Knife in Slavic traditions and rituals. Knife in Slavic traditions and rituals National knives and daggers

It can be said without exaggeration that in the Iron Age, knives are the most popular category of archaeological material after ceramics. These tools are found at almost every monument, and at some - in dozens and hundreds. In Volkovysk, for example, 621 knives were found, and at the Nerevsky excavation site in Novgorod - 1444. The accumulated material is enormous and it is impossible to indicate even approximately the total number of finds in Eastern Europe.

Knives are ordinary material, so they are published reluctantly and carelessly. Typically, researchers limit themselves to only stating the presence of these tools in archaeological complexes. Often, general considerations regarding their shape are illustrated by one or more drawings of knives, sometimes rearranged, without scale, without recording areas of breakage and loss, without the information necessary for classification.

These circumstances make the study of knives so difficult that attempts to systematize them within of Eastern Europe has never been attempted. At best, researchers stop at systematizing the knives of specific archaeological sites or certain archaeological cultures. But small volumes of the material under consideration, according to the law of small numbers, lead to excessively amorphous patterns and make it difficult to identify the most characteristic leading forms. Apparently, most archaeologists have an opinion about the complete uniformity of the shapes of knives, for “a knife of the usual type” is a fairly common definition of these tools.

It should be said about one more, perhaps, universal misconception. In archaeological literature, the term “knife” refers only to the blade. It is not right. Blades of knives, sickles, scythes. the tips of spears and arrows coming out from under the blacksmith’s hammer are only parts of tools and weapons. Typically, the classification covers the surviving parts of objects. However, a single type of spear tips does not indicate a single type of spears themselves. The shafts could be of different lengths, therefore, the battle tactics could be different. Arrowheads of the same shape could come from complex and simple bows.

The same applies to knives. The blades could have been made locally or acquired through barter or trade. Both now and before, fragments of various tools were adapted for blades, which was reflected in the presence of random forms. For example, the results of a metallographic study of blacksmith items from the early Slavic settlement of Hanska-II, Kotovsky district of the Moldavian SSR, allowed G. A. Voznesenskaya to come to the conclusion that all the knives of this settlement were forged from a very dissimilar metal that was reused. The raw material for the local blacksmith was mainly scrap iron 1.

The external design of knives - sheaths, handles, methods of their manufacture, ornamentation, and method of wearing - were regulated by ethnic traditions. Only this complex of concepts, and not a random set of features, can determine the “type of knife.” Therefore, we should speak with confidence about this. that there are no “regular type knives” at all; on the contrary, there are a huge number of types.

The author has been collecting data on knives from the Early Iron Age for a number of years. We looked through the richest collections of the State Hermitage, domestic and foreign literature. The total amount of collected material is about 10 thousand items. The collection of material and its systematization have not yet been completed, but what has been collected is sufficient for a number of preliminary conclusions that are directly related to the topic of interest to us.

Despite the apparent monotony, knives of the second half of the 1st millennium AD. e. Eastern Europe clearly falls into four broad groups, in each of which, upon detailed study, numerous variants can be identified.

Group I(Fig. 1) is represented by knives that have the following characteristic features. The line of the edge of the back of the blades, representing a smooth arc with the apex in the center, directly passes into the handle. There are blades with a weakly pronounced transition to the handle (Fig. 1, 5-6), but these differences are not fundamental. for both forms coexist and represent the same archaeological monuments. The blade together with the handle has a length from 6 to 20 cm. Fluctuations in size in either direction are known, but rare. The cutting is in the shape of a narrow triangle, 4-5 cm long, usually separated from the cutting edge by a smooth ledge. The greatest width of the handle is about half the width of the blade. It can be noted that the back part of the knives (together with the handle) is identical in design to the back part of the sickles common in the forest zone of Eastern Europe 2, and this is not surprising, because the areas of these sickles and knives of the first group coincide.

The blade width of group I knives is about 2 cm, thickness is about 2 mm. The cutting edge of whole specimens is straight and only sharply bends upward towards the end. The ratio of blade length to handle length is about 3:1 or 2:1. Heavily sharpened blades are extremely rare - the length of the blade, as a rule, exceeds the length of the handle.

The handles of the knives were wooden and round in cross-section. The handle was driven into the handle approximately half its length. The sheath was leather - there are no traces of wood on the blades.

The origin of group I knives can be traced very clearly. Their prototypes are knives with a humpbacked back from the forest zone of the early Iron Age - Milograd, Yukhnovskaya, Zarubnetskaya, Dnieper-Dvina, Dyakovskaya, Gorodets and other cultures 3. The process of straightening the back began in the first centuries of our era on the southern outskirts of the forest zone (Chaplinsky, Korchevatovsky, other Zarubinets monklniki) 4. In the Upper Dnieper and Upper Volga regions, knives with a humpbacked back can still be found in the 4th-5th centuries. (Trinity settlement near Moscow. Tushemlya in the Smolensk region, etc.) 5. In the third quarter of the 1st millennium AD. e. knives with a humped back practically disappear, and knives of group I become the leading form in the territories of the Upper Dnieper region (starting from Novy Bykhov) and the Upper Volga region. Baltic states 6 and Finland 7. They are found in the Baltic and late Dyakovo monuments around the Tushemlya settlement (Tushemlya, Dekanovka, Uzmen, Bantserovskoye. Kolochin I, etc.), in the “long mounds” of the North-West of the RSFSR (Soviy Bor, Podsosonye, ​​Lezgi. Severik. Cherny Ruchey. Kryukovo) 8 . In the VIII-XI centuries. these knives still exist 9, but together with the knives of groups II and IV that appeared in the forest zone (see below).

Group II(Fig. 2) is represented by knives that have the following characteristic features. The back of the blades is most often in the form of a weak arc, slightly raised at the edges. The handle is in the shape of a narrow triangle, usually 3-5 cm long, separated from the blade by pronounced ledges 3-5 mm high. The ledges are most often asymmetrical relative to each other and form obtuse angles with the back and cutting edge. The greatest width of the cuttings is about half the width of the blade.

Blade width up to 2 cm. thickness 1.5-2 mm. The cutting edge of well-preserved specimens is slightly S-shaped. The length of the blades ranges from 10 to 20 cm. Heavily sharpened blades are extremely rare. The ratio of the length of the blades to the length of the handle is approximately 3:1 or 2:1.

The handles of group II knives were mostly wooden, round in cross-section. The handle was driven into the handle approximately half its length. The sheath was leather - there are no traces of wood on the blades.

The earliest clearly defined forms of group II knives appear on the so-called “post-Zar Binets” monuments of the 2nd-5th centuries. and the Desenia and Middle Dnieper region (Kazarovichi, Pochepskoe, Lavrikov Les, Tatsenkn, Khodorov, Shchuchnka) 10. Since the second half of the 1st millennium, knives of this group have been the leading form on Slavic monuments in the territories of Czechoslovakia, Poland, Bulgaria, Romania, East Germany, Moldova and Ukrainian SSR 11. In the Upper Dnieper region, group P knives appeared around the 8th century. And. e. Their. along with knives of group I, they are found in the Smolensk and Belarusian groups of “long mounds” (Fig. 2. 12, 14-15) 12. In the Gnezdovo settlement, located on the right bank of the river. Pigs in the Smolensk region, the origin of which dates back to no later than the beginning of the 9th century, its knives, with the exception of a few, belong to group II 13.

Unfortunately, the published knives of the 8th-9th centuries. from the Upper Dnieper region and the North-West of the RSFSR there are extremely few, so it is difficult to say how massively the group is represented here. For now, we can only note that these knives appear here no earlier than the 8th century, that they coexist with knives of group I, and that there is no evolutionary connection between these groups.

From the X-XI centuries. The overwhelming number of knives in graves and rural settlements is already represented by group II 14. The tendency to separate the handle from the blade with ledges by the 10th-11th centuries. applies to all parts of the forest zone.

However, it would be wrong to consider only the influence of group II knives to be the reason for the change in the local traditional form. Approximately simultaneously with them, but already from the north, knives of group IV (see below) appeared, under the strong influence of which, in contrast to agriculture, was the handicraft production of the northern ancient Russian cities.

Group III (Fig. 3) is represented by tools in wooden sheaths. Knives in wooden sheaths were one of the elements of the cultures of the nomadic tribes of the steppe zone of Eastern Europe. Northern Caucasus, vast areas of Siberia and Central Asia. The evolution of these antiquities can be clearly traced starting from the Scythian and Sarmatian eras.

Of course, it is impossible to give a detailed classification and highlight all the nuances of the problem of the origin and division of group III knives in one study. In this work, the author considers only one of the variants of knives of this group - the early Middle Ages Alan from the territories of the Don region and the North Caucasus. The nomads - the Alans - were the eastern neighbors of the Dnieper Slavs. The cultures of both have fundamental differences, and this can be clearly seen in the traditional forms of knives that characterize these ethnic areas.

Alan knives, represented by the antiquities of the Saltovo culture, have already been discussed in the literature. Several knives characterizing the Saltovsk culture as typical were noted by I. I. Lyapushkin 15. S.S. Sorokin, examining the iron implements of Sarkel and Velaya Vezha, divided all the knives found here into two complexes and attributed about 40-50 objects to the lower - Saltovsky - layer 16. Recently, a group of Ukrainian archaeologists examined the Saltov knives of the river basin. Don. which they divided into five different types 17.

In these studies, the material of the settlements was mainly considered, a number of which are multi-layered monuments. The richest material from burial grounds was not used. No attention was paid to some details that are fundamental features for Saltov knives. These shortcomings turned out to be so significant, and the distinguished features were so subjective, that the image of early medieval Alan knives, which can be imagined from these works, was distorted.

If we turn to the materials of burial grounds of the 8th-9th centuries. In the Don region and the North Caucasus, one can be convinced that Alan knives represent a surprisingly resistant, uniform series. They have the following characteristic features. The back of the blades forms a weakly defined arc, gradually descending towards the nose. The cutting edge is arched, but steeper than the back. The central axis of the blade and handle is shifted towards the back. The length of the blades ranges from 6 to 14 cm. The thickness is 1.5 mm, the width of the blade at the base is 1-1.5 cm (depending on the length). The handle is subtriangular in shape, 2-4 cm long. The width of the handle at the base is about half the width of the blade. The ratio of blade length to handle length is slightly more than 3:1.

The handle is always separated from the blade by strictly perpendicular ledges, which are design features. A narrow iron frame, 1.5-2 mm wide and thick, was welded onto the base of the blade, which was a kind of lock that locked the knife in the sheath. This is a very fragile part, often not preserved. Its presence is evidenced by the strict perpendicularity of the ledges and the traces imprinted by it, which can be seen on unrestored metal.

