunistic behavior
classical liberalism	Corruption as a failure of the state and as a failure of the market, as a “public anti-good” that harms all members of society (negative externalities).

2. Causes of corruption

Economists usually use two models to explain the causes and nature of corrupt relations. One of them is "guarantor (principal) - executor (agent) - ward (client)"

In this model, the central government acts as a principal (P): it sets the rules and assigns agents (A), mid- and low-level officials, specific tasks. Officials act in this case as intermediaries between the central government and clients (K), individual citizens or firms. In exchange for paying taxes, the agent, on behalf of the principal, provides various services to clients (licenses the activities of firms, issues social benefits to citizens, hires employees for the public service, etc.). For example, within the framework of the tax service, the principal is the state represented by the head of the tax service, agents are tax collectors, and all taxpayers act as clients.

In exchange for paying taxes, taxpayers get the opportunity to operate legally, otherwise they will face fines and other penalties.

The quality of the regulatory system depends on whether there are conflicts of interest between the principal and the agent in this system. The government, in principle, has neither the time nor the ability to personally serve each client, so it delegates the authority to serve them to officials, prescribing certain rules to them. Officials-agents, knowing their clients better than the government-principal, can work more effectively with clients. But it is difficult for the principal to control how numerous intermediary agents perform their prescribed work, especially since officials may deliberately hide information about the true results of their activities. Since the honesty of an agent-official cannot be completely controlled, the agent himself decides whether to be "honest". The official's decision depends on the expected rewards for good work and the expected penalties for abuse. For example, in the Russian tax system, the payment of a tax officer almost does not depend on the amount of funds contributed to the budget from hidden taxes identified by him. This leads to the fact that often the tax collector is more interested in receiving bribes than in honest service. Illegal remuneration to an official-agent from his clients can be given for various reasons. A citizen or a firm can give a bribe so that the official gives them the required services more quickly, “out of turn” (accelerating bribe). More often, however, officials are bribed to provide their clients with more of the services offered by the state, and take less taxes than is required by law (braking bribe). It also happens that an official has ample opportunities for nit-picking on far-fetched pretexts; then bribes are given so that the official does not take advantage of his opportunities to show tyranny (a bribe “for a good attitude”).

To prevent corruption, the most responsible employees are trying to assign very high salaries and at the same time tougher penalties for violating their official duty. However, many researchers note that in many cases state salaries cannot compete with the financial capabilities of potential bribe-givers (if they are large legal businessmen or mafia bosses). A decent salary for an agent is a necessary but not sufficient condition for preventing corruption. Therefore, the principal state supplements (or even replaces) high incentives with "appeals to honest behavior." This means that the government is trying to create psychological barriers against the self-interest of agents, for example, by raising the moral level of citizens through the mechanism of education and ideological propaganda. In addition, the principal government encourages direct communication with clients (reception of complaints from the population), which serve as an additional and very important tool for controlling the actions of agent officials.

Thus, the “agent-client” relationship depends on the salary of agents and the breadth of their powers, and the “principal-agent” relationship depends on the degree of control of the principal over agents and the influence of clients on the principal. Moral norms affect all types of relations in this system, determining the degree of admissibility of deviations from the requirements of the law.

Also, some foreign economists express an extremely concise definition of the main causes of corruption by the following formula:

corruption = monopoly + arbitrariness - responsibility.

This means that the opportunities for corruption directly depend on the monopoly of the state on certain types of activities (for example, to purchase weapons) and on the lack of control over the activities of officials, but inversely depend on the likelihood and severity of penalties for abuse.

Another model often used by economists is presented below:

where I is the country, t is the year.

Let's analyze the formula:

1) Firstly, the higher the level of economic well-being (GDP per capita), the less the propensity of officials to resort to illegal methods of obtaining profit, the stricter anti-corruption measures and the stronger civil society.

Description of work

Corruption in modern society.

Corruption (from lat. corrumpere - "to corrupt") - the use by an official of his powers and rights entrusted to him for personal gain, contrary to the established rules (legislation). Most often, the term is used in relation to the bureaucracy and the political elite. Any person who has power over the distribution of any resources that do not belong to him (official, deputy, judge, law enforcement officer, administrator, examiner, doctor, etc.) can be subject to corruption. The main incentive for corrupt behavior is the possibility of obtaining economic profits associated with the use of power, and the main deterrent is the risk of exposure and punishment.

Separate manifestations of corruption are singled out. Household corruption generated by the interaction of ordinary citizens and officials. It includes various gifts from citizens and services to an official and members of his family. Business corruption arises from the interaction of government and business. For example, in the event of a commercial dispute, the parties may seek to enlist the support of a judge in order to reach a decision in their favor. Corruption of the supreme power refers to the political leadership and supreme courts in democratic systems. It concerns groups in power whose bad faith is to pursue policies in their own interests and to the detriment of the interests of voters.

Systematic consideration allows us to identify a number of complementary views on the essence of the phenomenon of corruption:

Corruption as a special type of offense associated with abuse of power;

Corruption as a special way of life of people in power, which involves a number of traditional actions (bribery, self-will, selection of the “right” people);

Corruption as a special way of solving problems bypassing existing laws and regulations using bribery of officials;

Corruption as a special approach to people in power, associated with demonstrating respect for them and meeting their needs.

Such a variety of views on corruption gives rise to numerous difficulties in its eradication and the need for systemic efforts on the part of society, the state, each person to combat corruption.

The following signs of corruption stand out:

1. A decision is made that violates the law or unwritten social norms.

2. The parties act by mutual agreement.

3. Both parties receive illegal benefits and advantages.

4. Both sides try to hide their actions.

Let's single out the main components of the system of anti-corruption education in our educational institution:

absence of cases of corrupt behavior in an educational institution;

· anti-corruption education: presentation of the essence of the phenomenon of corruption as a criminal act in the lessons of jurisprudence;

· gaining experience in solving life and school problems based on the interaction of teachers and students; pedagogical activities to form an anti-corruption worldview among students.

The main result of anti-corruption education is seen in the preparation of a person capable of exercising power or interacting with representatives of power structures on a legal basis, avoiding bribery, bribery and other illegal actions. To achieve this result, it is necessary to work with the child in different age periods. Due to the fact that in elementary school special attention is paid to the formation of a culture of behavior and the need to comply with the rules, anti-corruption education can be based on an analysis of the relationship of ordinary citizens with the guardians of public order. If a person is convinced that the keeper of order will always act according to the rules, then he will not break the rules and offer bribes for their violation. In addition to the information and educational block, special attention should be paid to involving students in maintaining order in the classroom. Students are encouraged to complete small assignments related to the observance of order. The simplest assignment of them is the duty officer, who controls the observance of certain rules. Submission to the officer on duty, refusal to threaten and bribe the officer on duty will be an indicator of the formation of a respectful attitude towards the keeper of the rules. At the middle level, a solution to a more complex problem is possible, aimed at the formation of the joint creation and maintenance of rules. In grades 8–9, it becomes necessary for students to consciously accept the rules for solving life problems. An element of social practice can be the organization of student self-government in the class, an increase in the number of assignments for class students with certain powers. One of the problems is the interaction with the authorities.

