Who was the founder of the Mongolian state. Conquest of Northern China and other states. Military structure of the Mongol Empire
Formation of the Mongol state and Mongol conquests
1. Mongolia before the formation of the state.
2. Creation of the Mongolian state.
3. The main directions, reasons for success and consequences of the Mongol conquests.
1. Mongolia before the formation of the state
By the end of the 12th century, several large alliances of Mongol tribes roamed the vast area from the Great Wall of China to Southern Siberia, from the upper reaches of the Irtysh to the Amur.
Ethnonym " Mongol" in the shape of « mengu", "mengu-mo", "mengu-wa" - first found in Chinese chronicles of the Tang Dynasty. This is how the Chinese called the group of “barbarians” (all steppe peoples) who roamed their northern borders, which obviously reflected their self-name. The Chinese called the northern Mongolian tribes "black" Tatars , and nomads adjacent to the Great Wall of China "white" Tatars . There is also such a concept as "wild" Tatars, applicable to the hunting and fishing peoples who lived in the most remote northern regions of Mongolia. From this we can assume that during this period the Tatars dominated the steppe. The steppe peoples included nomads three tribes (Manchu, Mongolian, Turkic), but all these nomads called themselves with the general concept of “Tatals”, hence “Tatars”. As we moved away from China, the influence of sedentary peoples on nomadic peoples had a weaker effect or was completely absent.
Since ancient times, the natural conditions of Mongolia (steppes, mountain pastures) determined the main occupation of the Mongols - nomadic cattle breeding, that is, the Mongols - nomadsnomads. In the steppes of Central Asia, nomadic cattle breeding emerged from the primitive complex agricultural, pastoral and hunting economy.
Chinese Chan Chun described the habitat of the Tatar-Mongols as “a gigantic valley, the dimensions of which are 7-8 months of travel in length and width, ... abounding in water and grass,” where people and herds “walk today, stand tomorrow, where there is water and grass.” In the 11th century The long period of drought ended. This contributed to a shift in the boundaries of the steppe zone to the south to the Gobi Desert, an increase in the number of livestock and especially the population.
The main element of Mongolian society was the clan led by the steppe aristocracy (bagaturs, noyons3). The clan jointly owned nomadic lands and performed religious rituals. In the minds of most of the Mongols, the idea of collective responsibility for each member of the clan. Joint farming and migration was called smoking (the camp-kuren was set up around the yurt of the tribal elder and could number up to a thousand tents, i.e. families)
People from the clan who did not want to accept the rules of behavior and life within the group became "people of long will." These people united in organized detachments under the leadership of military leaders. “People of long will,” along with the Mongol clans, were a powerful force in the steppe.
The Mongols had tribal associations, which by that time were not so much ethnic as political communities. Each of these associations had its own leader - Khan . As a rule, the khans at this time were already hereditary rulers, although the electoral system of the era of military democracy continued to exist, when the khan as a military leader was chosen by representatives of the tribal aristocracy. Sources indicate that in the XI-XII centuries. In Mongolian society, the steppe nobility stood out - “noyons”, people of “white bone”. They bore special titles: “Bogatyr”, “Sharp Shooter”, “Strongman”, “Wise”, etc.
From the second half of the 12th century. The rivalry of individual aristocratic families for power, for the distribution of pastures, the removal of other people's herds and the abduction of brides of “someone else's bones” intensified. Iranian scientist, vizier of the Mongol Ilkhans, Rashid al-Din (12471318) reports: “each tribe had a sovereign and an emir. Most of the time they fought and fought with each other, quarreled and robbed each other."
As a result of tribal enmity, as well as China’s traditional policy of pitting nomads against each other to prevent their unification, robbery, theft, tyranny, lawlessness, and adultery became commonplace. Thus, the need for political unification became obvious.
Back at the end of the 12th century. Among the Mongols, Temujin (1154/1162(?) - August 25, 1227), the son of Khan Yesugei, stood out, who experienced many disasters after the death of his father: childhood in the struggle of small nomads; in his youth he was a prisoner in China, where he learned a lot, including learning about the weaknesses of the Celestial Empire. He gathered young warriors (“people of long will”) who formed horde(squad) and lived from the spoils of war. They fought with their neighbors and accepted into their ranks everyone who was ready to submit to their way of life. Soon all the peoples of the Mongols submitted to the horde, and Temujin was proclaimed at the kurultai in 1206 (year of the Tiger/Leopard) kaan , i.e. Genghis Khan (“Ocean Khan” - “Lord of the World”; in Turkic - Tenghis Khan).
On the issue of unification, 2 trends have emerged:
Most of the aristocracy preferred unification at the level tribal confederation while maintaining its real power on the ground. But this could not ensure socio-political stability, because tribal unions in Mongolia fell apart as quickly as they arose. The bearer of this trend was Jamukha , which was supported by the Tatars.
The trend towards strictly centralized state, whose supporter was Genghis Khan, supported by the Mongols.
IN hard war Genghis Khan defeated the Tatars, almost completely exterminating them. Jamukha was executed. He persuaded the steppe aristocracy to create a state. Then Genghis Khan began to unite the steppe people. The internal struggle was very fierce and more difficult for the Mongols than subsequent external conquests.
These were typical steppe wars, after which prisoners were boiled in cauldrons, “aligned to the axle of the cart,” and pregnant women had their bellies ripped open. In Mongolian legends about this struggle it is written: “The starry sky used to turn. They didn’t lie down on the bed here, the mother wide earth was shaking - that’s the kind of all-language strife that was going on.” Genghis Khan himself said that “the highest pleasure for a man is to defeat his enemies, drive them before him, take everything from them, see the faces of their loved ones in tears, squeeze their daughters and wives in his arms.”
2. Creation of the Mongolian state
In 1206, the history of Mongolian statehood began, which initially had an imperial tendency. The military character of the state was manifested in the oath taken to the Great Khan. The power of the Khan was figuratively manifested in the rituals that accompanied the accession to the power of the Great Khan: the closest nobles placed a sword in front of him, and he asked: “Is each of you ready to do what I command, to go where I send, to kill whom I Shall I order? The nobles answered: “Ready.” Then the khan said to them: “From now on, let the word of my mouth be my sword.”