Several hundred such blades were found in Dmitrovskoye. Ust-Lubyansky. Verkhnesaltovsky, Borisovsky 18 burial grounds and in burial grounds on the river. Durso near Novorossiysk, in North Ossetia, and in the vicinity of Kislovodsk 19.

Group III knives, including the Alans, had a wooden scabbard. The Alan scabbard was made from two halves of an originally split plank. The split edge was not processed afterwards, so the joining of the halves was perfect. After making the wooden base, a leather cover with a seam on the left side was stretched over it, obviously in a wet state. Very often, the scabbards were paired and built into one common leather case, with the cutting edges of the blades located on opposite sides relative to each other. obviously to reduce the overall thickness of the sheath. Sometimes a bronze or silver tip and clip were placed on top of the scabbard. In cases of paired and triple scabbards, the clip and tip were common. The need for a leather case was determined by this. that the wooden planks of the Alan scabbard were not fastened with pins.

The scabbard was narrow and thin. Their width is slightly greater than the width of the blade, the thickness is less than 1 cm. At the end of the sheath, the scabbard slightly narrows, at the end there is a straight or slightly arched edge. The length of the knives exceeds the length of the blade by about one third.

Unfortunately, several well-preserved Alan scabbards have been published without a detailed description of their design 20 . The author did not have the opportunity to examine these finds. However, finds in the burial grounds of Polomsky, Brodovsky (Prikamye), Moshevaya Balka (North Caucasus), where scabbards of other variants of group III were found, make it possible to identify general patterns. characteristic of the entire group. Based on these materials, the missing parts of the Alan scabbard can be reconstructed.

The blade socket was slightly oval in longitudinal section, so that only the clip and the tip of the blade were secured in the sheath. This feature is characteristic of all wooden scabbards, including ethnographic ones. If the socket perfectly followed the parameters of the blade, the knife would be impossible to pull out of the sheath in conditions of high humidity.

In addition to the blade, the sheath also included part of the handle. This is evidenced by both the remains of wood from the scabbard on the handles and the scabbard from Moshchevaya Beam (Fig. 3. 12). The handles were unusually thin, oval in cross-section. Their width was the same as the width of the blade, the thickness was about 0.5 cm. The thickness of the handles is easily determined on paired and triple scabbards, as well as on well-preserved scabbards from Moshchevaya Beam. The handles were made from a different type of wood than the scabbard or from a different material altogether. This is evidenced by the remains of a bright yellow substance preserved on the cuttings. One known bone handle is from the Dmitrovsky burial ground (Fig. 3,4). but this is a unique case. The shape of the handles was flat, long, slightly subtrapezoidal, with a slight widening at the back end.

Paired and triple scabbards, a kind of cassette, are known to the author only on Alan monuments. In the Durso burial grounds, up to 6 blades, i.e., 2-3 cassettes, were sometimes found with buried people. The thinness and lightness of the handles gives the Alan knives good ballistic qualities, and the large number of knives in the graves and the completeness of their packaging allow us to assume that the Alans used the sheath as a throwing weapon.

Group IV(Fig. 4) is represented by tools with a narrow handle 6 to 12 cm long. The most common cuttings are 8-10 cm long. The tip of the handle is awl-shaped. sometimes bent and riveted. Occasionally there is a quadrangular iron or bronze washer on the curved tip. The bent tip and washer, apparently, were broken off and lost in many knives of this group. This design of the cutting is due to the fact. that it pierced the handle right through and bent at the back end.

The sheath blades of group IV have, as a rule, clear, about 2 mm high ledges separating them from the handle. The spine of the blades is straight and only slightly lowered at the end. The width of the blades is 1.5-2 cm, which is about two-thirds of the width of the handle at the base. Back thickness 2-3 mm. It is difficult to indicate the true length of the blade, because this is, perhaps, the only group of knives whose blades are sharpened heavily, sometimes almost to the ground. Probably the most common were blades with a ratio to the length of the handle between 2:1-1:1. The knives had a long cylindrical handle and a leather sheath - there are no traces of wood on the blades.

The origin of group IV knives can be traced quite clearly. In Merovingian and Viking times they existed in Norway and Sweden 21. From there they spread to the territory of Finland, but here they exist along with knives of group I 22. In Eastern Europe, the same knives appear in last quarter 1st millennium and. e. The earliest finds come from horizons E 3 -E 1 of the earthen settlement of Staraya Ladoga and from the hills in the vicinity of this settlement. Subsequently, these knives are distributed around Prnladozhye. fall into the Baltic states and the Yaroslavl Volga region. Wherever there are Scandinavian burials or Scandinavian materials, knives of group IV 23 are also known.

A very interesting situation is developing in the northern territories Old Russian state in the X-XI centuries. Novgorod knives of this time have a strict outline: a narrow, cross-backed blade with a slightly rounded end, giving it a dagger-like appearance, a long narrow handle, which is rarely less than 10 cm. A small but clear ledge on the blade (Fig. 4, 17) 24. Judging by the publication and constant references to Novgorod materials, similar knives are known in the Baltic states, in all northern ancient Russian cities without exception and in large burial grounds, such as Gnezdovo and others. 25

The shape and design of Novgorod knives of the 10th-11th centuries, according to B.L. Kolchin, was created on the basis of centuries-old experience of blacksmithing technology 26. But whose experience? Knives of groups I-III could not serve as a basis for Novgorod knives. In addition, they coexist with group IV knives in parallel. Knives of the 10th-11th centuries, such as those from Novgorod, are closest to group IV, the evolutionary chain of which they continue. One can hardly be mistaken in concluding that North Russian urban craft production in the field of knife making in the 10th-11th centuries. was under strong Scandinavian influence.

At the beginning of the 12th century. the picture changes dramatically. In Novgorod and other cities, knives are appearing whose blades have become wider and much thinner. The back of the blade is slightly raised towards the base and end, the ledges increase, the handle and handle are shortened. the manufacturing process flow diagram is simplified (Fig. 2. 16) 27 . These are already group II knives. Consequently, we can conclude that by the beginning of the 12th century the influence of the Scandinavian form was weakening and urban North Russian handicraft production, following the rural district, was moving to the production of knives of the common Slavic type.

So, we have established that early-mid-century Eastern European knives are divided into 4 broad groups, which have their own history of development.

Group I is typical for the Baltic, Finnish tribes and the population of the Upper Dnieper and North-West of the RSFSR in the second half of the 1st millennium AD. e.

Group II is typical for the population of the “post-Zarubinets” culture of the 3rd-5th centuries. in the Desenia and Middle Dnieper regions and for the Slavic population (starting from the 6th-7th centuries) living outside the forest zone. From about the 8th century. knives of group II appear in the Upper Dnieper region and begin to spread by the 12th century. become all-Russian.

Group III is characteristic of a nomadic population. In this work, we examined the Alan version of knives of this group, which is one of the persistent elements of the culture of the early Middle Ages Alans.

Group IV is typical for the German-speaking population Northern Europe. In the middle of the 8th century. knives of this group appear on the northern borders of Eastern Europe and spread until the 12th century. provide strong influence for North Russian urban craft production.