In work with students in grades 9-11, the main task of the anti-corruption education system is solved: the formation of an anti-corruption worldview in students, which allows them to consciously abandon the practice of corrupt behavior. In the process of solving this problem, students in the lessons of law and social science study in detail this type of offense and the reasons for its occurrence. In the process of extracurricular activities, special attention is paid to discussions on this topic, which contribute to the identification of the life position of students on this issue.

Academic subjects, the content of which directly or indirectly affects the understanding of various social phenomena by younger students (including those related to such concepts as benefit, exchange, gift, gratitude, i.e. with those terms that in modern society are associated with corruption ), are "Literary Reading" and "The World Around". A number of words, the meaning of which can be mastered through life experience and discussion, understanding them in the classroom: holiday, event, gift, service, benefit, gratitude, the great word "thank you", disinterestedness.

It is good for him to do good who remembers him.

The hand washes the hand, and both are white.

Mercy is great, but not worth a bast.

Do not regret your own thanks, but do not wait for someone else's.

You don't respect a bad person.

It’s better not to give, but after that don’t measles.

He drowned - he promised an ax, they pulled him out - it's a pity for the ax handle.

Don't put it badly, don't lead the thief into sin.

Expensive testicle for Christ's day.

Not in service, but in friendship.

The main educational work with students in grades 5-7 is aimed at creating a culture of interaction. The most productive at this age are various forms of joint work and collective creative activity. Formation of the ability to respect each other, a culture of agreement and mutual understanding will serve as the basis for the prevention of corruption. In the practice of working with children of this age, a number of situations can be identified that cause corrupt behavior in the future. The first common situation is that parents give money to a child for good grades, prepare a person who believes that his every step, and even more so the created product, should be paid. It is necessary in regular communication with parents to note the harm of this method of interaction with the child. The second situation is related to the fact that a child of this age receives undeserved remuneration for the provision of certain services. The teacher should be the example. If a child understands that a bouquet of flowers given to a teacher affects the quality of the assessment, then this will contribute to the formation of a corrupt consciousness. The third situation is related to the activities of teachers and parents according to the principle: “If you can’t, but really want to, then you can.” When teachers and parents, despite the existing prohibitions, allow children to perform prohibited actions, this leads to the formation in the mind of the child of a position that everything can be bought and everything can be done if you agree with whom you need. The next situation is the relationship between children in the system of self-government. The situation becomes most acute when the child faces a choice between friendship and order. It is quite natural that children allow a lot of things to their friends, unlike others. Unfortunately, within the framework of public consciousness, helping a friend (even at the expense of breaking the law) is the norm. The phenomenon of "favorites", who are allowed more than others, has become widespread in educational institutions. Taking into account the specifics of age, conducting pedagogical conversations on this topic becomes ineffective. The most productive is the organization of group work in the process of creative, educational and gaming activities. Therefore, conducting educational affairs, workshops and role-playing games is the most effective way. First of all, it is necessary to organize simulation and business games, in which students receive certain powers of authority and exercise them during the game.

For example, most children are easy to cheat. The presence of a large number of formal rules, most of which are difficult to follow, teaches that any rule can be circumvented. In the process of education, it is necessary to combine three components:

· Creation of conditions that do not allow one to be in a situation of violating the law. Creation of the most transparent and understandable procedures. Explaining to students common ways of solving problems. It should be noted the existing pedagogical paradox associated with the fact that a person improves in the process of overcoming difficulties, but seeks to avoid these difficulties in a natural way. The more complex the invented rules, the more difficult it is to comply with them and the higher the possibility of corruption.

· Learning the best ways to solve various life problems. The more students learn how to perform various learning tasks and life situations, the easier it will be to prevent situations of corruption.

· Raising respect for existing norms and laws. Compliance with them by the majority of teachers and students. Formation of respect for certain traditions.

When working with students in grades 7-9, special attention should be paid to conscious decision-making and its protection in the process of building relationships with others. Formation of a positive attitude towards the existing order, awareness of the benefits of compliance with norms and rules will help to form an anti-corruption worldview.

Features of anti-corruption education when working with students in grades 7-8 is the focus on the formation of a moral position and the denial of corruption. The main form of educational work is the discussion, during which one's own opinion is expressed.

Pupils in grades 10–11 develop an anti-corruption worldview. Unfortunately, it is quite difficult to break established habits and stereotypes. In fact, we are talking about cultivating a culture of power relations. One of the possible goals of education in modern conditions is the formation of a conscious refusal, and then a value rejection of corruption by students.

For example, the fable "The Fox and the Marmot":

“Where, gossip, are you running without looking back?” -
The groundhog asked the fox.
“Oh, my dove-kumanek!
I endure slander and was expelled for bribes.
You know I was the judge in the chicken coop
Lost health and peace in business,
In the labors of a piece I was malnourished,
Sleepless nights:
And I fell under anger for that;
And all by slander. Well, think for yourself:
Who in the world will be right if you listen to slander?
Should I take bribes? yes, I'm pissed off!
Well, have you seen, I will send for you,
That I was involved in this sin?
Think, remember well. -
“No, gossip; and often saw
What a stigma you have in fluff.

Another sighs at the same place,
As if the last ruble survives:
And truly, the whole city knows
What he has for himself
Not for a wife
And look, little by little
Either he will build a house, or he will buy a village.
Now, how to reduce his income with expenses,
Even if you can't prove it in court
But if you do not sin, you will not say:
That he has fluff on the stigma.

Not only the meaning of words becomes important, but intonation, emotions and feelings with which these words are pronounced, what bright figurative words and expressions are used in this case.

The system of anti-corruption ideas, views, principles, which reflect the negative attitude of the individual, social groups and the whole society to corrupt activities, should organically complement the worldview of the younger generation.

Development and implementation of a set of measures to increase the level of the internal culture of the individual and strengthen the moral and ethical principles of a person, especially children and youth; education of the younger generation's rejection of corruption as a phenomenon that is absolutely incompatible with the values of a modern legal state, the formation of a special psychological environment in society that is extremely unfavorable for a corruption system should be put in the category of the most important areas of school activity.

Federal State Budgetary Vocational Educational Institution "Oryol Special Educational and Educational Institution of a Closed Type"

extracurricular activity

on the topic: "Corruption in modern society"

(grade 6-7).

Prepared by:

educator 3 department

Perminova E.V.

Orlov, 2019

Conversation "Corruption in modern society" (grades 6-7).

Goals:

To acquaint pupils with the concept of "corruption", with the forms of manifestation of corruption, its consequences.

To broaden the horizons of pupils, to form their own worldview on the problems of modern society, to contribute to the formation of a stable position to prevent corruption in the country.

To instill responsibility for their own actions and deeds, consciousness and social activity of the younger youth.

Conversation flow:

Have you ever heard this word? "corruption".

What associations do you have with the word "corruption"? (bribery, bribery, deceit, fraud).