The power of the Great Khan was also manifested in the fact that he was the ruler over the life, death and property of every subject.
Factors hindering the peaceful development of the state:
During the centralization process, nomadic cattle breeding declined, i.e. the basis of the economy. This pushed them to seize new herds and pastures from their neighbors.
The entire male population was mobilized into the army, trained in the art of war, and aimed at war as the most effective means of acquiring material well-being.
Nurturing plans for conquest, Genghis Khan, first of all, took up the military-administrative structure of the state.
The territory of Mongolia was divided into two parts: the left wing and the right wing, between which was the territory of Genghis Khan’s own nomadic camp. This division of territory dates back to the time of the Huns and other tribal associations - the ancestors of the Mongols. Their experience greatly influenced the process of organizing the Mongol Empire.
Each of the three large districts (right and left wings and center) was divided into “darkness” (10 thousand people), “thousands”, “hundreds” and “tens”. The territorial division corresponded to the principle of recruiting an army headed by tens, sots, thousanders and temniks. Military leaders were appointed not on the basis of kinship or nobility (although both were always taken into account), but on the basis of the principle of meritocracy characteristic of early political structures, i.e. of the best warriors, which played a huge role in strengthening the combat capability of the army. At the head of the territories were the companions of Genghis Khan, nukers And noyons .
Thus, Genghis Khan, having previously shown himself to be an outstanding commander, now showed himself to be a talented organizer and political figure. He turned the previously warring tribes into a single powerful horde, placing it on a solid basis. His domestic and foreign policies were aimed at protecting the interests of the Noyon movement. The administrative system also served these purposes. Under Genghis Khan, the capital of the empire became the city of Karakorum, a center of crafts and trade.
Such a military-administrative structure of the state reflected the process of replacing former consanguineous ties with new administrative-territorial ones. Members of the former clan collectives turned into vassals dependent on the military leaders.
The positions of noyons (temniks, thousanders, centurions) were hereditary, but they did not have the right of ownership of the nomads and the population that roamed the given land (they could not transfer or sell).
Relatives and closest associates of Genghis Khan received inheritances and subjects for personal use. The latter were not included in the thousands and bore responsibilities only in favor of their masters.
Such a flexible system of government was brought to life by the peculiar conditions of the aristocracy, which sought enrichment through military adventures and made it possible for Genghis Khan to mobilize the required number of soldiers at any time.
In addition to the power of the khan, the Mongols were subject to a harsh ancient law Great Yase , which ordered each of the Horde members to observe the basic rules of behavior and attitude towards their neighbors: deception, failure to assist a comrade in war, discord between one’s own and any quarrels were especially severely punished.
Thus, the principles of the Mongol state laid down by Genghis Khan became the basis of the Mongol Empire. We can talk about " the dual nature of the “steppe empires” . From the outside, they looked like despotic conquering states, because... were created to obtain surplus product outside the steppe. From within, these empires remained based on tribal ties without taxation and exploitation of pastoralists. The strength of the ruler's power was based on his ability to organize military campaigns and redistribute income from trade, tribute and raids on neighboring peoples.
3. Main directions, reasons for success and consequences of the Mongol conquests.
The history of the Mongol state is a history of conquest. Reasons for the Mongol conquests:
The nomadic nobility lived by robbing their own people and neighboring peoples. Thus, robbery, primarily of non-Mongol peoples, is the main source of enrichment for the nobility and the main reason for the Mongol conquests. From the Great Wall of China to the Hungarian border there is a grassy-steppe expanse;
Genghis Khan was faced with the task of distracting the nobility from separatist tendencies, and keeping the created empire from rapid collapse. This could be achieved through the plunder of Eurasia;
Under the conditions of the Mongol state, it was necessary to divert the attention of the masses from the worsening situation. Thus, from sources you can find out that many Mongol warriors and herders did not have horses. A nomad without a horse in the conditions of the 13th-14th centuries was neither a warrior nor even a shepherd. The impoverishment of the overwhelming mass of the Mongols was a widespread phenomenon. At times, vagrancy was not only widespread among them, but also assumed enormous proportions.
In terms of the scale of expansion and consequences of the Tatar-Mongol invasion, it can only be compared with the invasion of the Huns.
With a relatively small army, Mongol expansion was carried out fan-out in 3 directions:
southeast - China, Korea, Japan, Indochina, Java Island.
southwestern - middle Asia, Iran, Caucasus, Arab Caliphate.
northwestern - Rus', Europe.
Genghis Khan struck the first blow in a southerly direction , to the state of the Tanguts, Xi-Xia and Jin. The first blows to the Tangut state were struck in 1205; in 1207 and 1209 - the second and third campaigns against the Tanguts. As a result of the victories of the Mongols, the Tanguts were forced to make peace with them and pay a large indemnity. Since 1211, campaigns against the Jurchens (Beijing was taken in 1215).
In 1218 it was declared western campaign, which was preceded by victories over the Kara-Khitans and tribes of Southern Siberia. The main goals of the western campaign were the rich territories and cities of Central Asia (the state of Khorezmshah, Bukhara, Samarkand), which was conquered in 1222. The development of this direction led the Mongols to the Caucasus, to the southern Russian steppes.
Thus, Northern China (1211-1234) and Central Asia were hit hardest when Mongol expansion was on the rise. Northern China literally turned into a desert (a contemporary wrote: “Traces of terrible devastation were visible everywhere, the bones of the dead made up entire mountains: the soil was loose from human fat, the rotting of the corpses caused disease”).
IN Central Asia everything that resisted was subjected to “general massacre” (“katliamm”). Rashid ad-Din wrote that Genghis Khan gave the order to kill everything Living being from any kind of people and any breed of cattle, wild animals and birds, they did not take a single prisoner or any prey. Here, most of the cities were subjected to a “general massacre.”
By 1233 some areas had been conquered Iran and at about the same time -
1236 - conquest completed Caucasus;
1256 - Mongols re-invaded Iran as a result of which the valleys of Western Asia turned into desert;
1258 - fell Abbasid Caliphate and Baghdad was taken, the most Big city on earth, which also suffered a “general massacre.”