Bibliography

1. Voznesenskaya G. L. Results of a metallographic study of blacksmith items from the early Slavic settlement of Khanska-II, Kotovsky district, Moldavian SSR. Appendix to the monograph; Rafalovich M.A. Slavs of the 6th-9th centuries in Moldova. Chisinau, 1972. p. 239-241.
2. Miiasyan R. S. Classification of sickles of Eastern Europe of the Iron Age and early Middle Ages. - ASGE, 1979. issue. 20.
3. Tretyakov P. II., Schmidt E. D. Ancient settlements of the Smolensk region. M.-L.. 1963, p. 15, 165; Melnikovskaya O. II. Tribes of Southern Belarus in the Early Iron Age. M.. 1967. p. 61.
4. Samoylovskiy and I.M. Korchevatovsky burial ground. - MIA, 1959, .Ms 70, table. VIII; Pobol L.D. Slavic antiquities of Belarus. T. I, Minsk, 1071. fig. 66.
5. Smirnov K. A. D’kovskan culture. M.. 1974. table. II; Goryunova E.I. Ethnic history of the Volga-Oka interfluve. - MIA. 1961, No. 94. p. 88.
6. Among the most famous monuments are Rekete and Pabariai. Raginyans. Mezhulyany (Lithuania), Kalnieshn (Latvia), Leva (Estonia). Uzmsn (Pskov region). Tushemlya, Nekvasino. Demidovna (Smolensk region). Sarskoe. Popadinskoe (Yaroslavl Volga region). Bantserovskoe. Kolochin. Voronin." Taymanovo (BSSR) and many others. Tretyakov I.P.. Schmidt E.A. Ancient settlements..., fig. 59. 8 10: Shmidt E. A. About the culture of the shelter towns of the Left Bank Smolensk region. - MIA, 1970, Jv® 176, fig. 3. 15-16; With m and r and about in K. A. Dyakovo culture.... p. 38; Leontyev A. E. Classification of knives of the Sarsky settlement. - SA. 1976. No. 2. p. 33-44; Mooga I. Die Eisenzeit in Lettland bis etwa 500 n. Chr. /. Tartu Dorpat, 1929. Taf. XXXI; JJrtans V. Kalniesu otrais ka-pulauks.- “Latvijas PSR vestures muzeja raksti. Arheologija*, Riga. 1962. tab. IX, 1-4.
7. Salo U. Die frUhromischc Zeit in Finniand. Helsinki. 1968. Abb. 100. S. 154; Kivikoski E. Kvarnbacken. Helsinki. 1963.
8. Burial ground on the lake. Kryukovo (Novgorod region). Report by S. N. Orlov in LOIA 03/24/72.
9. Danilov I. Excavations by students of the Institute of burial mounds in Gdovsky and Luga districts of St. Petersburg province. and in Valdai district of Novgorod province. - In the book: Collection of the Archaeological Institute, book 3. St. Petersburg, 1880. vol. 2. fig. 1. 3. 4; Essays on the archeology of Belarus. part 2. fig. 10. 12: Sizov V.I. Kurgans of the Smolensk province. -MAR. St. Petersburg.. 1902, howled 28 p. 57-58.
10. Maksimov E. V.. Orlov R. S. Settlement and burial ground of the second quarter of the 1st millennium. e. at the village Kazarovnchn near Kyiv. - In the book: Early medieval East Slavic antiquities, l., 1974. fig. 6. 2: Maksimov E. V. New Zarubinets monuments in the Middle Dnieper region. - MIA, 1969. No. 160. fig. 6. 8-Yu-. It's him. Middle Podieprovye at the turn of our era. Kyiv, 1972. table. XIII, 10, II. XIV. in: 3 ai o r n i s in F. M. Pochep-skoye village.-MIA. 1969. No. 160. fig. 13. 19-21.
11 Rusanova I. P. Slavic antiquities of the VI-IX centuries. between the Dnieper and the Western Bug. - MYSELF. 1973, issue. ЕІ-25, table. 32; Khavlyuk P.I. Rannesla-Vyanskns settlements in the Southern Bug basin. - In the book: Early medieval East Slavic antiquities. L, 1974. Fig. 11, 20; Lyapushkin I. I. Novotroitskoe ancient settlement. - MIA, 1958, No. 74, fig. 10; Rickman E. A., Rafalovich I. A. Khynky I. G. Essays on the cultural history of Moldova. Kishinev. 1971, fig. 12; Yura P.O. Ancient Kolodyazhin. - Archaeological monuments of the URSR. Kiev. 19G2, vol. 12, Fig. 29. 10; Vazharova Zh - Slavic and Slavic-Bulgarian settlements in the Bulgarian land of the 6th-11th centuries. Sofia, 1965, p. 18. 32; Hachulska-Ledwos R Material at archeologiczne Nowej Hut u. Krak6w. 1971, v. 3; Cilinska Z. FrUhmittelalterliches Graberfeld in Zetovce. - “Arehaeologica Slovaca-catalogi”, Bratislava. 1973. v. 5.
12. Chernyagnn N. N. Long mounds and hills - MIA. 1941, No. 6. table. VIII. 28; Sedov V.V. Long mounds of the Krivichi. - CAM, 1974. issue. PІ-8, table. 27, 18.
13. Lyapushkin I.I. New in the study of GNSZ-lov. - AO 1967. M., 1968. p. 43-44; Shmidt E. A On the issue of ancient settlements in Gnezdovo. Materials on the study of the Smolensk region. Smolensk 1974, issue. VIII. rice. 7. 13. 14.
14. Shmidt E. A. Mounds of the 11th-13th centuries near the village. Kharlapovo in the Smolensk Dnieper region. .Materials on the study of the Smolensk region. Smolensk 1957. issue. 2. p. 197-198; Sedov V.V. Rural settlements central regions Smolensk land. - MIA. 1960, .V? 92. fig. 36.
15. Lyapushkin I. I. Monuments of the Saltovo-Mayatsk culture. - MIA, 1958, No. 62. p. 125, fig. 18.
16. Sorokin S.S. Iron products from Sarkel - Belaya Vezha. - MIA, 1959, No. 75. p. 147.
17. Mikheev V.K., Stepanskaya R.B., Fomin L.D. Knives of the Saltov culture and their production. - Archaeology. Kyiv. 1973. issue. 9. p. 90-98.
18. Collections of Verkhnesaltovsky (partially), Ust-Lubyansky. Dmitrovsky. Borisov burial grounds are kept in the State Hermitage.
19. Shramko B. A. Antiquities of the Seversky Donets. Kharkiv. 1962. p. 282; Kuznetsov V. A., Runich A. P. Burial of an Alan warrior of the 9th century. - SA. 1974. No. 3. fig. 1. 14; Koren I to V. A. Alanian graves of the 8th-9th centuries. North Ossetia. - SA. 1976, no. 2, p. 148-157; Runnch A.P. Rock burials in the vicinity of Kislovodsk. - SA, 1971, X? 2. p. 169. fig. 3.7;
20. Shramko B. A. Antiquities.... p. 282; Runich A.P. Burial - fig. 3. 7.
21. Peterson I. Vikingetidens redskaper. Oslo. 1951, fig. 103-110, s. 518; Arbman H. Birka i die Griiber. Ta-fcln-Uppsala, 1940.
22. Hackman A. Die alterc Eisenzeif in Finnland. Bd. 1. Helsingfors. 1905, S. 12-13.
23. Orlov S. N. Newly discovered early Slavic ground burial ground in Staraya Ladoga. - KSIIMK. 1956, Khch 65. p. 94-98; Gurevich F. D. Works of the Slavic-Lithuanian detachment of the Baltic expedition - KSIIMK. 1959, No. 74. fig. 41: Leontyev A. E. Classification..., fig. I, 7; Raudonikas W. I. Die \"or-mannen der Wikingerzeit und das Ladogagebiet. Stockholm. 1930; Nerman B. Grobin-Seeburg Ausgrabfungen und Funde. Stockholm. 1958. Abb. 209.
24. Kolchin B. A. Ironworking craft of Novgorod the Great. - .MIA. 1959. L? 65. p. 48.
25. Sizov V.I. Kurgans.... p. 53.58; Leontyev A. E. Classification..., fig. I. 7.
26. Kolchi n B. A. Decree. cit., p. 53.
27. Ibid., p. 48.

Since ancient times, a knife has been both a weapon and a household item. Difficult o list all areas of activity where a knife was and is used: cooking, pottery and shoemaking, making wooden products, hunting.

In addition, a knife has always been considered a worthy and expensive gift. After all, sacred properties have always been attributed to the knife. And the use of these weapons was often accompanied by special rituals and conspiracies.

In ancient times, a man received a knife almost immediately after birth.The father forged a knife for the newborn with his own hands or ordered it from a blacksmith. Often, a knife, along with other sharp and hard objects: scissors, keys, arrows, pebbles, animal teeth, was placed in the boy’s cradle. It was believed that this provided strength, endurance, and strength of character. These items were removed from the cradle after the child’s first teeth appeared. When cutting a child's hair for the first time, he was seated on a table, usually on a casing, under which a spindle or comb was placed for a girl, an ax or knife for a boy. The knife was used as a talisman in many rituals and love spells. He protected from evil spirits, gave strength and confidence. A knife should not be given to a stranger. In the minds of our ancestors, the knife was a powerful carrier of energy, both good, creative, and aggressive and destructive.

Knife in battle.

The Byzantine chronicler Procopius of Caesarea in the 6th century wrote about the weapons of the Slavs: “The warriors’ shields are made of ox leather, light, and all weapons are light - spears made of strong wood..., cubit-long swords and short knives, as well as scabbards for them, are successfully made.” The above quote describes the combat equipment of a Slavic warrior of the 6th century. It is also known that several centuries later the knife did not lose its status military weapons. It is known that the strong and combat-ready squad of Prince Svyatoslav was armed, including with shoe knives. Researcher Maria Semenova writes: “Each warrior had with him a knife, a convenient household and camping tool, which, of course, could serve in battle. The chronicles, however, mention their use only in heroic martial arts, when finishing off a defeated enemy, as well as during particularly stubborn and brutal battles.”

When challenging an enemy to a fight, a knife was also used. In this case, the weapon was stuck into the ground or into the “mat” if it happened indoors. Currently, scientists call knives longer than 20 cm “combat” knives.

Combat knives: 1 – skramasaks, 2 – underside knife, i.e. worn with saadak, 3 – boot knife, 4 – traveling knife, 5 – daggers.

Knife as an attribute masculinity.

There have been cases in Rus' when the ban on carrying a knife was perceived as a direct insult to male dignity.

Usually the knife was worn on a belt or in the top of a boot. The first method is considered more ancient. During holidays or rituals, the knife was usually shown and put on display. It is believed that most rituals associated with sticking a knife into the ground are associated with fertility. Mother Earth, Mother Cheese Earth personified femininity and fertility. And a knife or dagger, respectively, is masculine. The knife entering the ground symbolized the fertilization of the earth. It is not for nothing that on some ancient figurines the idols very clearly depicted a dagger instead of the male reproductive organ.

But the perception of the earth as a woman, and the knife as a symbol of the masculine principle, was rather not sexual, but epic, global, universally giving birth.

Knife at the dinner table.

The attitude towards the knife at the table was no less solemn. For example, bread was cut either by the owner of the house or by the eldest woman. When the family gathered at the table, the owner would cut the bread decorously and with great respect, placing it on his chest. It was forbidden in ancient times, and is still considered a bad omen, to eat from a knife. The knife was placed on the table only with the blade facing the bread. At night, all sharp objects were removed from the table to avoid quarrels and conflicts.

Conducted archaeological excavations and scientific works of historians involved in the study of Ancient Rus' indicate the widespread use of edged weapons such as a knife by the ancient Russians. Boot - this definition was given to a small-sized blade that was attached to a warrior’s boot and was considered a concealed weapon. According to other sources, he was an indispensable assistant for ancient Russian horsemen when refueling arrows. The Russian boot knife was found in many burials, which indicates the high effectiveness and popularity of this weapon.

Slavic boot knife

How to carry a blade was invented, taking into account the peculiarities of what was traditional at that time for everyone Slavic peoples shoes - boots. These shoes provided the owner with comfortable and safe movement in the steppe or in the forest - they protected their feet from blows from branches or snake bites. The absence of laces was very convenient, which made it possible to quickly put on shoes. And most importantly, it was very convenient to hide a knife behind the top of the boot. Over time, it became a tradition among the Slavs to hold a knife behind the top of their boot.

What did a Russian “shoemaker” look like?

The design of the bladed weapon made it possible to pierce the enemy on the left side - in the hypochondrium area. Characteristics knife:

• Length - 25 cm.
• The curved shape of the narrow blade made it possible to reach the heart upon impact.
• The blade had a raised tip.
• Sharpening - one and a half.
• Traditionally, the knife handle was wrapped with a leather cord. It was designed to absorb sweat and blood. In combat conditions, this was necessary, as it prevented the knife from slipping in the hand.

• The presence of a lanyard - a special loop made of hemp or leather cord. The lanyard made it possible to quickly remove the weapon from behind the top of the boot and prevented the risk of losing a knife during the battle. The boot blade, if equipped with a lanyard, could be used with a different grip.

In its structure, the blade resembled the tusks of a wild boar, which, when attacking, strikes from the bottom up, lifting the enemy. The Russian boot knife was designed based on this principle of destructive action. The photo below shows the design features of traditional edged weapons.

Wearing Features

One of the advantages of carrying a knife in a boot was the ability to get it out in time. For this purpose, the blade was most often located in the right boot, and for left-handers - in the left. The knife was attached in different ways:

• the sheath was sewn to the inside of the boot;
• a sheath with a blade was tied to the leg;
• A special pocket for a sheath was attached to the top of the trousers.

The rules were followed:

• the handle must be hidden behind the top of the boot;
• if a lanyard was present, it could be visible;
• Only a small part of the pommel could stick out outside the boot.

Boot knife from 1917 to 1945

From the time of the revolution until the end of World War II, one of the attributes of the criminal element was a knife. The traditional way of wearing boots was now applied to finches, which were also convenient to hold behind the top of the boot. This arrangement freed up the hands and hid the bladed weapon from prying eyes. When carried in this way, a knife was an ideal means of protection for criminals in various hopeless situations.