Corruption (from lat.corruptio-bribery) - a process associated with the direct use by an official of the rights associated with his position for the purpose of personal enrichment (bribery of officials and public and political figures, giving bribes, etc.)

To put it in your own words: abuse of office for personal gain.

The historical roots of corruption probably go back to the practice of giving gifts to win favor. An expensive gift distinguished a person from other petitioners and contributed to his request being fulfilled. Therefore, in primitive societies, paying a priest or leader was the norm. With the increasing complexity of the state apparatus and the strengthening of the power of the central government, professional officials appeared, who, according to the plan of the rulers, should have been content with only a fixed salary. In practice, officials sought to take advantage of their position to covertly increase their income.

Most often, corruption means taking bribes, illegal cash income, by state bureaucrats who extort it from citizens for personal enrichment.

However, in a more general sense of the word, participants in corrupt relations can be not only government officials, but also, for example, company managers; bribes may be given not in money, but in a different form; Corrupt relations are often initiated not by government officials, but by entrepreneurs.

The areas of activity that are most prone to corruption in Russia include:

customs services;

Medical organizations;

traffic police;

Judicial bodies;

Tax authorities;

Law enforcement agencies;

Supervision of compliance with the rules of hunting and fishing;

Exemption from conscription for military service;

University admissions and more.

Types of corruption

Household corruption generated by the interaction of ordinary citizens and officials. It includes various gifts from citizens and services to an official and members of his family.

Business corruption arises from the interaction of government and business. For example, in the event of a commercial dispute, the parties may seek to enlist the support of a judge in order to reach a decision in their favor.

Corruption of the supreme power refers to the political leadership and supreme courts in democratic systems. It concerns the groups in power whose bad faith is to pursue policies in their own interests and to the detriment of the interests of voters (what happens today in Ukraine when seats in the Verkhovna Rada are bought instead of being elected by the people).

Corruption in universities. Higher education today is a gigantic shadow market in which billions are spinning. A diploma in this market has become almost a financial document. It is bought in order to further determine the price of an employee in the labor market. At the same time, we are dealing with a market in which the buyer has absolutely no rights, and the seller artificially creates a shortage of goods. The number of free places in universities is constantly decreasing, paid - increases. And this despite the fact that "free" students have to pay.

For society, corruption has become one of the most acute problems. Every day in the media we hear about corruption and bribery. This negative phenomenon permeated the entire society.

Almost every inhabitant of our country has faced this phenomenon in one way or another.

Unfortunately, corruption is becoming the norm, the population has adapted to gifts and fines without receipts.

What do you guys think, is it necessary to fight corruption?

In the history of Russia there have been different periods of equal punishment and the one who bribes and who is bribed. Peter I determined the punishment for those who gave a bribe on a par with those who received a bribe "... it was ordered to repair the death penalty, without any mercy." This approach is also noted abroad, for example, in modern Japan.

Despite the tough measures taken to combat corruption, there are still many officials who continue to take bribes.

In the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation there are articles No. 285 "Abuse of official powers", No. 290 "Receiving a bribe", No. 291 "Giving a bribe".

Sometimes officials extort a bribe. This is what is called: "extortion", and they are judged for it. But in the school environment, too, sometimes there are facts of extortion by individual students of money from their peers or from schoolchildren who are younger in age. This is also punished.

What measures do you think would help our government fight corruption?

Increasing the salaries of law enforcement, education, and medicine workers so that they would never think of taking a bribe. This will be possible when people have a decent salary.

To make it unprofitable for officials to take a bribe and there would be no opportunity for this;

Once and for all, to prohibit working with people to persons who at least once were seen in taking a bribe;

Tighten the country's laws against corrupt officials so that the fear of punishment is stronger than the temptation;

To educate in people an internal regulator called conscience.

As you can see, it is possible to fight corruption. If you fight back corrupt officials and bribe-takers.

Soon you will become adults, finish school, go home, you will have to solve many questions that life puts before us.

Try to find the right solution in any life situation, without circumventing the law.

Introduction

2.1.4 Socio-psychological conditions of corruption

2.2 Problems posed by corruption

2.3 Economic losses from corruption

Chapter 3. Corruption abroad

3.1 The problem of corruption in developed countries

3.2 International aspects of corruption

3.3 Some statistics on corruption in the world

4. International experience in fighting corruption

Chapter 4

4.1 Analysis of the Federal Law "On Combating Corruption" dated December 25, 2008

4.2 Analysis of the corruption potential of certain legal acts of executive authorities

Conclusion

Bibliographic list

List of abbreviations

Introduction

The problem of corruption and bribery in Russia has become so menacingly acute that the motives and relevance of the chosen topic are simply obvious. Everything is bought and sold: from grades at school to the adoption of a law in the State Duma. At the same time, according to scientists and experts, a significant number of facts of bribery (90%) remain undisclosed. Bogdanov I.Ya., Kalinin A.P. corruption in Russia: socio-economic and legal aspects. - M:, 2001, - S. 7-9.

There is also a clear relationship between corruption and bribery and criminal structures, because no criminal structure can exist without corrupting officials of various ranks to achieve its goals. It is very accurate to say that if ordinary crime attacks society, acting against its institutions, including the state, organized crime in this offensive tries to rely on the institutions of the state and society, to use them for its own purposes. Facts of illegal allocation, receipt and use of preferential loans, the flow of capital into the shadow economy and foreign banks, and money laundering obtained by criminal means have become widespread. These actions are inevitably accompanied by all sorts of mercenary abuses of power and significant amounts of bribes.

The theoretical significance of my thesis is the analysis of lawmaking and law enforcement, the state and degree of corruption in society, the display of various sources of views on this topic, their comparative characteristics.

The object of the research is the problem of combating corruption and bribery in Russia and abroad.

The subject of the study is the general patterns of the emergence, functioning and development of corruption relations, their essence, structure, basic elements and principles.

After reading and researching the works of scientists on this subject, laws, regulations, conference materials, one can come to the conclusion: how many people are interested in this problem, offer their own measures to eradicate this disease, using not general phrases, but specific facts.

The purpose of my research is to reflect the shortcomings and gaps in the legislation on bribery and corruption.

Criminal cases against almost half of the officials prosecuted for bribery do not reach the stage of judicial review. In some cases, the quality of court decisions in this category of cases also suffers.

Corruption has become a serious threat to the rule of law, democracy and human rights, undermine trust in government, the principles of public administration, equality and social justice, hinder competition, impede economic development and threaten the stability of democratic institutions and the moral fabric of society.

To achieve the goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:

1. Get acquainted with the concept of "corruption" and its social significance in the modern world (in a general aspect);

2. Describe the genesis of bribery and corruption (in a historical aspect);

3. Reflect the sociological characteristics of bribery;

4. Consider ways to combat and other aspects of corruption abroad;

5. To study the problems and conditions that give rise to corruption in Russia;

6. Reflect statistical data on corruption in Russia and abroad;

7. Conduct a delimitation of bribery from related offenses;

8. Conduct an analysis of the corruption potential of regulatory legal acts of executive authorities.

9. Analyze the current Federal Law "On Combating Corruption" dated December 25, 2008.

A vivid example of an effective fight against corruption, which I think we should follow, is the “Clean Hands” operation carried out in Italy in the early 90s, the operation had stunning results, which are mostly unknown to the Russian public! Under the leadership of the prosecutor Borelli, a “cleansing” was carried out, which put an end to the corruption of power unprecedented for a civilized state, 80% of Italian politicians were “taken out of circulation”, and the operation of large parties actually ceased. There were about three dozen suicides of those under investigation alone.