Only the Mamelukes managed to defeat the Mongol detachment in Palestine (1260), thereby protecting Egypt from the Mongol invasion. It was a victory comparable to the victory of Charles Martell over the Arabs at Poitiers, because. it marked a turning point in repelling the wave of invasion.
Starting with the conquest of Rus' (1237), we can talk about the gradual attenuation of Mongol expansion. At the turning point of expansion, between 1237 and 1241. the Mongols invaded Europe. Their onslaught, as in Asia, was cruel and terrifying. Having devastated Rus', southern Poland and a large part of Hungary, in Silesia they destroyed an army of German knights (1241) near the city of Legnica, west of the Oder River.
From Western Europe the Mongols began to retreat in 1241/42, despite the fact that all the battles of 1241–1242. were won. Khan Batu (khan of the Golden Horde from 1243 to 1255; grandson of Genghis Khan) did not meet organized powerful resistance in Europe. Apparently, only problems associated with the choice of Genghis Khan's successor (after the death of Ogedei Khan) forced the Mongol leaders to turn east after this victory. Khan Batu understood that he was unable to keep Poland, Hungary and the lands of the South Slavs under his rule. By 1243, all Mongol armies were withdrawn to the Carpathians. They managed to collect tribute from Hungary only once.
In the 40s XIII century Batu Khan created the Tatar-Mongol state Golden Horde (Western Siberia; northern Khorezm; Volga Bulgaria; Crimea; steppes from the Volga to the Danube). Capital Cities : Saray-Batu ( Old Barn; modern Astrakhan region); SarayBerke (from the 1st half of the 14th century; New Saray; modern Volgograd region). The Russian principalities were vassals of the Golden Horde. Since the 15th century the empire broke up into Siberian, Astrakhan, Kazan, Crimean and other khanates.
The westernmost limits of the invasion turned out to be the German city of Meissen and countryside in Austria, where a Mongol detachment killed up to a hundred peasants.
Under Kublai Kublai (1278-1294; 5th Great Khan), Mongol expansion reached extreme southern and eastern points: long conquest of Vietnam, unsuccessful campaigns in Japan, unsuccessful invasion of the island of Java (decisive resistance of the people). Thus, the Mongol Empire could only exist as long as it fought:
only conquests held it together.
Reasons for the success of the Mongol conquests: Internal reasons:
The military and diplomatic talent of Genghis Khan. Genghis Khan himself was distinguished by his amazing ability to adapt to unfamiliar conditions and willingly used Chinese and Muslim-Turkic “specialists” in his army. He organized an excellent “informant service”, and a lot of information was brought to him by merchants of all nationalities and religions, whom he encouraged in every possible way. Genghis Khan also succeeded in the cool, thoughtful use of diplomatic measures and military force according to the circumstances. All these qualities allowed Genghis Khan, his gifted sons, grandsons and military leaders to continuously win victories over yet another enemy.
ideological justification Genghis Khan's conquests were the idea of his election by the Eternal Heaven as the khan of all peoples;
The social homogeneity of Mongolian society and the relative weakness of antagonism within it;
Availability of cavalry. In the steppe, man is inseparable from horse and saber (“man-centaur”). The horses were decorated with blankets made of human skin, and the skulls of killed enemies were hung from the saddles. In the steppe you have to kill first - otherwise they will kill you → you have to train every day in the ability to kill.
Under the command of Genghis Khan there was an excellently organized and disciplined army; it consisted of horse archers and had exceptional mobility (up to 150 km per day) combined with superiority in long-range weapons. (Genghis Khan’s army≈129 thousand, Batu’s army≈142 thousand); if one warrior fled from the battlefield, a dozen were punished; 10 people retreated - a hundred were punished. The army created by Genghis Khan was a decisive factor in the successes of the relatively small ethnic group of the Mongols.
The Mongol conquests, which crushed the civilization of the Middle Ages, became possible thanks to a fundamental discovery - Mongolian bow(“saadak”). It was a complex killing machine, glued together from bone and wood of various types. An arrow from this bow could pierce any armor 400 meters away. The Mongols taught children 3 years to the bow, gradually increasing its size.
A variety of tactics used depending on specific conditions:
tactics of mercy during surrender; tactics of encircling a large space by several detachments and moving to their center, encircling and squeezing the enemy;
The Empire of Genghis Khan united the military forces of the largest part of the nomads of Central Asia (not only Mongolian, but also many Turkic, Manchurian, Tungusic, etc.).
Large numbers, unity, subordination to the power of one khan, who was the absolute ruler over life and death, the person and property of all his subordinates.
Causes of external order
The fragmentation of the conquered territories, whose rulers were afraid to arm the people against the Mongols;
The betrayal of the merchants, who were a cosmopolitan force (informants, spies, guides for military detachments);
Crowd tactics (civilians first, then Mongol warriors).
Consequences of the Mongol conquests
Describing the consequences of the Mongol conquests, Yelu Chutsai, who literally saved China from extermination, wrote: “The heavenly network was torn, the axis of the earth was broken, human justice disappeared.”
As a result of the conquests of Genghis Khan, his sons and grandsons, an empire was created, unprecedented in its size (from Korea in the East to Syria in the West; including the territory of Central Asia, China, the Caucasus, Afghanistan, Iran). The cities of Rus' were burned and tributed; devastating raids were carried out on Hungary, Drake, Moravia and Poland.
The consequences of the invasions were different for different regions: they were the most severe for Central Asia (huge human losses, destruction of the irrigation system). They were difficult for China, especially the north. But here we can also talk about assimilation:
Khubilai's heirs mastered the basics of Chinese culture, including language and writing. In particular, for China. language the biography of Genghis Khan was translated (only this translation has survived to this day). But for the indigenous population they remained strangers;
In the XIV century. rulers of various parts of the Mongol Empire adopted Buddhism or Islam. This meant that in fact they were conquered by the cultures in which they lived - Chinese, Persian or Arab.
If we talk about Rus', then we should talk, first of all, about the serious consequences in terms of spirituality. Currently There is a debate going on all the time: “Was there a yoke?” Most major historians are supporters of the traditional point of view that Mongol invasion played a completely negative role in the history of the Russian people. Others: consequences both negative and positive. Third: the consequence was the formation of an empire and imperial space.