During the Second World War, this knife was also widely used by Soviet soldiers. The boot blade had undergone some changes by this time:

• length was 250 mm;
• butt thickness - 7 mm;
• the blade was tetrahedral, convex and double-edged.

This form made it possible to inflict mortal wounds on the enemy. The blows were delivered between the ribs, hitting the enemy on the spot.

Modern “shoemakers” are even more different from traditional models. Now such knives are classified as utility knives. They are provided with one-sided sharpening and a spine thickness not exceeding 0.4 cm. According to these parameters, a boot knife is not a bladed weapon, the acquisition of which requires the appropriate permit. Now anyone can buy a “shoemaker” if they wish.

Cossack boot knife

Cossacks and weapons are inseparable concepts. A knife, as one of the elements of equipment, is considered an invariable companion of every warrior.

The differences between the Cossack model of the “shoemaker” and the traditional Russian one are in the following parameters:

• the total length of the Cossack knife is 2 cm longer and amounts to 29 cm;
• handle length of Cossack bladed weapon - 13 cm;
• blade length - 16 cm;
• the presence of the mark of the blacksmith-manufacturer on the Cossack blade;
• the wooden handle is equipped with a braided lanyard;
• For the manufacture of Cossack sheaths, bovine leather is used.

“Will and Faith”

One of the very impressive examples of Cossack “shoemakers” is the “Will and Faith” knife. This product is made of Damascus steel. It contains elements of gold and silver. The knife is characterized by highly artistic design, which indicates talent, skill, perseverance and love for the knife as a reliable assistant.

The wooden handle is made from expensive breeds. The sheath contains a special leather lining, which ensures smooth insertion of the blade and its fixation, preventing loosening. At the top of the handle there is a recessed nut containing a ring to which a braided leather cord is attached. On the surface of the knife there is an image of a Russian floral ornament. Nearby, in the style of Church Slavonic writing, there is an inscription “Will and Faith”. The high-quality processing of metal and wood is admirable. This Cossack boot knife can be considered an example of decorative and applied art.

A boot knife made by modern professional craftsmen will be an excellent gift for a hunter, tourist, fisherman or collector.

The knife is a symbol and a necessity. The knife has been and remains one of the most important objects that accompany a person throughout his history. Nowadays we sometimes stop noticing it, because the knife dissolves among many other things surrounding a person’s life. But in the distant past, a knife was often the only metal object that a person possessed. was an attribute of any free person. A knife hung on every woman's belt. A child, at a certain age, received a knife that he never parted with. Why was this subject given such importance?

The knife was not only an everyday functional item. Ancient people perceived the world through the prism of magic. Therefore, the magical functions of the knife, which our ancestors believed in, were no less important. He had many magical properties, which he shared with his owner, and they tried to never give him into the wrong hands. They swore on it. They protected themselves from witchcraft. The groom gave it to the bride upon engagement. When a person died, the knife went with him and was placed in the owner’s grave.

This is, of course, a somewhat idealized picture. IN real life they lost knives and bought new ones, lent them, gave them as gifts, and those that had served their purpose - knives sharpened almost to the butt - were simply thrown away. The knife was a universal and most common tool. This is confirmed by the fact that knives are often the most common finds during excavations. In Novgorod, at the Nerevsky excavation site alone, 1,440 copies of knives were found. During excavations of ancient Izyaslav, destroyed by the Tatars, 1358 knives were found. The numbers are impressive, aren't they? It seemed like the knives were simply lost in batches. But this is of course not true. Even if we take into account the corrosion of metal that has lain in the ground for hundreds of years, it is still clear that many knives are chipped and broken, that is, they have lost their working functions. This suggests the conclusion that the quality of the products of ancient blacksmiths was not very high... In fact, their quality was relative - just like in our time. There were high-quality knives that were expensive, and there were cheap consumer goods. The first category included precisely those knives that in Rus' any free person, regardless of his gender, wore on his belt. Such knives were of quite high quality by modern standards. They cost good money. The second category consisted of those knives whose quality was incomparably lower than Chinese stainless steel on the layouts. They really often just broke down. When this happened, they were given to blacksmiths for reforging. And more often, out of frustration, they threw it “to hell, out of sight.” But we will not allow ourselves disrespectful remarks addressed to ancient Russian blacksmiths. Their capabilities and technical arsenal were very limited. Our contemporary, even a very high-level blacksmith, deprived of high-quality steel and tools for processing it, will be able to do little in such conditions. Therefore, let us pay a deep bow to the ancient blacksmiths - they are the best because they were the first!

Geography

Ancient Rus' occupied a vast territory. So huge that many question whether there was such a state at all? A lot suggests that Rus' was essentially a huge trading enterprise, like “ Hanseatic League" (Or a closer example is the “Hudson's Bay Company”, which existed in North America in the 18th century). The main goal of such enterprises was the enrichment of merchants and rulers, the exploitation of natural and human resources in territories that were difficult to manage due to their enormous size. “The core of the state of Rus' (called by the cabinet term “ Kievan Rus“There was, as we know, a relatively small region of the middle Dnieper region - from the Desna to Russia, which led the process of the birth of feudal statehood in the vast expanse of Eastern Europe - from the Vistula to the Volga and from the Baltic to the Black Sea” (B. A. Rybakov).

An indirect confirmation of this assumption can be the essay “On the Administration of the Empire” by the Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus (905-959), which mentions the lands of “Inner Rus'” (only!) when it concerns the territories immediately surrounding Kyiv.

The author of “Getika” (“History of the Goths”), Jordanes, who exalted the Gothic “Empire of Germanaric” in the mid-6th century, describes a vast territory from the Black Sea to the Baltic Sea, listing the many tribes that lived on it. There was never such a huge empire of the Goths, but the deciphering of the names of the tribes and their order of listing in the book allowed E. Ch. Skrezhinskaya to assume that Jordan took the guidebooks that once existed as the basis for his description. (Greek “Itineraria”). They described the lands from the Baltic to the Caucasus. All these lands in the “itineraria” had the ethnic names of the tribes that lived on them. The existence of such guidebooks is already early Middle Ages indicates close trade ties between many peoples of Eastern Europe.

Many different peoples and tribes took part in the creation of the union on the territory now called “Ancient Rus'”: Slavs, Finno-Ugrians, Balts, Varangians, steppe nomads, Greeks. Sometimes it even seems that it is difficult to give the palm to any of them! But still we will proudly hand it over to our Slavic ancestors. Their language and culture became the basis of the territorial entity that entered the history of human civilization under the name “Rus”. But it has absorbed a lot from other peoples entering or coming into contact with it. Blacksmithing, in particular, is a prime example of this.

From time immemorial in Rus' there have been two competing centers. These were Kyiv and Novgorod (later Moscow took over the baton of Novgorod). Sometimes they found ways of mutual understanding, but more often this was not the case. The lands of Kyiv and Novgorod were too different. Different nature, different neighbors. Too much distance separated them from each other. A one-way trip could take a month or more. At the same time, along the road we often met people who were not Slavs at all, and it was impossible to ignore this by passing their lands.

These differences are confirmed by the peculiarities of blacksmithing in Kyiv and Novgorod. (And in a broader sense, these are the southern and northern lands of ancient Rus'). Therefore, it is quite difficult to talk about ancient Russian knives “in general.” We will have to conditionally divide our story into two parts and talk separately about knives that were made and used in different places - in the north and in the south. The time of their existence is also a very important aspect. Over the entire existence of Kievan Rus, knives have undergone such an evolution that it is simply impossible to talk about some kind of generalized “Old Russian Knife”. It was always an object related to a specific place and time. By the way, as a result of this evolution, two different directions in which the production of knives developed in the north and south came closer and, over time, a certain common type of knife arose. But this fact is not characteristic exclusively of Rus'. This happened throughout Europe. The determining factors for this phenomenon were not the ethnicity of the knife, but the economic feasibility of its production, plus the available natural resources.

Among the studies in the field of ancient Russian blacksmithing, the most fundamental and complete work remains the work carried out by the famous Soviet archaeologist B. A. Kolchin. He was an unusually inquisitive researcher. Already in his declining years, he found my teacher V.I. Basov and spent a lot of time in his forge, forcing him to melt iron in the house and forge ancient Russian knives. He carefully recorded the results of his observations.

B.A. Kolchin subjected to microstructural analysis a huge number of archaeological finds dating back to the era of “Ancient Rus'”. This allowed him to draw important conclusions regarding changes in design and manufacturing technology, and to divide knives by type of functional purpose. True, he conducted his research, as a rule, on the basis of Novgorod archaeological material. The result of this one-sided approach was somewhat hasty conclusions regarding the uniformity of blacksmithing techniques and methods throughout ancient Rus', including its southern part. But the fact is that this was what was required of him then. He wrote his work in the 50s, and this was the time when the idea of ​​“Great and Mighty Rus'” was developing. Within its boundaries, everyone had to understand each other perfectly and form a single whole of one enormous people, in some way subtly reminiscent of the Soviet one. The Finno-Ugrians were generally mentioned in passing. Well, how could it be that someone taught Russians how to forge?

Thank God, Kolchin’s students and followers lived not only in Leningrad and Moscow. Some of them firmly settled in Kyiv. As befits scientists, they undertook a thorough study of local material and made interesting observations that in some places complement and sometimes refute the master’s conclusions. G. A. Voznesenskaya, D. P. Nedopako and S.V. Pankov, staff Kyiv Institute Archaeologists, with their scientific works, substantiated the historical independence and originality of Southern Rus' back in Soviet times, which is clearly manifested in blacksmithing.

Neighbours

The Novgorod Slavs lived next to the Finno-Ugric tribes (Livs, Ests, Vod, Izhora, Korela, Ves, etc.). In addition, Scandinavians actively visited them. Both of them were noble blacksmiths, especially the first ones. Just look at the legendary blacksmith Ilmarinen from the famous Finnish epic “Kalevala”!

It is somewhat inappropriate to talk about the Slavic influence on the northern region in blacksmithing; it was more likely that the Slavs were apprentices here. Finno-Ugric tribes had such high level development of the blacksmith's craft, which you never cease to admire when looking at their creations. And this should not be surprising!

First of all, the reason for their mastery is the wealth of natural resources. There is a lot of firewood - burn birch charcoal as much as you need. There are swamps everywhere, which means there is iron ore in them. In short, there is a place for working people to roam. But it’s difficult to grow anything here. The earth produces meagerly, the winters are long and cold. But I still want to eat. Therefore, all human energy and ingenuity went into the development of crafts.