In one of his interviews, Prosecutor General V. Ustinov expressed doubts about the need for us to conduct an operation on such a scale as the famous “Clean Hands” operation in Italy.

“No ethical considerations can compare in terms of the power of a preventive effect with the fear of an official to be exposed and punished. The honesty of the bureaucracy must be constantly reinforced by the fear of a well-working prosecutor. Especially in Russia, where impoverished employees experience great temptations and are not constrained by either social or religious morality. If behind all, even if quite tough, requirements of the anti-corruption legislation there is no "peep through" a formidable figure independent of the "feeding", a well-provided prosecutor who is afraid of losing his job, these requirements will not be backed up by a real threat of punishment for their failure to comply. Yani P.S. Bribery and abuse of office. M., 2002. S. 8.

In my work, I used the works of scientists, politicians, journalists, lawyers: S. Dolgopolov, D. Panovkin, M. Overchenko, V. Elenbogen, V.V. Luneva, E.O. Marlukhina, V.V. Maslovsky, A.I. Dolgova, M.A. Krasnova, P.S. Yani, A.V. Dulov, V. Gurvich, E. Scriabin, E.V. Talapina, G.A. Avanesova, D.I. Aminova, B.V. Volzhenkina, V.L. Vasilyeva, G.I. Galperin, L.D. Gaukhman, V.V. Golubeva, S.V. Dyakova, P.A. Kabanova, D.A. Carver, L.M. Kolodkina, V.S. Komissarov, V.I. Krieger, V.P. Kuvaldina, V.N. Kudryavtseva, N.F. Kuznetsova, A.V. Kurakina, N.A. Lopashenko, V.A. Naumova, S.V. Maksimova, I.B. Malinovsky, G.M. Minkovsky, V.A. Nomokonova, V.E. Eminov and many others, without whom it would be impossible to prepare such a complete study on the problem that currently concerns each of us.

Chapter 1. The Genesis of Bribery and Corruption

At present, science has made a significant step in the study of corruption. This became possible due to the fact that domestic legal thought overcame the point of view, according to which corruption was reduced to banal bribery. Having abandoned the usual tools used by the legislation, such as "bribe", "abuse", "excess", etc., most scientists and practitioners have chosen the path of understanding the essence of the phenomenon using a unified approach to the methodology of its study. Thanks to this, a single complex concept of corruption was developed as abuse of official position, giving a bribe, receiving a bribe, abuse of power, commercial bribery or other illegal use by an individual of his official position contrary to the legitimate interests of society and the state in order to obtain benefits in the form of money, valuables, other property or services of a property nature, other property rights for oneself or for third parties, or the illegal provision of such benefits to the specified person by other individuals, as well as the commission of these acts on behalf of or in the interests of a legal entity of the Federal Law "On Combating Corruption" dated 25.12.2008. .

To date, most Russian and foreign researchers of corruption quite reasonably consider it as a synthetic concept that has not only legal, criminological, but also socio-public, as well as political and economic significance.

Corruption is a system. What makes you not oppose the established order? Why are the “necessary” people so unconditionally included in the “system”? Why do those who try to resist stay in it for so long? Is it an economic factor? Only for personal gain? Marluhina E.O. Textbook "Criminology", ed. “Dashkov & Co”, Moscow 2008

The causes of corruption crime lie much deeper than it might seem at first glance.

People who do not have a clear and reliable idea of corruption, its scale, undoubtedly, focus on economic reasons. Reducing corruption to the ordinary concept of a bribe, they believe that the cause of corruption is the lack of funds from doctors, teachers, law enforcement officers, officials ... But in this regard, we can only talk about bribery. Corruption is a concept of a different plan, representing a more serious danger.

However, bribery and corruption have facets of contact. They lie in the causes of these phenomena, which are intangible. If the mentality is based on the prerequisite for identifying bribery and corruption, then they have common principles in their conscious perception Konovalenko E.O. Ethical and cultural determinants of corruption (Russian experience) // Organized crime and corruption: results of criminological and sociological research. Issue. 1 / ed. ON THE. Lopashenko. - Saratov, 2005. S. 50-57 ..

Corruption consists in the decomposition of power, when civil servants and other persons authorized to perform state functions use their official position, status and authority of their position for selfish purposes for personal enrichment or in group interests.

The public danger of corruption is extremely high. International documents emphasize that corruption has an extremely harmful effect on the economy, undermines the effectiveness of all types of government decisions and programs, damages the state of morality in society, undermines the confidence of citizens in the government, the authority of the authorities, destroys the principle of justice and impartial justice.

As a social phenomenon, corruption manifests itself in the commission of various acts of corruption, some of which are declared criminal and prosecuted. The current Criminal Code of the Russian Federation provides grounds for classifying such crimes as corruption, such as fraud, embezzlement and embezzlement committed using one's official position, abuse of power, illegal participation in business activities, taking bribes, forgery, obstruction of legitimate business activities, restriction of competition and others. crimes committed by civil servants of local self-government bodies using their official position for mercenary, personal and group purposes.

Thus, corruption crimes are crimes of persons officially involved in management (state and municipal employees and other persons authorized to perform state functions), using their status opportunities for illegal personal gain.

Extensive and diverse criminological information testifies to the widespread "bureaucratic racketeering" in the registration of charters and other constituent documents of organizations created, licensing of relevant activities, customs clearance, obtaining loans, etc.

Corruption crime has a number of criminological features associated with the subjects of such crimes, areas and methods of their commission. It can be characterized as an elite power crime, since the subjects of corruption are persons with a high social position. The most affected are state structures related to the consideration and resolution of issues of privatization, financing, lending, banking operations, the creation and registration of commercial organizations, licensing and quotas, foreign economic activity, distribution of funds, and land reform.

A characteristic feature of corruption is its highest latency. According to expert estimates, the ratio of identified cases of bribery to their actual level ranges from 0.1 to 2% Varchuk T.V. Decree op. pp. 133-135.

The high latency of corruption crimes is explained by factors of an objective and subjective nature. In most cases, there are no victims in the physical sense of the word who are interested in solving such crimes. As a rule, all participants, moreover, all of them, in accordance with the law, are subject to criminal liability (when giving or receiving a bribe). Crimes are committed covertly, often in specific and confidential types of government activities.

The subjective reasons for the latency are the lack of proper political will and determination among the heads of state bodies in the fight against corruption, as well as the low professional level of the employees of the operational and investigative apparatus involved in the investigation of this activity.