Metaphor: nomads are not only children, but also fathers of the desert. This fully applies to the Mongols, especially in relation to Northern China and Central Asia.
The territory of Mongolia suffered greatly (after the creation of the empire, the population of Mongolia decreased sharply; the color of the Mongolian population settled throughout the continent). The policy of conquest slowed down not only progressive development conquered countries, but also the development of the productive forces and culture of Mongolia itself. The Mongol Empire, created by fire and sword, on the blood of enslaved peoples, torn apart by internal contradictions, did not have a single economic base, and ultimately fell under the blows of the conquered peoples.
Tului (youngest son; ruler of central and western Mongolia).
17 ticket. The Mongol Empire - the causes and consequences of its collapse.
Geography
Mongolia is basically a plateau, raised to a height of 900-1500 m above sea level.
Important objects
Ridge Mongolian Altai in the west and southwest of the country for 900 km
Gobi Desert – south, southwest and southeast
rivers – Selenga (flows into Baikal), Kerulen, Onon, Khalkin-gol
Sharply continental (harsh winters, dry hot summers). Precipitation 230-500 mm
Mongolian group of the Altaic macrofamily of languages
shamanism
Natural resources
Fur, fish, brown coal, hard coal, tungsten and fluorspar, copper-molybdenum ore, phosphorites
Location 1227-1405 (maximum boundaries)
The northern part of Asia, from the Black Sea in the West to the Yellow and South China Seas in the East, the border in the north is between Baikal and the mouth of the Irtysh, in the south – to the Arabian Sea
Neighbors: west - Poland, counterclockwise - Hungary, Black Sea, Byzantium, Mediterranean Sea, Arabia, Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean, India, Siam (Indo_China), South China Sea, Pacific Ocean, Yellow Sea, Pacific Ocean. In the north -
Formation of the Mongol state and Mongol conquests
By the end of the XII - beginning of the XIII century. The Mongols occupied a vast territory from Baikal and Amur in the east to the headwaters of the Irtysh and Yenisei in the west, from the Great Wall of China in the south to the borders of Southern Siberia in the north. The largest tribal unions The Mongols who played the most important role in subsequent events were the Tatars, Taizhiuts, Keraits, Naimans and Merkits. Some of the Mongol tribes (the "forest tribes") lived in the forested areas of the northern part of the country, while another, larger part of the tribes and their associations (the "steppe tribes") lived in the steppes.
In the past, during the era of the dominance of the primitive communal system, when livestock and pastures were the collective property of the clan community, the Mongols roamed as a whole clan, and in camps they usually settled in a ring around the yurt of the head of the clan. Such a camp was called a kuren. But the transformation of the main wealth of nomads - livestock - into private property led to an increase in property inequality. Under these conditions, the method of nomadism by all kurens became an obstacle to the further enrichment of the wealthy elite of nomadic cattle breeders. Owning large herds, they needed a larger pasture area and more frequent migrations than poor people who owned a small number of livestock. The place of the previous method of nomadism was taken by the ail (ail - large family).
1. The Mongols even before the 13th century. Early feudal relations developed. Already in the 12th century. in every Mongol tribe there was a powerful layer of nomadic nobility - noyons. The khans who headed the tribes, from simple tribal leaders, became kings who expressed and defended the interests of the feudalizing nomadic nobility. Even after the herds became private property, lands and pastures were considered the collective property of the tribe for a long time. But by the beginning of the 13th century. this main means of production was actually at the disposal of the nobility, who formed the class of feudal lords. Having seized into their own hands the right to dispose of nomads and distribute pastures, the nobility made a lot of direct producers dependent on them, forcing them to perform various kinds of duties and turning them into dependent people - arats. Already at that time, the Mongolian nobility practiced distributing their herds to the Arats for grazing, entrusting them with responsibility for the safety of livestock and for the delivery of livestock products. This is how the working rent was born. The mass of nomads (Kharachu - “rabble”, Harayasun - “black bone”) actually turned into feudal dependent people.
2. The largest role in the formation and development of feudalism in Mongolia was played by nukerism (nuker - friend, comrade), which apparently began to take shape in the 10th-11th centuries. Nukers were originally armed warriors in the service of the khans, and later became their vassals. Relying on the nukers, the noyons strengthened their power and suppressed the resistance of ordinary nomads. For his service, the nuker received a certain reward from the khan - khubi (part, share, share) in the form of a certain number of dependent Arat families and territory for their nomadism. By its nature, the khubi was an award similar in type to a benefice.
Prerequisites for the formation of the Mongolian state
End of the 12th century was a period of intense struggle within clans and tribes, as well as between tribal associations led by the nobility. At the heart of this struggle were the interests of the strengthened and wealthy families of the nobility, who owned vast herds, a large number of slaves and feudally dependent people. Persian historian of the early 14th century. Rashid ad-din, speaking about this time, notes that the Mongol tribes before “never had a powerful despot-sovereign who would be the ruler of all tribes: each tribe had some kind of sovereign and prince, and most of the time they were with each other.” they fought with each other, were at enmity, bickered and competed, robbed each other.”
Associations of tribes of Naimans, Keraits, Taichjiuts and others constantly attacked each other in order to seize pastures and military booty: livestock, slaves and other wealth. As a result of wars between tribal associations, the defeated tribe became dependent on the victorious one, and the nobility of the defeated tribe fell into the position of vassals of the khan and the nobility of the victorious tribe. In the process of a long struggle for dominance, relatively large associations of tribes, or uluses, were formed, headed by khans, supported by numerous squads of nukers. Such tribal associations attacked not only their neighbors inside Mongolia, but also neighboring peoples, mainly China, penetrating into its border regions. At the beginning of the 13th century. the mixed-tribal nobility rallied around the leader of the steppe Mongols, Temujin, who received the name Genghis Khan.
Formation of the Mongolian state. Genghis Khan
Temujin was born, apparently, in 1155. His father, Yesugei baatur (Mongolian baatur, Turkic bahadur (hence the Russian hero) is one of the titles of the Mongolian nobility.) came from the Borjigin family of the Taichjiut tribe and was a wealthy noyon. With his death in 1164, the ulus he created in the Onon River valley also crumbled. Various tribal groups that were part of the ulus abandoned the family of the deceased baatur. The nukers also dispersed.