Quality products found buyers everywhere. Kievan Rus, with its strong emphasis on international trade, helped establish a stable market. Many tribes fed blacksmithing. Looking ahead, I can say that Novgorod products were generally of better quality than Kyiv ones. But this is not the merit of the Slavs who began to settle in this northern region. They came here possessing the same level of blacksmithing art as the Slavs of the Dnieper region. But having begun to develop the lands that would later be called Novgorod and Pskov, the Slavs learned a lot from their neighbors, the Finno-Ugric peoples, in the field of blacksmithing technologies. And local nature helped them translate this knowledge into thousands of beautiful things, without particularly worrying about saving charcoal and metal.

Southern Rus'. Little iron and wood. A lot of food.

Unlike their northern neighbors, the Slavs living in the Dnieper region (the territory of present-day Ukraine) were not distracted by all sorts of crafts there, but traditionally engaged in a simple and understandable task - growing “their daily bread.” Natural conditions and available resources contributed to this particular activity here. Blacksmithing has always been a side business for them, designed to serve the main line of activity - Agriculture. Therefore, all products of the Dnieper Slavs were as simple and functional as possible. In other words, it was a balancing act between spending the least amount of effort and getting the maximum result.

Living conditions dictated precisely this approach. In the forest-steppe zone, there is little forest suitable for burning coal. But there are a lot of people living here and everyone needs firewood for heating in the winter. There are also, thank God, fewer swamps than in the north. Iron is often not locally produced but imported - hence it was more expensive. Steel is generally in short supply. There was no time to become sophisticated in the craft: “there is stubble on the nose, but we still need to forge two hundred and fifty sickles for the whole district!”

Nevertheless, the blacksmiths here were not bad either. They forged everything that the local population needed. They could, if necessary, forge a sword. They were also familiar with blacksmithing techniques common in the north and used them when there was time and there was enough coal. The blacksmith craft of the Dnieper region in those days was characterized by very archaic techniques, but this was due to the desire for simplicity. The roots of these techniques go back to the ancient Celtic culture, Scythia and Byzantium. It was with these peoples that the ancient Slavs of the Dnieper region came into contact and at one time adopted blacksmithing skills from them. The nature of their forging production was focused on domestic consumption. The blacksmith, first of all, served the agricultural community in which he lived and of which he was an integral part. Its access to the foreign market was limited, and it was hardly possible to establish any more or less constant production for “export” given the meager raw material base. At the same time, there is always a demand for grain and other food products. And if you need a good knife, you can spend money and buy the one that the northerners brought. We generally tend to underestimate the trade relations of those times. Everything you needed could be bought then. The main thing, as they say, “would be for what and why.”

So, when comparing technologies, let’s not tip the scales in someone’s favor here. The northern and southern Slavs were parts of a single huge territorial entity, much larger than the territory now traditionally belonging to the state of Kievan Rus. Living in this huge system, consisting of a wide variety of components, each person nevertheless belonged to a specific place and did what Nature dictated to him and life itself suggested.

Photo 1

The shape of the blade was determined by two factors. The first is, of course, the function of the knife, its purpose. The second important factor, often not taken into account, is manufacturing technology. At a time when there was little iron, steel was a rarity and the preparation of coal took a lot of effort and time - everything was aimed at optimizing the technology and reducing the cost of labor and materials to a minimum. Northern blacksmiths, masters at that, still did not make an exception. They knew their limits in their pursuit of sophistication in forging technology. Therefore, the shape of the blade often turned out to be the result of a certain sequence of forging operations, which seemed to be the most rational at that time.

In principle, the silhouette of the bulk of ancient Russian knives resembles modern ones. The back could be straight, it could bend up or down, just like now, depending on the purpose and personal preferences. The main difference between Old Russian knives is their pronounced wedge-shape in all directions: length and thickness (Photo 01)

Why were ancient knives so different from modern ones? Now, in most cases, when talking about a forged knife, we mean a plate flattened under a pneumatic hammer, from which the final shape of the blade is then turned using abrasive wheels or cutters. In ancient times, such technology did not exist (you can’t grind off much metal on a sandstone abrasive wheel with a manual or foot drive). But most importantly, the craftsmen strived to ensure that not a single grain of precious iron was wasted. It's hard for us to understand because we are surrounded by mountains of scrap metal. For an ancient blacksmith, the modern approach to making a knife is tantamount to making a rolling pin out of a log, and turning everything “else” into chips. Therefore, in ancient times knives were actually forged. The knife blank was pulled with a hammer to the very tip, giving it the desired shape and cross-section, so that in the end all that remained was to slightly straighten it on a wet sharpener (Photo 2). (In fairness, it should be noted that doing this with modern alloy steels is quite problematic. They are hard and deform much worse when forged. In addition, modern alloy steels have a much narrower heating temperature range for forging than the steel with which we were dealing ancient blacksmiths. He overheated it a little and “goodbye, the piece of iron is gone!”)

Photo 2. Forging sequence

This wedge-shaped blade shape in some way compensated for the softness of the material from which the knife was made. And often it was ordinary iron. The wedge in the cross-section of the blade corresponded to the sharpening angle and was 15-25 degrees. Thus, the cutting edge was supported by the entire cross-section of the blade, right up to the butt. The vast majority of Slavic knives of the 10th-12th centuries found by archaeologists are, according to modern ideas, very small. The length of their blades does not exceed 10 cm, the width is about 2 cm, but the massive butt at its widest point reaches 6 mm. (The average blade size of these knives lies within 7-8 cm). When sharpening such a knife, it was placed on the stone with the entire side plane of the blade. Therefore, simultaneously with sharpening, the side edges of the blade were constantly polished and, consequently, cleaned from traces of corrosion. A good option for keeping a knife always in excellent condition in the absence of stainless steels! (By the way, with this method of sharpening a knife, the cross-section of the blade gradually took on the shape of a convex wedge and the sharpening angle gradually increased. This happened because while sharpening his knife, the owner tried to press the blade harder against the stone).

Photo 3

Let's look at knives from the point of view of their functional purpose. B.A. Kolchin, based on the archaeological material available to him, divided all ancient Russian knives into eight types, depending on their purpose.

The first type is household “kitchen” knives. The handles, wooden and bone, are purely functional and therefore without any special decorations. A characteristic feature of these knives (according to Kolchin) is that the axis of the handle is parallel to the straight spine of the blade. My opinion is that this feature is secondary for kitchen knives. The functional purpose is determined by the line of the blade, and the inclination of the butt in this case is secondary - the straighter the blade, the further it goes down (Photo 03).

Photo 4

The second type is household “table” knives. They differ from the first ones in that they were larger and longer, and their handles were decorated with various ornaments (Photo 4).

It is difficult to say now how different these knives are in purpose. And the theoretical “kitchen-dining” orientation of the use of these knives seems to me not entirely appropriate in this case. In my opinion this is one type - utility knife, the so-called “household life” according to the police classification, popularly called simply “worker”. And the sizes of such knives depended on the wishes of the customer. However, such a knife could be used very successfully for hunting, and, if necessary, as a bladed weapon. Stops (crosshairs) are not found on Old Russian knives. By the way, Finnish women don’t have them either, but this circumstance did not stop the Finns from successfully using their small knives as military weapons. The line of inclination of the butt on the blade of these knives could be different and this also speaks in favor of the fact that these knives were universal. And further. A decorated table knife, it seems to me, does not fit well with the way of life in ancient Rus'. Most likely, such a knife was a hunting knife.

Photo 5

Photo 6

Photo 7

The third type according to the classification of B.A. Kolchina are working “carpenter’s” knives. They are characterized by a downward curved blade, reminiscent of a scimitar (Photo 5). Kolchin writes that they resemble modern garden knives, but such a parallel seems far-fetched to me (Photo 6). Garden knives are still intended mainly for cutting tree shoots with a cross cut, and not for planing along the grain of wood. And the task of the “carpenter’s” knife was to plan, because for cutting there was a wood saw, widely represented in archaeological finds. It is quite possible that this is just another type of utility knife of a shape that is characterized by a straight blade and a downward curved spine. And the pronounced “sickle shape” of the cutting edge is explained in this case simply by the quality of the blade. I showed a scimitar-shaped knife to woodworkers. They believe that planing wood is extremely inconvenient for them. For planing, the so-called “jamb” is much more suitable - a knife in which the blade is directed at forty-five degrees to the handle and has a one-sided sharpening (Photo 7). (To personally verify the functional suitability of knives with a straight blade and a scimitar-shaped one, I made several different samples. Planing wood with a downward curved blade turned out to be really extremely inconvenient. On the other hand, “peeling” potatoes with a knife with a straight blade turned out to be very easy (Photo 8). Of course. in those days there were no potatoes in Rus', but turnips, for example, were a favorite addition to porridge - the main food of the Slavs. Probably vegetables in those days were “peeled” the same way as now. Therefore, I believe that primary symptom Purely kitchen knives have a straight blade and, as a consequence, a spine line lowered to the tip. The harmony of the blade with the butt going down creates the illusion of a sickle shape, which, in my opinion, misled B.A. Kolchin in his classification. An indirect confirmation may be the shape of the blade of a Japanese kitchen knife (Photo 9). Its blade line tends to straighten and with a certain number of resharpenings it will take on a crescent shape.

Photo 8

Photo 9

The fourth type in this classification are working “bone-cutting” knives. Kolchin mentions them, but unfortunately does not provide drawings in his works. To be honest, I find it difficult to imagine which specific samples from the found archaeological material the scientist attributed to this group.

Photo 10

Photo 11

The next, fifth type, are working “shoe” knives. They had a massive, wide and short blade with a smoothly rounded end (Photo 10). In this case, there is no need to argue about the appointment. These knives were found in shoemakers' workshops.

There is also a group of knives for working with leather. They differ from the above-mentioned “shoe” knives in the shape of their pointed tip. These are so-called “grind-cutting” knives. They were intended for cutting leather products. These knives were made of all metal and at the end of the handle there was a stop for thumb(Photo 11). (This stop was in the form of a riveted “penny”, bent towards the blade at a right angle to the handle). By pressing the knife vertically, from top to bottom, it was possible to cut any shape from a piece of leather lying on a board.

Photo 12

The sixth type is, according to B.A. Kolchin, “surgical” knives. This conclusion was made by the scientist based on the fact that one of the knives found was made entirely of metal, that is, the metal handle was forged along with the blade. (But unlike a shoemaker’s all-metal “grinding” knife, “surgical” ones are larger and do not have an emphasis on the handle). Very similar to a scalpel. According to Kolchin, this knife was intended for amputations (Photo 12).

The seventh type is “small working” knives. They were used as special tools for various craft works. The length of their blade was 30-40 mm. But these could probably have been children's knives or just small incisors.