1.2 The history of the emergence and development of corruption

History has been familiar with the phenomenon of corruption for a very long time. Even Aristotle said: “The most important thing in any state system is to arrange things through laws and the rest of the routine in such a way that it is impossible for officials to profit.” Bribes are also mentioned in the ancient Roman XII tables; in Ancient Russia, Metropolitan Kirill condemned "bribery" along with sorcery and drunkenness. Under Ivan IV the Terrible, a clerk was executed for the first time, having received more than the prescribed roast goose with coins.

In the Russian code "On punishments of criminal and correctional" 1845. (as amended in 1885, which was in force in Russia until October 1917), the composition of receiving a bribe was already different - bribery and extortion.

C. Montesquieu also noted: “... it is already known from the experience of centuries that every person who has power is inclined to abuse it, and he goes in this direction until he reaches the limit set for him.” Accordingly, manifestations of corruption are found both in states with a totalitarian and democratic regime, in economically and politically underdeveloped countries and superpowers. In principle, there are no countries that could lay claim to exceptional chastity.

For the first time, civilized mankind encountered the phenomenon of corruption in the most ancient times, later we find its signs essentially everywhere.

For example, one of the oldest references to corruption is found in the cuneiforms of ancient Babylon. As follows from the deciphered texts dating back to the middle of the third millennium BC, even then the Sumerian king Urukagin had a very acute problem of suppressing the abuses of judges and officials who extorted illegal rewards. Great Soviet Encyclopedia // M., 2004. T.27.S.94

The rulers of ancient Egypt faced similar questions. Documents found in the course of archaeological research also testify to massive manifestations of corruption in Jerusalem in the period after the Babylonian captivity of the Jews in 597-538. before Christmas.

The theme of corruption is also found in biblical texts. Moreover, many authors speak bitterly about its presence and harm. For example, in one of the books of the Bible, the Book of Wisdom of Jesus the son of Sirach, the father instructs his son: “Do not be a hypocrite before the lips of others and be attentive to your lips ... May your hand not be stretched out to receive ... Do no evil, and you will not be overtaken evil; move away from unrighteousness and it will deviate from you ... Do not try to become a judge, so as not to be powerless to crush unrighteousness, so as not to be ever afraid of a strong person and not put a shadow on your rightness ... ". Bible. Sirach. 1, 29, 4, 9.S.644. It is easy to see that the very nature of the instructions indicates that the biblical community was quite familiar with the facts of bribing judges and dishonest justice.

The ancient era did not escape the manifestations and flourishing of corruption. Its destructive influence was one of the reasons for the collapse of the Roman Empire.

Later periods of Western European history were also accompanied by the development of corrupt relations. At the same time, their presence in the life and affairs of society was reflected not only in historical documents, but also in many works of art by such masters as Chaucer (“The Canterbury Tales”), Shakespeare (“The Merchant of Venice”, “An Eye for an Eye”), Dante ("Hell" and "Purgatory"). So, seven centuries ago, Dante placed corrupt officials in the darkest and deepest circles of Hell. History explains his dislike for corruption by the political considerations of the author, for Dante considered bribery the reason for the fall of the Italian republics and the success of his political opponents.

Many well-known Western thinkers paid a lot of attention to the study of manifestations of corruption. It seems that Nicolo Machiavelli studied its origins very and comprehensively in this sense. It is characteristic that many of his views on this problem are very relevant today. Suffice it to recall his figurative comparison of corruption with consumption, which at first is difficult to recognize, but easier to treat, and if it is neglected, then “although it is easy to recognize it, it is difficult to cure it.” Machiavelli N. Works // Milan. 1994. P. 137 It would seem a simple truth, but how modern it is for assessing the current situation with the spread of corruption in Russia and the world.

Unfortunately, Russia in the sense of having corrupt relations has not been and is not an exception to the general rule. Their formation and development also has a long history. In particular, one of the first written references to promises as an illegal reward to princely governors dates back to the end of the 14th century. The corresponding norm was enshrined in the so-called Dvina charter (Charter of Vasily I) Russian legislation of the X-XX centuries // M., 1995. P.181, and later clarified in the new edition of the Pskov Judicial charter. It can be assumed that these sources only stated the existence of such acts, which clearly took place much earlier than their official normative fixing.

The prevalence of covetousness (bribery) in Russia was so significant that, according to the Decree of Peter I of August 25, 1713 and later "legalizations", the death penalty was defined as a punishment for covetousness. However, she did not frighten the embezzlers too much. In order to imagine at least the approximate scale of the corruption of Russian officials, it is enough to recall such historical characters as clerks and clerks of the royal orders of the pre-Petrine era and clerks of later periods, a very thieving associate of Peter I, Prince A.D. Menshikov, who was executed under Peter for embezzlement and extortion of the Siberian governor Gagarin, embezzlers and bribe-takers of the highest level from the inner circle of the last Russian emperor.

Very curious in this regard is the note sent to Emperor Nicholas I by the “Highest Established Committee for Considering the Laws on Extortion and the Provisions of the Preliminary Conclusion on Measures for the Extermination of this Crime”, referring to August 1827. In this document, with exceptional scrupulousness, the reasons for the spread of corrupt relations in the state apparatus are considered, a classification of forms of corrupt behavior is given, and measures are proposed to counter this phenomenon.

In particular, among the main reasons mentioned are “the rarity of people who are truly just”, “the tendency to covetousness, constantly irritated by the very structure of life and not constrained by any real obstacles”, the low level of salaries of officials who “... do not teach any means for a decent maintenance of themselves ... they do not give the slightest opportunity to devote something to the upbringing of children, to the first aid when they are assigned to the service, or at least to a small reward for daughters when they marry, to satisfy the daily needs of life. This contributes to the fact that the official uses the power entrusted to him by the Government "in favor of selfish views, in all possible cases he violates those laws that are entrusted to his keeping, in a word, extortion is induced."

The proposed list of forms of corrupt behavior, in particular bribery, is also interesting. They “are different: gifts, promises, promises, offers of the services of their own patrons, seductions of all kinds; guess the inclinations of the Judges, look for their acquaintances and connections; if one of them does not have time to appease personally, then they try to bribe in a relative, in a friend, in a benefactor. The knowledge of man reveals to us that in those cases where private benefits converge, more or less abuse is inseparably connected with them.

As for measures to combat the venality of bureaucracy, it was proposed to put in the first place "the speedy publication of a complete systematic code of laws, which for each branch of the State Government should serve as a uniform guide in the production and solution of cases without exception"; "the abolition of the laws of those who obviously contribute to deliberate delays, harassment and forced bribes"; “the establishment in all parts of the State Administration of such salaries that would be in any way commensurate with the needs of existence in the rank in which one is in the field of service, and thus would stop employees from encroachment on the self-willed extreme satisfaction of these needs, extortion” ; “establishing fair proportion in punishments” so that “the harm or sensitivity of punishment exceeded the benefit gained from the crime”, and “the sensitivity of punishment for a repeated crime exceeded the benefit not only acquired through the crime, but all the benefit that could be acquired through all repeated crimes in a person in whom the vice has become a habit”; “the strictest, not only on paper, but in fact, monitoring of the exact execution of the Highest Decrees that protect the judiciary from the influence of the Chiefs in different parts of the State Administration”; "the introduction of publicity in the proceedings of the court, and in general in the administration of the clerical service, excluding only those cases that, due to their particular importance, will be excluded from this by the Supreme Government."