For a number of years, Yesugei’s family wandered, eking out a miserable existence. In the end, Temujin managed to find support from Van Khan, the head of the Keraits. Under the patronage of Wang Khan, Temujin began to gradually accumulate strength. Nukers began to flock to him. With them, Temujin made a number of successful attacks on his neighbors and, increasing his wealth, made them dependent on himself. Talking about the crushing blow that Temujin dealt in 1201 to the militia of the leader of the steppe Mongols Jamuga, the Mongol chronicle of the first half of the 13th century. - “The Secret Legend” conveys an interesting episode that depicts the class face of Temujin. When Jamuga's militia was scattered, five Arats captured him, tied him up and handed him over to Temuchin, hoping to earn the mercy of the winner. Temujin said, “Is it conceivable to leave alive the Arats who raised their hands against their natural khan?” And he ordered them to be executed along with their families in front of Jamuga. Only after this was Jamuga himself executed.
As a result of the wars, Temujin's ulus continued to expand, becoming at least equal in strength to Van Khan's ulus. Soon a rivalry arose between them, which developed into open hostility. A battle took place that brought victory to Temujin. In the fall of 1202, as a result of a bloody battle between the militias of Temujin and Dayan Khan of Naiman, Dayan Khan’s army was defeated, and he himself was killed. The victory over Dayan Khan made Temujin the only contender for power in all of Mongolia. In 1206, a khural (or khuraldan - congress, meeting) was held on the banks of the Onon River, which brought together the leaders of all tribal groups of Mongolia. The Khural proclaimed Temujin the Great Khan of Mongolia, giving him the name of Genghis Khan (The meaning of this name or title has not yet been clarified.). Since then, the Great Khan has also been called Kaan. Until that time, the Mongols called the Chinese emperor this way. Thus the process of formation of the Mongolian state was completed.
1. The charisma (or passion) of Genghis Khan, who had the necessary qualities in troubled times for the Mongols, skillful diplomacy and devotion of his generals made it possible to develop the Mongol ulus at the end of the 13th century.
2. Allies. The Mongolian steppe was torn apart by contradictions for centuries, but nevertheless powerful local forces constantly arose, leading to the emergence of large states. In this case, during the concluded alliance with the Nestorian-Amiceraites, Genghis Khan successfully balanced the contradictions between the Mongol tribes
a) Genghis Khan and the Keraits destroyed the Merkits
b) thanks to the support of the Jin state, the Tatars were destroyed.
c) discord in the Kerait camp led to their weakening and conquest by Genghis Khan.
3.Weakness of neighbors. Often, discord and underestimation of the enemy’s forces led Genghis Khan to victory. Initially this happened to the Keraits, after which the Naiman Khan Tayan, underestimating Genghis Khan, was destroyed.
Since the empire of Genghis Khan had already acquired a certain weight, they joined them in 1206-1207. Forest peoples, Uighurs and Tanguts join.
4. Wrong tactics. The armies of the state of Jin and Khorezm were much superior to the army of Genghis Khan, however, incorrect tactics, which boiled down to the lack of proper command and an exclusively defensive strategy, gave trump cards during the offensive of Genghis Khan
a) China. The decisive battle took place, but due to infighting among the generals, not everyone took part in it against the Mongols, and as a result, the main forces were defeated.
b) Khorezm. The strategy was the defense of cities, the troops were scattered, as a result of which Genghis Khan’s troops defeated the groups one by one.
These are the main 4 reasons that led to such a successful emergence
Mongol Empire.
By the time of Genghis Khan's death, the Mongol Empire was the greatest conquest of all time - his empire was four times larger than that of Alexander the Great.
The main stages in the formation of the empire before its collapse:
Territories included under Genghis Khan (1206-1227):
Mongolia, Transbaikalia, Altai, Siberia, Primorye, Northwestern and Greater Part
Northern China, Eastern Turkestan, Dzungaria, Semirechye, Central Asia and Central Kazakhstan.
Territories included under Ogedei (1229-1241):
remnants of the lands of Northern China, Korea, Iran, the Caucasus, the Urals, Western Kazakhstan, the Volga region. And also on special relations (vassalage with broad autonomy) of the Russian principalities, Bulgaria and Serbia.
Territories included under Mongke (1251-1259):
Central and Southern China, Asia Minor, Cilician Armenia, Iraq, Syria
Territories included under Kublai Kublai (1260-1294):
Southeast China, Burma, Indochina, principalities of Indonesia (on special relations).
Collapse of the Mongol Empire and its consequences
In 1259, the death of Mungke, the great-grandson of Genghis Khan, caused unrest such as the Mongol Empire had never known, and a 40-year civil war began. The year 1260 is considered to be the actual beginning of the collapse of the Mongol Empire.
The Mongol Empire by that time consisted of five uluses:
2. Ogedei, which later merged with the Chagatai ulus;
3. Chagatai (Chaghadai), later known as the Chagatai;
4. Jochi (Batu, Berke, Orda), known as the Golden Horde, Kipchan kingdom;
5. Hulagu, later called the Hulaguid state.
After the outbreak of civil strife, the uluses of Chagatai, Jochi and Hulagu began to pursue an independent policy. A century after its founding, the empire actually turned into a Federation, and a little later into a confederation of Uluses, united only by economic interests. Another 100 years later, Timur tried to change the situation, uniting the Jagatai, Ogedei and Hulaguid Uluses, making the Juchi Ulus - the Golden Horde dependent, thus subjugating the entire Western part of the Mongol Empire, and preparing for a campaign against the Eastern (China and Mongolia). After his death, the state collapsed, and his children and grandchildren continued the civil war.
In 1368, Mongol rule in China fell as a result of the Red Turban Rebellion. In 1380, the Battle of Kulikovo took place, weakening the influence of the Golden Horde on the territory of the Moscow Principality.
The period of feudal fragmentation and internecine wars in Central Asia led to the fall of the Chagatai ulus by the beginning of the 16th century.
The main states of the Chinggisids in the 15th century and their fate:
1) Mongol Khaganate (former ulus of the Khagan) - the Toluid house continues to rule here. From time to time, the western - Oirat - part of the state acquires complete independence from the eastern.