The eighth type is something that cannot be confused with anything, “combat knives”. This is evidenced by both the shape of the blade and the fact that they are a frequent find in the burial mounds of warriors. These knives have a long blade with a massive spine. The handle, as a rule, is also massive, with an elongated handle. The 20-40 mm end of the combat knife blade had a double-edged sharpening, which made it easier to deliver piercing blows. Combat knives were often worn behind the top of a boot, which is why they were called “shoemakers.” In “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” (XII century) it is the “shoemakers” who are a symbol of the valor of the Slavs.

Photo 13

“These are the devil of shields, and shoemakers
With a click the pluckers win,
Ring to your great-grandfather’s glory.”

“Those (Slavs) without shields, with boot knives with a shout, the regiments win, ringing in their great-grandfather’s glory” (translation by D.S. Likhachev).

Photo 14

A special group consists of knives that Kolchin calls “folding”. This is probably not a completely correct definition. Their blades were not removed, they were replaced one with another “with a slight movement of the hand,” because this part of the knife was double-sided. This double-sided blade had a hole in the middle through which a transverse pin was passed, onto which a bone handle - a case - was attached. There was a longitudinal cut in the handle itself, where one of the blades was hidden (Photo 14).

On both sides of the hole for the pin in the blade there were cutouts for fixing the knife in one of the working positions. This cutout included a second transverse pin fixed in the handle, thus preventing further rotation of the double-sided blade. The blade rotated 180 degrees relative to the handle and one of two working blades appeared outside, depending on the owner’s wishes. One half of the double-sided blade had a straight spine with a rounded rise of the blade to the tip, which was probably necessary for working with leather or, possibly, for skinning and fleshing. The second part of the double-sided blade had a downward butt and a less rounded blade. It was probably more convenient to cut something with this blade. And the tip on this side is sharper - it’s more convenient to pierce. Here is an ancient Russian knife from a “Swiss officer”!

This is how Kolchin classified ancient Russian knives. He did not note regional differences in the shape of the knives, and this was probably done in order to emphasize the cultural homogeneity of Ancient Rus', as required by the ideology of the USSR in those years. However, I suspect that there were no sharp differences not only in the territory of Ancient Rus', but also everywhere in Europe, where only people used knives

Photo 15

But with regard to differences in time, Kolchin made some interesting observations, although they relate exclusively to Novgorod finds. It turns out that the earliest type of Novgorod knife (X-XI centuries) has a narrow blade and not very long (Photo 15). The blade width did not exceed 14 mm. The knives had a pronounced wedge-shaped cross-section due to a rather thick spine. The ratio of the width of the blade to the thickness of the butt was 3:1. The shape of the butt of these knives was straight, or at the end of the blade it was slightly rounded down. The blade length of most knives did not exceed 70-80 mm. Sometimes there were small knives with a blade about 40 mm long, or, conversely, large ones, with a blade reaching up to 120 mm. This form of knife, according to Kolchin, is characteristic and unique for the 10th-11th and early 12th centuries. At the beginning of the 12th century, sharp metamorphoses began to occur with the Novgorod knife. It becomes much wider and much thinner, and this despite the fact that the length of the blade has increased compared to the previous period of time. The blade width of these knives is now 18-20 mm. The spine of the knife is usually straight. In the 13th century, the blade of a Novgorod knife became even thinner, wider and longer.

According to B A Kolchin, evolution old Russian knife(using the example of the Novgod finds) occurred in this direction. From ancient knives with a small narrow blade, but a very massive spine, to larger and wider blades with a decreasing width of the spine. And although such a time dependence is built into a coherent system, I still dare to challenge the meter’s conclusions on this matter. But I will try to do this a little later, when we get acquainted with ancient Russian blacksmithing technologies. Then I, as a blacksmith, will have the right to do this.

Unlike Novgorod, southern Rus' did not demonstrate such a pronounced evolution of the shape of the blade. The knives here looked more or less the same for many centuries. Perhaps the oldest samples are a little shorter, but this hardly fits into any system. Perhaps this is simply due to saving metal. The knives of the ancient Dnieper region are close to the modern understanding of what a universal knife should be.

Regarding the method of attaching the handle, it should be noted that, as a rule, it was mounted on a shank drawn onto a wedge, as in a regular file. The handle is most often of a simple shape, oval in cross-section. The hole for the shank was burned with a pointed piece of iron heated to red. No drills for you, everything is right there at the forge, near the forge. If you cut serrations (“ruff”) on the shank with a chisel, you get a very reliable attachment. It is comparable in strength to that where epoxy resin is used. In addition, burnt wood resists moisture well. This assembly method was used in almost all ancient Russian knives, regardless of the time or place of manufacture. Occasionally, a handle assembly was used, in which wooden or bone plates (cheeks) were riveted to the flat shank. I have not seen any mention of mounting the handle on the shank, when it has passed its entire length and is riveted at the end on a metal washer.

Technologies

It’s amazing how much becomes clear when you stop speculating, and just go to the forge and start forging a knife with your own hands. In scientific language, this approach is called “experimental archaeology.” But there may be danger here, since a modern forge with an air hammer and a forge running on coal or gas are completely unsuitable. Recreate ancient blade manufacturing technologies using modern tools and materials - it’s the same as coming to the gym to practice traditional martial arts with a Kalashnikov assault rifle. These are completely different things, incompatible with each other. That is why, at one time, I consciously abandoned the “benefits” of civilization and began to work in the same conditions as the blacksmiths of antiquity. I will not hide that this approach requires effort and time, which is not easy to afford in our fast-paced era. But the reward was invaluable practical experience, which I am happy to contribute to the general treasury of knowledge. I hope that it will serve well everyone who is ready to jointly contribute to the preservation of historical heritage.

Simple technologies

Figure 16

Before you begin presenting the material, you should familiarize yourself with the basic concepts. All knives can be divided into “welded” and “solid forged”. Moving from simple to complex, let's start with “solid forged” knives. What's the simplest thing? The simplest thing is to take a piece of iron obtained in an ancient Russian domnitsa and, giving it a certain shape with a hammer, forge a knife. This is how it was done before. No heat treatment will do anything in this case. Maybe do cold peening to seal the metal (like riveting a braid). Such knives were “soft”, quickly ground down, but still somehow cut, and therefore there were a huge number of them.

The old Russian domnitsa was a pit with a nozzle at the bottom through which air was supplied. In other words, it was a very deep forge. The pit could be raised above the surface by erecting walls, and then a shaft was obtained. Charcoal and bog iron ore were loaded into this “pit” in layers (Fig. 16). Ore is a compound of iron and oxygen. Charcoal is almost 100% carbon. When coal burns, the carbon reacts chemically with the ore. In this case, oxygen combines with carbon, forming gaseous carbon monoxide, and is removed from the iron (this is the so-called reduction process, known from a school chemistry course). A very important point: the iron did not melt (!), since everything happened at a temperature of about 1000 degrees, and the melting point of iron is 1539 degrees. At the same time, only waste rock melted, which formed slag, accumulating at the bottom of the mine. The iron itself had a porous, shapeless appearance and was therefore called spongy. After restoration in the blast furnace, it was necessary to forge it many times in order to “squeeze out” the slag, which at first runs like “juice from a squeezed lemon,” only the juice is white-hot. Dangerous but beautiful work. By the way, in ancient times this slag was called “juice”. They said: “The iron has released juice.”

The next step in increasing the complexity of the technology and improving the quality of products is forging a knife from a piece of steel. Under certain conditions, in the ancient Russian domnitsa it was possible to obtain not only “high-grade” iron, but also material with a certain, very small carbon content (about 0.5%). This is the so-called raw steel. The material, of course, is very mediocre, but still, if you heat it up and put it in water, it becomes somewhat harder. This happened due to the fact that the temperature in the blast furnace increased and the proportion of coal to ore increased slightly. The excess carbon did not combine with the oxygen of the ore, but passed into reduced iron. The result was low-grade steel.

Nowadays, that’s basically what they do: they take steel and forge a knife out of it. Only high quality and hard steel is used. Previously, this was practically not done, except for small knives or cutters, which were pointless to weld due to their small size. There was, as I already mentioned, very little steel and it was saved.

In the modern blast furnace it goes even further and the reduced iron is carbonized to such an extent that it becomes cast iron. Its melting point is much lower than iron, so it is released from the blast furnace in liquid form. After this, the excess carbon is “burned out” with the help of oxygen (the so-called open-hearth or Bessemer processes) and, thus, a material with the required amount of carbon is obtained. As you can see, everything is the other way around!

And if there is no steel, there is only strong iron and you need to make a hard knife? Is there really no way out? It turns out there is!

Probably, even in ancient times, blacksmiths noticed that if a soft iron object, heated red-hot, is left in smoldering charcoal for some time and then lowered into water, it becomes hard. Why is this happening?

Figure 17. Cemented blade

If you asked an ancient blacksmith about this, he would probably talk about the magic and magic that happens in the forge (I also adhere to this view). But scientists explained everything to us and destroyed the fairy tale. All this happens because carbon from coal passes into the surface layer of iron. Thus, steel is obtained. This process is called cementation. This is the most ancient and simplest method of making steel objects. It is very difficult to control the process with this technology, since the temperature in the forge can fluctuate and even fall below the level when the transition of carbon to iron occurs. And if you start to strongly inflate the bellows, the reverse process will begin - excess oxygen will begin to “burn out” carbon from the metal. In general, it’s like this: “It’s difficult, but it’s possible.” And at the same time without any special technical wisdom (Fig. 17).

A further improvement to this “magical” process is that the item being turned into steel is separated from the volatile environment of the forge by being enclosed in a container, such as a pot filled with coal. Or you can wrap it in leather and coat it with clay. When heated, the skin will turn into coal, that is, into carbon. Now blow as much as you want, but no air will get inside the container, and you can “catch up” a fair amount of temperature. And at high temperatures the process will go faster, and the carbon concentration may increase!

Welding technologies

Next, let's move on to “welded” knives. Welded blades consist of several pieces of iron and steel that are forge welded into one piece. What is forge welding? This is when the metal is heated, as my teacher put it, “until a pig squeals” (that is, white-hot), so that it seems like it is about to burn. If you put two pieces heated in this way together and hit them with a hammer, they will join into one whole, so that the seam will not be visible if you then forge it well. Miracles, and that’s all! There were two pieces, now there is one. Welding technologies can use materials with different properties, such as steel and iron. The main goals that were pursued were the following:

1. Savings. In my opinion, this is the most important reason why this technology was used. Steel was previously made from iron by cementation. It was a lengthy process that required certain labor and materials, and steel was much more expensive than iron. Therefore, knives were assembled from several pieces of varying quality.

2. To increase the strength of the blade. Good steel, although hard, is brittle at the same time. This was especially evident in ancient times, when the resulting metal was dirty (it always contained slag, which deteriorated the quality of steel) and did not contain various alloying additives. But iron is the opposite: bend it in any direction and you won’t break it. If you made a knife from just one metal, it turned out badly. The solution was to combine metals with different properties together.