Nevertheless, all these good recommendations, in principle, remained unrealized, and the bureaucracy more and more plunged into the abyss of corruption. It is no coincidence that the morals that reigned in the bureaucratic environment, including acts of corruption and their participants, were vividly displayed not only in historical documents, but also in the works of the great Russian writers N.V. Gogol, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, I.I. Lazhechnikova, A.V. Sukhovo-Kobylina, A.P. Chekhov and many others.

From ancient times in Russia there were three forms of corruption: honors, payment for services and promises Gaukhman L. Corruption and corruption crime. // Legality. 2006. No. 6.;. Offerings in the form of honor expressed respect for the one who was honored with it. The respectful meaning of "honor" is also manifested in the Russian custom of bestowing bread and salt on a respected person, and in particular, high authorities. But already in the XVII century. "honor" increasingly acquired the meaning of a permitted bribe. And, of course, bribery in Russia flourished on the basis of the widespread practice of offering "honor" to officials. Sedov P.V. On the promise as on a chair. From the history of Russian officialdom in the 7th century. // Star. 2001. No. 4. P.208.

Another form of offerings to officials is connected with the expenses for the conduct and registration of affairs. The income of officials in the form of payment for the conduct and execution of cases was taken into account when determining their salaries: if the order had a lot of cases from which it was possible to “feed”, then they were paid less salary. That is, the practice of "feeding from deeds" was part of the state system of maintenance of bureaucracy in the 17th century.

The third form of corruption is promises, that is, payment for a favorable decision of cases, for the commission of illegal acts. Most often, "promises" were expressed in overpayments for services, for the conduct and execution of cases, and therefore the line between the two forms of corruption was blurred and barely distinguishable. Sedov P.V. Decree. Op. S. 210.

Suffice it to recall the vivid images of reborn Soviet employees created by V. Mayakovsky, I. Ilf and E. Petrov, M. Zoshchenko and other authors. And this despite the fact that Lenin considered bribery one of the most dangerous survivals and demanded the most severe, sometimes "barbaric", in his words, measures of struggle to combat it. In a letter to a member of the collegium of the People's Commissariat of Justice, Kursky, he demanded: “It is necessary immediately, with demonstrative speed, to introduce a bill that the punishment for a bribe (extortion, bribery, summary for a bribe, and so on and so forth) should be no less than ten years in prison and, moreover, , ten years of forced labor. The severity of the measures in the fight against bribery was explained by the fact that the Bolsheviks considered it not only as a shameful and disgusting relic of the old society, but also as an attempt by the exploiting classes to undermine the foundations of the new system. In one of the directives of the RCP (b), it was directly noted that the enormous spread of bribery, closely related to the general lack of culture of the bulk of the population and the economic backwardness of the country, threatens to corrupt and destroy the apparatus of the workers' state Karatuev A.G. Soviet bureaucracy: The system of political and economic domination. - Belgorod, 2003.;.

Nevertheless, despite the severity of legal measures against bribe-takers, this phenomenon was not eradicated, and its main causes were not eliminated, many of which were identified in the above-mentioned note to the Russian Emperor Nicholas I. Even during the totalitarian rule of I. Stalin the virus of corruption was not exterminated, although, of course, it must be admitted that the model of Stalin's quasi-socialism outwardly seemed the least corrupt. However, one should not forget that totalitarianism, based on political and economic terror, also externally manifested itself as little corrupt in other countries (a classic example of Hitler's Germany), which in fact did not correspond to reality.

At present, not only the elderly, but also middle-aged Russians, remember the massive facts of extortions and bribery for obtaining public housing, for providing trade enterprises and selling scarce industrial and food products to buyers “by pull”, for admission to prestigious universities, for business trips abroad and the like, about which at one time a lot of people reported rumors and even the press. And this despite the fact that nominally bribery was punished very strictly - up to the highest penalty under the criminal law: the death penalty.

The conclusion about the widespread corruption at the end of the era of socialism can be reached not only by the materials of the trials and the press of the 1970-1980s, but also by one of them in 1990 studying this problem in a number of regions of Russia and some union republics of the then-existing USSR . Its results show that various types of corrupt behavior, including in criminally punishable and therefore the most dangerous forms, were already then inherent in almost all federal, republican, territorial and regional state and party bodies, not to mention local ones. The most affected in this regard were the structures that provided financial and logistical support for economic entities, foreign economic relations, organizing and controlling the spheres of commodity distribution and social support for the population. At the same time, if it was no longer possible to keep silent about these phenomena, then they were presented as certain costs of the functioning of the authorities or individual facts that did not follow from the existing system.

All this created a very favorable ground for the further introduction of corruption into public relations during the liberalization of economic and socio-political conditions in the country at the turn of the 1990s. And, ultimately, it led to the fact that in recent years, even with the continued criminal liability, bribes began to be taken, in essence, openly. The results of a study conducted already in 1999-2000 show, in particular, that with a relatively stable total number of persons convicted of bribery over the past 12-15 years, today only one out of two to two and a half thousand can be held accountable for this act. perpetrators of this crime (i.e. more than twenty times less than in the late 1980s and early 1990s). This essentially, if not formally, then practically decriminalized bribery as a type of crime. Interestingly, up to half of those convicted for bribery today are representatives of law enforcement agencies, which indicates a high degree of corruption of those who, in theory, the authorities and the population should count on as the main support in countering offenders.

Today, Russia has acquired a persistent image of a kleptocratic and deeply corrupt state, not only at home but also abroad. There is a kind of rating of corruption in power, in which Russia occupies a very unenviable position in the top ten most disadvantaged countries in the world in company with Venezuela, Cameroon, India, Indonesia, Syria, Kenya and some other countries with which respectable politicians and business partners are recommended not to have any affairs.

At the same time, one of the most negative features of the modern development of corruption in Russia is that today it has become less perceived and condemned by society, which was largely facilitated by gaps in the legal education of the population, as well as the efforts of some politicians and high-ranking officials to legitimize the relevant relations as an integral element of the public service. Unfortunately, the press and television cannot reverse this trend either. The sharpness of the perception of materials about corruption in society is increasingly lost, and the influencing force in terms of creating an environment of intolerance towards corruption as a social phenomenon is weakening day by day. A kind of addiction syndrome arose, which became so significant that a huge part of society is not too annoyed not only by the venality of individual government officials, but even by the fact that, on suspicion of involvement in corruption relations, the reputation of the first President of Russia and his closest was called into question. environment. A significant part of the citizens generally perceive reports and exposures of corruption as attempts by some Russian politicians to denigrate their opponents and earn extra points in promotion to certain positions.