2) New Mongolian power of Timur (Tamerlane) - breaks all ties with the Mongolian tradition, ceases to exist with the death of Timur in 1405.
3) Mogolistan. After the defeats suffered by Timur, by the beginning of the 15th century. it finally splits into two: the territories south of the latitude of Balkhash remain part of Mogolistan, and the Kyrgyz (East Kypchak) region north of it and up to the Altai mountains forms special state- "Kyrgyz" Khanate.
4) By 1380, the Jochi ulus splits into two uluses - the senior ulus of the descendants of Orda-Ichen, and the younger Siberian ulus of the descendants of Sheiban. In the course of new strife, this system is falling apart.
Thus, in place of the Ulus of Jochi by the end of the 15th century. 8 independent states are formed.
As a result, by the end of the 15th century, there were 11-12 states on the territory of Eurasia, continuing the tradition of the Mongol Empire: Crimea, Great Horde, Kazan Khanate, Astrakhan Khanate, Nogai Horde, Siberian Khanate, Uzbek Khanate, Kazakh Khanate, Kyrgyz Khanate (on the Irtysh), Mogolistan, Oirat Khanate, Toluid Khanate (Khalkha-Mongolian).
Reasons for the collapse of the Mongol Empire:
1. The culture was multi-ethnic and so was the state; assimilation with indigenous (conquered) peoples, who often had a higher culture, was actively taking place.
2. The economy and way of life of the uluses of Mongolia were different (agricultural, semi-nomadic and trading, nomadic).
3. There was no single people (ethnic group) on the territory of the Mongol Empire. Various ethnic, economic and religious groups were beaten.
4. Heavy internecine wars, undermining the economy.
5. Rivalry with new young states ( Moscow State, China, Mamluks)
Genghis Khan became the founder of the Mongol Empire, the largest continental empire in human history.
He is the most famous Mongol in the entire history of the Mongolian nation.
From the biography of the great Mongol Khan:
Genghis Khan or Genghis Khan is not a name, but a title that was granted to Temuchin at the end of the 12th century at the kurultai.
Temujin was born into the family of an influential leader of one of the Mongol tribes, Yesugei, between 1155 and 1162, since the exact date of his birth is unknown. When Temuchin was nine years old, his father was poisoned by enemies, and the family had to look for a means of subsistence. His mother and children had to wander for a long time in complete poverty, and then live in a cave. The family was so poor at that time that, according to legend, Temujin killed his brother for eating the fish Temujin caught.
After the death of his father, the future commander and his family were forced to flee, since the rivals of his late parent wanted to destroy them all. The family of the future khan had to wander from place to place so that they would not be found by enemies who took away from the family the lands that rightfully belonged to them. Subsequently, Temujin had to make a lot of efforts to become the head of the Mongol tribe and eventually avenge the death of his father.
Temujin was betrothed at the age of nine to eleven-year-old Borte from the Ungirat clan, and the wedding took place when the young man turned sixteen. From this marriage four sons and five daughters were born. One of these daughters of Alangaa, in the absence of her father, ruled the state, for which she received the title “princess-ruler.” It was the descendants of these children who had the right to claim highest authority in the state. Borte was considered the main wife of Genghis Khan and bore a title equivalent to that of empress.
The second wife of the khan was the Merkit woman Khulan-Khatun, who bore the khan two sons. Only Khulan Khatun, as his wife, accompanied the khan on almost every military campaign, and she died in one of them.
Genghis Khan's two other wives, the Tatars Yesugen and Yesui, were the younger and older sisters, and the younger sister herself offered her older sister as the fourth wife to the first wedding night. Yesugen gave birth to her husband a daughter and two sons.
In addition to four wives, Genghis Khan had about a thousand concubines who came to him as a result of his campaigns of conquest and as gifts from his allies.
Genghis Khan used dynastic marriages very profitably - he gave his daughters in marriage to allied rulers. In order to marry the daughter of the great Mongol Khan, the ruler kicked out all his wives, which made the Mongol princesses first in line for the throne. After this, the ally went to war at the head of the army, and almost immediately died in battle, and the khan’s daughter became the ruler of the lands. This policy led to the fact that by the second half of the 13th century his daughters ruled from the Yellow Sea to the Caspian.
The Great Mongol Khan died in 1227 during a campaign against the Tangut state; the exact cause of his death is not known. Scientists are inclined to several versions: 1) aggravation of an injury received in 1225, received during a fall from a horse; 2) a sudden illness associated with the unfavorable climate of the Tangoust state; 3) was killed by a young concubine, whom he stole from her lawful husband.
Dying, the great khan appointed his third son from his main wife Ogedei as his heir - he, according to the khan, possessed a military strategy and a lively political mind.
The exact burial place of the khan remains a mystery to this day. Possible burial places are called Burkhan-Khaldun, Mount Altai-Khan, and the slope of Kentei-Khan. The khan himself bequeathed to keep the place of his grave secret. To carry out the order, the body of the deceased was taken deep into the desert, the slaves accompanying the body were killed by the guards. The warriors rode horses over the Khan’s grave for 24 hours to raze it to the ground, and upon returning to the camp, all the warriors participating in the funeral of Genghis Khan were killed. The secret hidden in the 13th century remains a real mystery today.
The conquests of Genghis Khan and his cruelty:
About the great Mongol conqueror, it is known that he brought terror to the endless steppes Genghis Khan, also called Temujin or Temujin, went down in history as the most successful Mongol commander of all time. He created a real empire that covered most of Asia and part of Europe, and his troops were a nightmare for the inhabitants of many other lands. One can relate to Genghis Khan in different ways, but one cannot help but admit that he was a very outstanding personality.
Many of the great khan's bloody battles took place only because of revenge. So, at the age of twenty, he decided to take revenge on the tribe that was responsible for the death of his father. Having defeated them, Genghis Khan gave the order to cut off the heads of all Tatars whose height exceeded the height of the axle of the cart wheel (about 90 cm), thus, only children under three years of age survived.