3. For beauty. This, of course, is Damascus, now beloved by everyone. There is a special conversation about Damascus steel, but I will limit myself to just stating the fact that the main purpose of Damascus is decorative and only secondarily - for the strength of the blade, but certainly not for hardness.

The welding technologies used in the manufacture of ancient Russian knives (by the way, exactly the same technologies were used all over the world, so you won’t hear anything new here) can be divided into the following groups:

Figure18

1.Steel core and iron side plates. This is the so-called three-layer technology or, as they say now, laminated steel (Fig. 18). Some dreamers attribute self-sharpening properties to such blades, but, unfortunately, this is not the case. Lamination technology has survived well to this day and is used all the time: from mass-produced Scandinavian knives to safety razor blades (Photo 19).

Photo 20

2. A variation of the previous one - “five-layer” technology, which, according to B.A. The keel should give the knives additional bending strength. But, in my opinion, the reason here is most likely again in saving metal. Steel of significantly worse quality was used for the outer linings. And perhaps this is the most primitive example of decorating a blade using welding technology. The blade of such a knife has a beautiful wavy white stripe running along the blade, where the iron layer came to the surface (Photo 20).

3. And now everything is the other way around - “girth” welding: the outside is steel, and the inside is iron (Fig. 21). A Japanese technique typical of katana swords. It was rarely used in ancient Russian knives, but it was still used, although it is not clear why. Completely uneconomical in terms of steel use. It gives good impact strength, but who would thresh with a knife as much as with a sword? (Perhaps only in combat?..).

If in the technologies described above steel was present in all parts of the cross-section of the blade, then in the following groups it is located only on the cutting edge. This is economical and, as practice shows, provides certain advantages in terms of strength. The only drawback is that when the steel is ground down, the knife loses its properties. In the cases described above (with the exception of “girth” welding), the knife can be used until it is completely ground off - there will always be steel left on the blade.

Figure 22

Photo 23

4. End welding. The steel strip is welded at the end to the iron base (Fig. 22). The main disadvantage is the small area of ​​connection between two different materials. But, as a rule, with a certain skill, the weld is quite reliable. Similar to the three-layer laminated technology, end welding is still used today. An example of this is, in particular, high-quality blades for metal hacksaws manufactured by the Swedish company Sandvik. A strip of high-speed steel on which teeth are cut is welded to the base of the spring steel sheet using electron beam welding (Photo 23). The result is a very flexible blade with a strong and sharp tooth, offering good performance and a long service life.

Figure 24

Figure 25

5. Lateral (“oblique”) welding. With this manufacturing method, the seam area increases slightly, which makes it possible to reduce the number of “lack of fusion” and is guaranteed to improve the strength of the connection between the steel blade and the iron base (Fig. 24).

In fact, it is difficult to draw a clear line between the two technologies mentioned above. If you begin to pull back the blade of a strip welded to the end, striking only on one side of the blade, then the result will be almost a side weld. So, in its pure form, side welding can be considered as such when the angle between the butt and the weld seam approaches a straight line (in cross section). This can be achieved when, as a blank for the package, strips with a wedge-shaped section drawn at the edges are taken and folded into a “jack”. The result will be a knife that is almost iron on one side and steel on the other (Fig. 25).

Photo 26

Photo 27

6. Welding “spindles”. The connection area increases even more, but the labor intensity of the work also increases. Just don’t think that someone cut the metal lengthwise with a chisel and put steel there. In fact, this is a type of three-layer (“batch”) technology, just more economical in terms of the amount of steel used. For such welding, they took two iron strips, drawn onto a wedge on one side, and inserted a steel strip of a wedge-shaped cross-section, with the drawn side inward. Then this package was forged and thus a blade blank was obtained (Photo 26)

There was another version of this technology. A strip of iron was bent lengthwise, like a gutter. A strip of steel was then placed in this channel and welded together (Photo 27).

7. Welding “to the girth at the end”. This is a variation of the technology mentioned above and, again, the desire of blacksmiths to save steel (Fig. 28).

Figure 28

In addition, there were combined technologies. In this case, a three-layer (or five-layer) technology was used, but the central steel liner had only a lower part, which was welded at the end or obliquely.

8. The production of Damascus steel is difficult to identify as a separate technology. This is a combination of the technologies already mentioned above. The main purpose of Damascus, as I already mentioned, is as a decorative decoration that increases the value of the blade. He did not perform other functions, since from a technical point of view, the totality of the same qualities can be achieved much more in simple ways. In terms of complexity, there are no particular difficulties in making Damascus. Anyone who was familiar with forge welding (and in ancient times every experienced blacksmith had such knowledge) could make Damascus steel. And he did it when a richer customer came across, since to make it it was necessary to burn twice as much coal, spend more time, and more metal was wasted. That's all. I believe that this is precisely what explains the small number of knives made of welding Damascus found on the territory of Ancient Rus'. It was simply unprofitable to do them. And even about the few samples that have been found, there are doubts. They may not be locally produced, since spectral analysis shows that the metal contains nickel, which was not present in local ores. Similar to the case of an expensive foreign item purchased to show off. A large number of The number of finds made from welded Damascus in the places where they are found is determined, in my opinion, by one thing - the existence of a fashion for Damascus (which we observe even today: Damascus has again become fashionable and therefore the market is saturated with it to the limit).

Photo 30. Damascus knife from Novgorod

To understand what an ancient knife made of welding Damascus was, you should understand the main thing: Damascus was used only for the insert in the middle part of the blade, as a rule, when using end welding (Photo 29, 30). Very rarely - on facings using the “three-layer” technology, mainly in the manufacture of swords. As we can see, in ancient times the use of Damascus was limited, unlike today, when the entire blade is most often made from Damascus and then they try to convince you that it is a “super thing”. In ancient times, it never occurred to anyone to engage in such hack work. The same can be said about the “millions of layers” with which they try to seduce the unlucky buyer. Ten layers give a wonderfully beautiful contrasting pattern and sometimes this is all that is required (Photo 31). To be fair, I note that now there is a tendency to assemble Damascus from high-carbon and alloy steels. Such a blade will have an acceptable cutting edge, but you must agree that in this case we are going far beyond the scope of ancient technologies. In ancient times, Damascus blades had ordinary steel on the blade, which did not have a pattern. Although, however, the process of making iron, and, consequently, steel, necessarily included “packing”, in which slag was squeezed out of “flashy” porous iron with a hammer and the material was compacted and cleaned. So any piece of ancient iron is essentially Damascus. And if you etch it, then a “wild” pattern, as it is romantically called now, will appear on the surface. The Japanese have elevated this pattern to a cult on their katanas and achieve its manifestation on the blade by polishing. But the decorative purpose in this case is secondary; the pattern is, first of all, proof of compliance with traditional sword manufacturing technology.

That, in principle, was all that was available to blacksmiths, regardless of where they lived - in Rus' or in Africa.

Return to history

B.A. Kolchin established that early Novgorod knives (narrow and with a massive spine - see “Blade” No. 1, 2005) were made according to a “three-layer” pattern. Its widespread use in Ancient Novgorod is another proof of the continuation of the Finno-Ugric blacksmith tradition, which is characterized by this particular technology. It was used not only in knives, but also in other welded products with a steel cutting edge, such as spears, which has been proven by relevant archaeological research.

Photo 32

Another interesting point. According to Kolchin, the wedge-shaped cross-section of the blade was given not by forging, but by grinding off excess material from the side surfaces of the blade. This can be seen from the microstructure. If the knife were pulled back, the middle steel part would also have a wedge shape (Photo 32)

Based on the fact that with such a blade design the knife can be used until it is completely ground off, Boris Aleksandrovich Kolchin decided that this is the most progressive technology. The further evolution of the ancient Russian knife, in his opinion, followed the path of simplification. First, combined welding, when the central liner had a narrow steel blade to a shallow depth. And then a complete transition to end cutting and other technologies. Moreover, the steel part was constantly decreasing in size and by the 14th-15th centuries. turned into a completely narrow strip. We saved, saved and saved more! In addition, he sees three-layer technology as more durable. Allegedly, it is this design of the blade that guarantees the knife’s resistance to fracture!

Photo 33

From the very beginning, I was intrigued by the description of an ancient Novgorod knife with its thick spine and narrow blade (let me remind you - the ratio is 1:3, that is, with a blade width of 18 mm, the spine at the base of the blade is 6 mm (Photo 33). Having made a knife according to these descriptions, I tried to use it. The result was very disastrous. You can, of course, cut something, but it is so difficult that it is unclear why the Novgorodians created so many problems for themselves. In short, I doubted Kolchin’s statement that “this is the only form" of the blade for of that time. And a sinful thought crept into my mind. Indeed, a three-layer knife can be used almost until it is completely ground down. But what if the finds are precisely knives that have been sharpened to the utmost, which were thrown away (and this is precisely the fate of many archaeological finds) when they are completely it was impossible to use them due to the extremely narrow blade.This also explains the strange technology of turning a blade from a whole strip with abrasives, when the cross-section results in a “convex wedge”, rather than pulling the blade back using the forging method. Sharpening a blade at that time would have been, firstly, an incredibly long task (with the means available at that time - a wet sandstone sharpener and a file with a rough manual notch). But most importantly, this is not economical and fundamentally contradicts the ancient approach to such work. After all, the deeper you go into antiquity, the more expensive iron is. In my opinion, they were simply “ground” to this state during operation.

Photo 34

Remember, in the previous issue of “Blade”, I said that an ancient knife sharpens the entire plane of the blade? And while sharpening his knife, time after time, the owner, pressing the cutting edge more firmly, involuntarily gave the cross-section of the blade more and more convex shapes, thereby increasing the sharpening angle. And having thus brought the blade of his knife to a state where it was already problematic to cut anything, he simply threw the knife away. And this despite the fact that its core was steel, and theoretically it could be brought to working condition. And for this it was necessary to slightly correct the edges of the wedge and make the butt thinner. But they didn’t do this, therefore, it was not advisable! What can we say about completely grinding a new knife?!

Kolchin himself accepted this final result as the “starting point” of the new knife. Although he himself notes that the shape of one knife is not stable and changes by sharpening during use (Photo 34). And he himself refuted the classification attempts put forward before him, proving that this is just one “universal” form of a knife, changing during its use.

Meanwhile, knives with a welded steel cutting edge can have a wide blade only because they were thrown away much earlier, when the welded blade was ground off. In this case, to what extent does three-layer technology seem more progressive? But didn’t the ancient blacksmiths, in their economy, go so far as to weld steel onto the blade only to the level where the cross-section of the blade allowed the knife to be used normally?!