It is no secret that today corrupt relations act as a link between government agencies and criminal groups, including organized ones. It is quite characteristic that even at the turn of the 1990s, this trend was already quite clearly visible, and the corrupt connections of criminal circles with government officials at various levels during this period largely predetermined the subsequent active formation and development of organized crime in Russia. According to experts, from one third to a half of the income received as a result of criminal activity in Russia today is spent on creating and strengthening the position of organizers and active participants in criminal communities in the legislative and executive authorities, the judiciary and the law enforcement system.

Summarizing the above, we can conclude that corruption has its roots very far, the problem has always been, but now it has begun to manifest itself in more frightening forms, it is urgently necessary to focus efforts on limiting the scope of its manifestations, reducing the degree of its influence, minimizing the harmful consequences, to eventually reduce it to an acceptable socially tolerant level.

Chapter 2. Corruption as a national security problem

2.1 Problems and conditions that give rise to corruption

2.1.1 General problems and specific Russian problems

Corruption, its scope, specifics and dynamics are the result of the country's general political, social and economic problems. Corruption always increases when a country is under modernization. Russia is now experiencing not just modernization, but a radical breakdown of social, state and economic foundations. Therefore, it is not surprising that it follows the general laws of development, including the negative Kirpichnikov A.I. Bribery and corruption in Russia. - St. Petersburg: Alfa, 2005 .;.

The relationship between corruption and the problems that generate it is two-way. On the one hand, these problems exacerbate corruption, and their solution can help reduce corruption. On the other hand, large-scale corruption conserves and exacerbates the problems of the transition period, hinders their solution. It follows from this that, firstly, it is possible to reduce and limit corruption only by simultaneously solving the problems that give rise to it, and, secondly, counteracting corruption with all determination and in all directions will contribute to the solution of these problems.

Common problems that give rise to corruption include those that are characteristic not only of Russia, but also of most countries in the modernization stage, primarily those undergoing a transition period from a centralized to a market economy. Here are some of those problems.

1. Difficulties in overcoming the legacy of the totalitarian period. These include, first of all, a slow departure from the closeness and lack of control of the authorities, which, of course, contributed to the flourishing of corruption. It is worth noting in this connection that one of the most corrupt regimes in history was fascist Germany. (This, by the way, is useful to remember for those who hope to defeat corruption with a "strong hand".)

Another circumstance is overcoming the merging of power and economy, which is characteristic of totalitarian regimes with a centralized system of economic management. The natural division of labor between the institutions of power, designed to create conditions for the normal functioning of the economy, and the free agents of the market has not yet been formed. Administrative bodies in Russia continue, especially at the regional level, to play in the economic field according to the rules that they set for themselves. This situation inevitably breeds corruption.

Let me remind you that rapid and cardinal transformations in Russia are taking place while maintaining a significant part of the corps of civil servants. Moreover, many of those who were not able to adapt to new conditions and start an independent business or use their talent, professionalism, or, at worst, connections, remained in their places. So, there are not the best. The carriers of the old stereotypes described above of the closedness of power and the possibility of interference in all aspects of life remained. At the same time, those who saw rich opportunities for personal gain from administrative powers remained and came.

2. Economic decline and political instability. The impoverishment of the population, the inability of the state to provide civil servants with decent wages push both those and others to violations, leading to massive grassroots corruption. This is reinforced by the old Soviet tradition of blat as a form of grassroots corruption.

At the same time, the constantly perceived political risk of long-term investments, difficult economic circumstances (inflation, the clumsy and inappropriate presence of the state in the economy, the lack of clear regulatory mechanisms) form a certain type of economic behavior designed for the short term, large, albeit risky profits. This type of behavior is very close to the search for profit through corruption.

Political instability creates a sense of insecurity among officials at various levels. Lacking any guarantees of self-preservation under these conditions, they also more easily succumb to the temptation of corruption.

3. Underdevelopment and imperfection of legislation. In the process of transformation, the renewal of the fundamental foundations of the economy and economic practice significantly overtakes their legislative support. Suffice it to recall that in Russia privatization (its party-nomenklatura stage) took place without clear legislative regulation and strict control.

If earlier, under the Soviet regime, corruption was often generated by control over the distribution of the main resource - funds, then at the initial stages of the reform, officials sharply diversified the areas of control: benefits, loans, licenses, privatization tenders, the right to be an authorized bank, the right to implement large social projects, etc. .P. Economic liberalization was combined, firstly, with the old principles of bureaucratic control over resources, and secondly, with the lack of legislative regulation of new areas of activity. This is one of the signs of the transition period and at the same time serves as fertile ground for corruption.

There is still considerable legislative uncertainty regarding property issues. First of all, this concerns land ownership, the illegal sale of which gives rise to an abundant flow of corruption. To this must be added a multitude of ill-defined transitional forms of mixed ownership, which dilute responsibility and make merchants feel like bureaucrats and bureaucrats like merchants.

The underdevelopment of legislation is also manifested simply in the poor quality of laws, in the imperfection of the entire legal system, and in the vagueness of legislative procedures. Here different types of corruption are generated:

a) the inconsistency of legislation and even individual laws, which allows officials to create ideal conditions for themselves to extort and blackmail citizens (clients);

b) the incompleteness of laws, replete with ambiguities, gaps, numerous reference norms. As a result, the completion of legislative regulation is shifted to by-laws of executive authorities, the preparation of which is practically beyond control. Thus, conditions arise for the appearance of fuzzy, "closed", poorly accessible instructions that create additional conditions for corruption;

c) the absence of legally established procedures for the preparation and adoption of normative and other regulatory and administrative acts (laws, presidential decrees, government decrees, etc.), which greatly facilitates the opportunities for corruption. All of this is exacerbated by a general disregard for procedural rigor.

4. Inefficiency of government institutions. Totalitarian regimes build a cumbersome state apparatus. First of all, we are talking about executive power. Bureaucratic structures are resilient and adapt well to surviving the most severe shocks. Moreover, the more energetic the transformations, the more energy and ingenuity the apparatus spends on its own preservation. As a result, the surrounding life is rapidly changing, and bureaucratic institutions and, consequently, the management system lag behind these changes. In the late Union and early Russia, it was especially clear how the management system reacted to the increasingly complex and multiplying problems: it bred its own systemic flaws, increasing the apparatus, introducing additional hierarchical levels of management, creating a huge number of irresponsible coordination structures. The bottom line is simple: the more complex and clumsy the system of governance, the greater the discrepancy between it and the problems that it must solve, the easier it is for corruption to nestle in it.

At the first stages of transformation, it is especially difficult for the state to learn how to use all the power of the state machine, to protect property rights with all the force of law, to ensure strict observance of the rights of the market game. Not feeling such protection from the state, the entrepreneur seeks it from specific officials. This is how connections are established that easily turn into corrupt ones.

The inefficiency of the state is also confirmed by the fact that after the destruction of the nomenklatura system, a modern system for the selection and promotion of civil servants did not appear. As a result, a new wave of officials keeps a lot of crooks going into public service to use their official position for purposes that are very far from noble. Often there is a direct delegation of "agents of influence" from commercial structures to administrative ones.