The next time, Genghis Khan avenged the death of his son-in-law Tokuchar, who died from an arrow from one of Nishapur’s warriors. Having attacked the settlement, the khan's troops killed everyone in their path - even women and children did not escape revenge, even cats and dogs were killed. By order of the khan's daughter, the widow of the deceased, a pyramid was built from their heads.
Genghis Khan did not always strive only to conquer foreign lands; sometimes he wanted to improve relations diplomatically. This is what happened with the kingdom of Khorezm, where an embassy was sent on behalf of the Great Khan. However, the ruler of the kingdom did not believe in the sincerity of the ambassadors’ intentions and gave the order to behead them; their fate was repeated by the next embassy sent by the Mongols. Genghis Khan brutally took revenge for the murdered diplomats - the two hundred thousand Mongol army killed the entire population of the kingdom and destroyed every house in the region, moreover, by order of the khan, even the river bed was moved to another place so that the river flowed through the area where the king of Khorezm was born. Genghis Khan did everything to wipe the kingdom off the face of the earth and any mention of it disappeared.
During the conflict with Khorezm, the neighboring Tangut state, the kingdom of Xi Xia, which had previously been conquered by the Mongols, also suffered. Genghis Khan asked the Tanguts to send an army to help the Mongol army, but was refused. The consequence of this was the complete destruction of the Tangut kingdom, the population was killed, and all cities were destroyed to the ground. The existence of the kingdom remained only mentioned in the documents of neighboring states.
The largest-scale military operation of Genghis Khan was the campaign against the Jin Empire - the territory of modern China. Initially, it seemed that this campaign had no future, since the population of China was over 50 million, and the Mongols were only one million. However, the Mongols were victorious. In three years, the Mongol army was able to reach the walls of Zhongdu, present-day Beijing, the city was considered impregnable - the height of the walls reached 12 meters, and they stretched 29 km around the city. The city was under Mongol siege for several years; famine began to rage in the capital, which led to cases of cannibalism - in the end, the city surrendered. The Mongols plundered and burned all of Zhongdu, the emperor had to conclude a humiliating treaty with the Mongols.
25 interesting facts from the life of Genghis Khan:
1.The exact date of birth of Genghis Khan is unknown. He is believed to have been born between 1155 and 1162.
2. What his appearance was is not known for certain, but surviving evidence suggests that he had green eyes and red hair.
3. Such unusual appearance Genghis Khan was due to a unique mixture of Asian and European genes. Genghis Khan was 50% European, 50% Asian.
4. Mongolian legends claim that the newborn Genghis Khan squeezed a blood clot in his palm, which was regarded as a symbol of the future conqueror of the world awaiting him.
5. At birth he was named Temujin - this was the name of the military leader whom his father defeated.
6.The name “Chingiz” is translated as “lord of the boundless, like the sea.”
7. Genghis Khan went down in history as the creator of the largest continental empire in history.
8.Neither the Romans nor Alexander the Great could achieve such a scale.
9. Under him, Mongolia rapidly expanded its territories. Genghis Khan created the Mongol Empire by uniting disparate tribes from China to Russia.
10.The Mongol Empire went down in history. His empire became the largest united state in history. She is in the territory from Pacific Ocean extended to eastern Europe.
11. According to the research of individual scientists, Genghis Khan is responsible for the death of more than 40 million people.
12. Genghis Khan cruelly took revenge for his entourage. When the Persians beheaded the Mongol ambassador, Genghis flew into a rage and destroyed 90% of their people. Iranians still see Genghis Khan in nightmares. According to some estimates, the population of Iran (formerly Persia) could not reach pre-Mongol levels until the 1900s.
13. At the age of 15, Genghis Khan was captured and fled, which later brought him recognition.
14. The matured Genghis Khan began to little by little conquer the entire steppe, uniting other tribes around himself and mercilessly destroying his rivals. At the same time, he, unlike most other Mongol leaders, always tried not to kill enemy soldiers, but to save their lives in order to later take them into his service.
14. Genghis Khan believed that the more offspring a person has, the more significant he is. There were several thousand women in his harem, and many of them gave birth to children from him.
15. There are many direct descendants of Genghis Khan living in the modern world.
16.Genetic studies have shown that approximately 8% of Asian men have Genghis Khan genes on their Y chromosomes, i.e. they are descendants of Genghis Khan.
17. The dynasty of Genghis Khan’s descendants was named Genghisids in his honor.
18.Under Genghis Khan, for the first time, disparate tribes of nomads united into a huge single state. Having completely conquered the steppes, the commander took the title of kagan. A khan is the leader of a tribe, albeit a large one, and the kagan is the king of all khans.
19. Many peoples understood the greatness of the horde and paid tribute to it. Many nations swore allegiance to Temujin, and he became their ruler, or khan.
20. Then he changed his name to Chingiz, which means “Right”.
21. Genghis Khan replenished the ranks of his army with captives from the tribes he conquered, and thus his army grew.
22. Nobody knows where Genghis Khan's grave is. Many archaeologists are still searching for it without success. According to some reports, Genghis Khan's grave was flooded by the river. Supposedly, he demanded that his grave be flooded by the river so that no one could disturb it.
23. Some historians call Genghis Khan the father of “Scorched Earth,” that is, such military technologies that can destroy almost any trace of civilization.
24.The cult of Genghis Khan flourishes in modern Mongolia. There are huge monuments to this commander everywhere, and the streets are named after him.
25.His portrait began to be printed on Mongolian banknotes in the 90s of the last century.
Huge statue of Genghis Khan in Ulaanbaatar
photo from the Internet
The Mongolian feudal empire arose as a result of the aggressive campaigns of Genghis Khan and his successors in the 13th-14th centuries.
At the beginning of the 13th century. On the territory of Central Asia, as a result of a long inter-tribal struggle, a single Mongolian state arose, which included all the main Mongolian tribes of nomadic herders and hunters. In the history of the Mongols, this was significant progress, a qualitatively new stage of development: the creation of a single state contributed to the consolidation of the Mongolian people, the establishment of feudal relations that replaced communal-tribal ones. The founder of the Mongolian state was Khan Temujin (1162-1227), who in 1206 was proclaimed Genghis Khan, that is, the Great Khan.
A spokesman for the interests of the warriors and the emerging class of feudal lords, Genghis Khan carried out a number of radical reforms to strengthen the centralized military-administrative system government controlled, suppression of any manifestations of separatism. The population was divided into “tens”, “hundreds”, “thousands” of nomads, who immediately became warriors in times of war. A personal guard was formed - the support of the khan. In order to strengthen the position of the ruling dynasty, all of the khan's closest relatives received large inheritances. A set of laws (“Yasa”) was compiled, where, in particular, the arats were prohibited from moving from one “ten” to another without permission. Those guilty of the slightest violations of Yasa were severely punished. Shifts were taking place in the cultural sphere. By the beginning of the 13th century. refers to the emergence of common Mongolian writing; in 1240 the famous historical and literary monument “The Secret History of the Mongols” was created. Under Genghis Khan, the capital of the Mongol Empire was founded - the city of Karakorum, which was not only an administrative center, but also a center of crafts and trade.
Since 1211, Genghis Khan began numerous wars of conquest, seeing in them the main means of enrichment, satisfying the growing needs of the nomadic nobility, and establishing dominance over other countries. The conquest of new lands, the seizure of military booty, the imposition of tribute on conquered peoples - this promised rapid and unprecedented enrichment, absolute power over vast territories. The success of the campaigns was facilitated by the internal strength of the young Mongol state, the creation of a strong mobile army (cavalry), well-equipped technically, welded together with iron discipline, controlled by skilled commanders. At the same time, Genghis Khan skillfully used internecine conflicts and internal strife in the enemy’s camp. As a result, the Mongol conquerors managed to conquer many peoples of Asia and Europe and capture vast regions. In 1211, the invasion of China began, the Mongols inflicted a number of serious defeats on the troops of the Jin state. They destroyed about 90 cities and took Beijing (Yanjing) in 1215. In 1218-1221 Genghis Khan moved to Turkestan, conquered Semirechye, defeated Khorezm Shah Muhammad, captured Urgench, Bukhara, Samarkand and other centers of Central Asia. In 1223, the Mongols reached the Crimea, penetrated into Transcaucasia, devastated part of Georgia and Azerbaijan, walked along the shores of the Caspian Sea into the lands of the Alans and, having defeated them, reached the Polovtsian steppes. In 1223, Mongol troops defeated the united Russian-Polovtsian army near the Kalka River. In 1225-1227 Genghis Khan undertook his last campaign - against the Tangut state. By the end of Genghis Khan’s life, the empire included, in addition to Mongolia itself, Northern China, Eastern Turkestan, Central Asia, the steppes from the Irtysh to the Volga, most of Iran and the Caucasus. Genghis Khan divided the lands of the empire between his sons - Jochi, Chagadai, Ogedei, Tuluy. After the death of Genghis Khan, their uluses increasingly acquired the features of independent possessions, although the power of the All-Mongol Khan was nominally recognized.
Genghis Khan's successors, the khans Ogedei (reigned 1228-1241), Guyuk (1246-1248), Mongke (1251-1259), Kublai Khan (1260-1294) and others continued their wars of conquest. Grandson of Genghis Khan Batu Khan in 1236-1242. carried out aggressive campaigns against Rus' and other countries (Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Dalmatia), moving far to the west. The huge state of the Golden Horde was formed, which was initially part of the empire. The Russian principalities became tributaries of this state, having experienced the full brunt of the Horde yoke. Another grandson of Genghis Khan, Hulagu Khan, founded the Hulagid state in Iran and Transcaucasia. Another grandson of Genghis Khan, Kublai Khan, completed the conquest of China in 1279, founding the Mongol Yuan dynasty in China in 1271 and moving the capital of the empire from Karakorum to Zhongdu (modern Beijing).
The campaigns of conquest were accompanied by the destruction of cities, the destruction of priceless cultural monuments, the devastation of vast areas, and the extermination of thousands of people. A regime of robbery and violence was introduced in the conquered countries. Local population(peasants, artisans, etc.) were subject to numerous taxes and taxes. Power belonged to the governors of the Mongol Khan, their assistants and officials, who relied on strong military garrisons and a rich treasury. At the same time, the conquerors sought to attract large landowners, merchants, and the clergy to their side; obedient rulers from among the local nobility were placed at the head of some lands.
The Mongol Empire was internally very fragile; it was an artificial conglomerate of multilingual tribes and nationalities that were at different stages of social development, often higher than those of the conquerors. Internal contradictions intensified more and more. In the 60s XIII century The Golden Horde and the Khulagid state actually separated from the empire. The entire history of the empire is filled with a long series of uprisings and revolts against the conquerors. At first they were brutally suppressed, but gradually the forces of the conquered peoples grew stronger, and the capabilities of the invaders weakened. In 1368, as a result of massive popular uprisings, Mongol rule in China fell. In 1380, the Battle of Kulikovo predetermined the overthrow of the Horde yoke in Rus'. The Mongol Empire collapsed and ceased to exist. A period of feudal fragmentation began in the history of Mongolia.
The Mongol conquests caused innumerable disasters to the conquered peoples and delayed their social development for a long time. They had a negative impact on historical development Mongolia and the situation of the people. The stolen wealth was used not for the growth of productive forces, but for the enrichment of the ruling class. The wars divided the Mongol people and depleted human resources. All this had a detrimental effect on the socio-economic development of the country in subsequent centuries.
It would be wrong to unequivocally assess the historical role of the founder of the Mongol Empire, Genghis Khan. His activities were progressive in nature while there was a struggle for the unification of disparate Mongol tribes, for the creation and strengthening of a single state. Then the situation changed: he became a cruel conqueror, the conqueror of the peoples of many countries. At the same time, he was a man of extraordinary ability, a brilliant organizer, an outstanding commander and statesman. Genghis Khan is the largest figure in Mongolian history. In Mongolia, much attention is paid to the elimination of everything superficial, which was associated either with actual silence or with one-sided coverage of the role of Genghis Khan in history. The public organization “The Hearth of Chinggis” has been created, the number of publications about him is increasing, and a Mongolian-Japanese scientific expedition is actively working to find his burial place. The 750th anniversary of the “Secret Legend of the Mongols”, which vividly reflects the image of Genghis Khan, is widely celebrated.