5. Weakness of civil society, separation of society from power. A democratic state is able to solve its problems only in cooperation with civil society institutions. The deterioration of the socio-economic situation of citizens, which always accompanies the initial stages of modernization, the disappointment caused by this, which replaces former hopes - all this contributes to the alienation of society from power, the isolation of the latter. Meanwhile, neither grassroots nor top corruption can be suppressed without the efforts of public organizations.

6. Unrooted democratic political traditions. The penetration of corruption into politics is facilitated by:

a) the unformed political culture, which is reflected, in particular, in the election process, when voters give their votes for cheap handouts or succumbing to deliberate demagoguery;

b) the underdevelopment of the party system, when the parties are not able to take responsibility for the training and promotion of their personnel;

c) the imperfection of the electoral legislation, which overly protects the deputy status, does not ensure the real dependence of elected officials on voters, and provokes violations in the financing of election campaigns. Thus, the subsequent corruption of representative bodies of power is laid down at the stage of elections.

Real political competition serves as a counterbalance and limiter for corruption in the political sphere, on the one hand, and for political extremism, on the other. As a result, the chances of political instability are reduced. As one corruption expert recalls, it was only the advent of such competition that gradually reduced electoral corruption in England in the mid-nineteenth century in the World Development Report 2001: States in a Changing World. - Moscow: Economic Information Agency "Prime-TASS", International Bank for Reconstruction and Development..

The problems described below are a continuation of those that, in their manifestation or origin, are rooted in the Soviet period. Some of them are exacerbated by the conditions of the transition period (partially discussed above).

1. The underdevelopment of the legal consciousness of the population is generated by the same reason - the system of party quasi-law rooted under the Soviet regime. In addition to the weak enforcement of laws and other norms, in addition to the lack of culture and tradition of using the law by citizens, there are other effects: in particular, reduced legal immunity leads to the fact that there is practically no mass resistance to "grassroots" corruption.

2. The habitual orientation of law enforcement agencies and their representatives to protect exclusively "the interests of the state" is a typical Russian problem. Protection of the rights and interests of citizens, including private owners, has not yet become a central task. As a result, entrepreneurs, not finding protection in the sphere of law, are looking for it in the sphere of free sale and purchase of illegal services of officials.

3. The tradition of subordinating officials not to the law, but to instructions and the boss has roots in Russia that are more ancient than 70 years of the communist regime. This leads to the fact that attempts at legal regulation get stuck in the old bureaucratic system, which continues to work according to its own laws, established several centuries ago. Consequently, any anti-corruption program in Russia should be accompanied by a radical reform of the public service system.

2.1.2 Economic conditions of corruption

State corruption exists insofar as the state interferes in private, public, economic life. The problem is that the state, realizing its mission, is obliged to carry out this intervention, and how effectively it is carried out.

In recent years, rapid changes have taken place in the economic sphere, new unusual spheres and forms of activity have appeared, to which government institutions have had the most difficulty adapting. It was here that the growth of corruption was most felt. Below is a far from complete list of the main areas of state presence in the economy, rife with corruption Kuzminov Ya.I. Mechanisms of corruption and their particular manifestation in the state apparatus // Administrative law: theory and practice. Strengthening the state and the dynamics of socio-economic development. Materials of scientific conference (Moscow, November 28, 2004). M., 2005.;.

1. Privatization of state property everywhere is a serious source of corruption. In Russia, this circumstance was exacerbated by the scale of privatization and the weakness of control over its progress. Even at the initial stages, about 30% of all resolutions on privatization, according to law enforcement agencies, contained violations of the norms of the current legislation. It was practiced to include officials in the number of shareholders. The most common violations are misappropriation of funds and bribes. In almost half of Russia's regions, officials involved in privatization from the leadership of administrations, territorial committees for property management, and property funds have been brought to justice.

To this we will have to add numerous cases that do not fall under direct criminal liability: valuation of privatized objects at underestimated amounts, manipulation of the conditions of tenders, buying up enterprises by officials through proxies. It is no coincidence that privatization has recently become a field for political battles, in which the main weapons are compromising materials and accusations of corruption.

2. The execution of the budget and the distribution of budgetary funds is another fertile area for corrupt officials. Among the main reasons is the weak discipline of budget execution with an almost complete lack of reaction to the results of control checks of the Accounts Chamber.

Most often, violations that damage the federal budget and are often associated with corruption occur under the following circumstances:

a) receipt of taxes and payments to the federal budget;

b) cash offsets;

c) obtaining related foreign loans;

d) unreasonably high overdue receivables;

e) inappropriate and inefficient use of federal budget funds.

According to experts, a bribe is accompanied by almost half of the acts for issuing state loans or distributing budgetary funds. This is facilitated by an awkward tax system, according to which the money collected in the regions must go to the federal budget, and then return to the region again in the form of transfers. Corruption is spurred on by an unrealistic and unrealizable budget, which allows officials to decide how much to give to whom, to whom to transfer money earlier, and to whom later. For the same reason of underfunding, extra-budgetary funds of various departments are created, manipulations with which are also accompanied by corruption. The lack of control over the spending of budgetary funds in the regions feeds corruption at this level.

The distribution of budgetary funds also occurs through government orders and purchases. Until recently, closedness and lack of control reigned here, giving rise to rampant corruption. Closeness and lack of control over the distribution and use of state funds were especially corrupting in the Armed Forces.

3. Granting exclusive rights (benefits, including - on export and import, taxes, licensing, etc.) - fertile ground for corruption. Such corruption levers as tax deferrals, provision of benefits to borrowers of budgetary funds, extension of loan agreements, and provision of state guarantees should also be included in this category. Regional authorities are not inferior to the federal ones in using the right to provide benefits to receive bribes.

4. The banking sector in Russia began to transform one of the first - at the turn of the 80-90s. in fact, non-normative privatization of a significant part of the state banking sector took place. The creation of a system of authorized banks, which were transferred to the management of budgetary funds, in conditions of high inflation was for the latter a source of enormous profits. Naturally, corruption has taken root here too.

The cooperation of officials with commercial banks made it possible to civilize the forms of receiving bribes and move from traditional envelopes (and then suitcases) with cash to soft loans, tenfold inflated interest on deposits and other, more sophisticated forms of gratitude.

2.1.3 Conditions for grassroots corruption

Sociological studies showing that 98% of motorists at least once in their lives gave a bribe to a traffic police inspector, speak not only of the high degree of corruption in this service. The data testify to the widest corruption of public consciousness, to the fact that grassroots corruption has been introduced into public practice.

The attractiveness of grassroots corruption is that, with minimal risk for both parties, it has a specific value not only for the recipient (or extortionist) of the bribe, but also for the bribe giver. A bribe helps to solve constantly arising domestic problems; it also serves as a small price to pay for the constant possibility of minor violations of laws and regulations. The bill, which is kept in the documents by the owner of the car, is there for those cases when you need to exceed the speed limit, drive in a car in a state of intoxication.

Large-scale grassroots corruption is extremely dangerous because, firstly, it creates a favorable psychological background for the existence of other forms of corruption and, secondly, it breeds vertical corruption. The latter is the source material for the formation of organized corruption structures and communities.

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