Regarding the strength of the blade, I also have certain considerations. The crack extends across the blade, doesn’t it? And she walks on steel. Therefore, there are no obstacles to its movement with a “three-layer” scheme. All that holds it is fairly thick iron plates. Meanwhile, with end welding, an obstacle appears directly in the path of the crack. Based on my practical experience, I can say that three-layer knives break more often and immediately in half. Those welded to the end may become “pockmarked”, they may have cracks on the blade, but the iron still prevents the blade from breaking.

Three-layer knives have another very unpleasant feature, which I have repeatedly noted in the process of making them. They are strongly “driven” during hardening. Warping, of course, can be eliminated by cold straightening, after hardening, but I must say, again based on my practice, this is a rather risky operation, especially if the hardness of the steel insert exceeds 57 units on the Rockwell C scale. One wrong blow and a whole day of work down the drain - the blade shatters in half. Butt-welded knives “lead”, firstly, much less, and secondly, you can knock on them much more boldly after hardening. Isn't this the answer to the question why the vast majority of ancient European swords used end welding technology, rather than a three-layer package? After all, for a sword, more than anything else, impact strength is important, even at the expense of hardness. A dull sword is better than a broken one.

Based on the above, we can draw the following conclusion: there was no decline in the quality level of blacksmithing production in Ancient Rus'. On the contrary, its evolution took place on the basis of accumulated practical experience, during which production methods that were inappropriate, both for economic and technological reasons, were discarded. Here I see a direct analogy with the “secret of damask steel”, which was not so much lost as it turned out to be unclaimed due to the emergence of such a material as alloy steel (steel where, in addition to carbon, other elements are present in more or less significant quantities, for example chromium, molybdenum , vanadium, etc.). This made it possible to bring steel closer in technical characteristics to cast damask steel at much lower production costs. The main factor is the possibility of establishing large-scale production, which was especially important during the industrial revolution. As we see, in our post-industrial era, interest in damask steel arose again and its secret was “rediscovered”!

But let's not dwell on this controversial issue. Let's go further. Let's now see how knives were made in Southern Rus', that is, in the vicinity of Kyiv and downstream of the Dnieper. Previously, it was believed that the same technologies were used here as in Novgorod. But thanks to the research of Ukrainian scientists, which I already mentioned at the beginning of the article, it turned out that knives were made differently here. It turns out that it was the “solid forged” technologies that prevailed. According to Ukrainian scientists, products made of iron and “raw” steel accounted for more than half of total number finds. A significant proportion of them are knives that are “carburized” in finished form. Welding technologies were used much less frequently. There are no more than a quarter of the found samples of knives made using these technologies.

What is the reason for such a pronounced difference between Novgorod and Kiev? At first glance, it is not clear what prevented the artisans of Southern Rus' from welding the blade with steel, which significantly improves its working properties. But this is only if there is ready-made steel! In the north, thanks to a good raw material base, iron and steel production was established as a separate industry, which was carried out by professionals. In addition, ready-made high-quality steel from Scandinavia arrived in Novgorod. Thanks to these circumstances, the northern cutler did not have to rack his brains about where to get quality materials - he simply bought ready-made ones. Unlike the north, in the southern Russian lands the problem of raw materials was much more acute. The community blacksmith, and it was precisely this form of blacksmithing that gravitated towards in the Kyiv lands, provided himself with raw materials. Therefore, the technologies used here were archaic and extremely simple. At the beginning of the article, a lot was said about the differences between the North and South of Rus' in terms of the availability of natural resources necessary for blacksmithing. Let me remind you once again of this very important conclusion, made due to the fact that I am not only a blacksmith, but also studying ecology at the university. In the North there is a lot of forest (read firewood for burning charcoal) and swamp ore. But due to the cold climate, growing grain crops (food) is much more difficult than in the South. In the South, in the forest-steppe zone, the situation is exactly the opposite. The further into antiquity, the more a person depends on natural conditions. Therefore, first of all, those types of activities for which there were the most favorable natural conditions developed.

When a South Russian (Kyiv) artisan needed to improve the mechanical properties of a knife, the blade was cemented in its finished form. After all, steel was prepared by the same carburization process. What's the point of doing double work: first cementing the piece of iron for a long time, spending a lot of time on it, and then welding it to the product, spending a lot of coal on it. And the carbon that burns out at the same time deteriorates the quality of the steel. In such a situation, it is much more logical to cement the finished product.

Photo 35. Old Russian pottery kiln

According to B.A. Kolchina, this method (cementation), was very unproductive in comparison with welding technologies due to the labor intensity and duration of the process. For example, in order to create a more or less acceptable carburized layer on a knife, a minimum of 5 hours is required. But cementation makes it possible to process several products at the same time. And you don’t need to put in much effort. He put five knives in a pot of crushed coal, covered it with clay and put it on the fire. Just know, throw some firewood! And if you make an agreement with a local potter, you can put several of these pots in his oven during firing! In this case, we can already talk about serial production of products in terms of time, effort and fuel spent (Fig. 35).

Living mainly in an ordinary Ukrainian hut, heated by a wood stove, I came to the following cementation method. I put a metal case filled with charcoal on the finished iron product, and then simply put it in the furnace firebox, along with the firewood. As it turned out, a temperature of 900 degrees is achieved easily and simply, the main thing is that the firewood is dry (Photo 36). And if you heat it with oak wood and chop it into smaller pieces, the workpiece generally heats up almost white-hot. So, along with heating my modest home and cooking food, I simultaneously work on the blacksmith’s part, without particularly straining and staying warm and well-fed. A very Ukrainian approach, I must tell you! If a small layer is needed, morning and evening heating is sufficient. If it’s deeper, then I leave it for two to three days).

Photo 36. Blanks heated in an oven until red hot

I am sure that the blacksmiths of antiquity could not ignore this method. I remember I even read somewhere about an old man who, at the beginning of the last century, melted damask steel in an ordinary Russian stove in a pot, and then the secret went with him to the grave. It is hardly possible to reach the temperatures necessary for melting the charge and preparing cast damask steel in a Russian furnace. But cementation followed by long-term exposure to form a coarse cementite mesh, in my opinion, is quite realistic (given the corresponding design features of the Russian furnace).

Summarizing all of the above, we can draw the following conclusion: technologies are determined not by the level of development of society or the ethnic characteristics of the people, but, above all, by local natural conditions and economic feasibility.

Bogdan Popov.

(the text is a compilation of a number of articles from the scientific works and practices of a number of modern pagans)
We are so accustomed to the knife that when we use it every day, we don’t think about what kind of object we own. It is like the air we breathe; we only notice it when it is absent. The word knife itself is known to everyone, from baby to old man, but few know how it appeared. Our ancestors used it in battle long swords, sabers, spears, when it came to hand-to-hand combat, short foot swords attached to the leg were used. Over time, the word sword fell away, and knife was shortened to a short word - knife. We still use this word to designate this ancient object. Where there is history, there are traditions and rituals. And there are many rituals associated with the knife, and this is logical. There are more than thirty names for the knife itself!
Berestyannik, dezhnik, karnachik, kvashennik, dagger, treasure trove, rivet, gag, logs, hammer, mower, pigtail, kosnik, mower, bone cutter, jamb, kotach, kshennik, shovel, misar, musat, woman’s knife, penny knife, man's knife, chef's knife, carving knife, nosik, secretok, cutter, chapel, chapel - 31 and that's not all.
The use of a knife at the dinner table required compliance with certain rules. A knife for cutting bread at dinner, in the family circle, was given only to the owner, when everyone was already at the table; the owner took a loaf of bread and drew a cross over it with a knife, and only after that he cut it and distributed it to family members.
The knife should be with the blade facing the bread. It was not allowed to eat from a knife, so as not to become evil (here the connection with murder and bloodshed is expressed - directors widely use this technique in films).
You couldn’t leave the knife on the table overnight—the evil one could have killed you. Not
If you gave someone a knife with its point, there would be a quarrel with that person. There is another explanation, but that will come later.
The knife served as a talisman against evil spirits, so it was not given to a stranger, especially if they knew that the person was bad, because... the knife can become “infected” with its dirty tricks
The knife was widely used in rituals, during love spells, in folk medicine, etc. In maternity rituals, a knife was placed under the pillow of the woman in labor, along with fragrant herbs and three woven wax candles, to protect against evil spirits.
When the baby appeared, the father forged a knife himself, or ordered it from a blacksmith, and this knife accompanied the boy, youth, man all his life.
When a child was brought into the house, after the naming ceremony, a knife, along with coal, an ax and keys, was placed on the threshold of the house, over which the parents and the child had to step (step), and often the child himself was applied to objects lying on the threshold.
The knife, along with other sharp and hard objects: scissors, keys, arrows, pebbles, animal teeth, was placed in the child’s cradle immediately after his birth, which was supposed to make up for the “insufficient hardness of the child” and was not removed until his first teeth appeared.
If a child did not begin to walk for a long time, a “tow” was tied to his head. Without a spindle, the mother spun a long and thick thread and made “fetters” out of it, which she used to entangle her legs. standing child, took a knife and cut the “fetter” between the feet on the floor. The ritual was called “cutting the bonds” and was supposed to help the child quickly learn to walk.
When cutting a child's hair for the first time, he was seated on a table, usually on a casing, under which a spindle or comb was placed for a girl, an ax or knife for a boy.
In men's associations, parties, and artels, everyone was required to carry a knife or dagger, made specifically for combat use and not used anywhere else.
The use and carrying of a knife was strictly regulated.
There are three known wearing methods:
1- on the belt,
2- in the boot top,
3- in the pocket on the chest.
We are interested in the position “on the belt”, because it is considered more ancient.
During the ritual, the knife was often shown hanging on the belt, while on weekdays it was carried secretly. Hanging knife; (dagger) on the belt was very functional in wartime.
Everywhere in the Tver region they emphasize the connection of the combat knife with the concept of manhood, honor, and courage. The ban on carrying a knife was perceived as an insult to male dignity.
Everywhere among the Slavs, a knife and scissors were used to protect persons in a situation of “transition”: pregnant women, women in labor, newborns, and especially unbaptized children and newlyweds. A pregnant woman carried a folding knife in her pocket to protect herself from the evil eye. Along with other sharp objects and thorny plants, the knife was placed next to the woman in labor (stuck into the door frame, placed under the pillow, under the bed) to protect her from damage and evil spirits. When leaving home in the six-week period after giving birth, the woman in labor had to take a knife with her, usually tucking it into her belt, hiding it in her pocket or in her bosom, so that she could not be spoiled and so that she could not harm anyone with her ritual impurity. A knife, along with a needle, salt, coal, a piece of bread, a piece of brick from the stove and other amulets were placed under a child’s pillow or cradle, stuck into the cradle from below to protect him from the evil eye, to prevent evil spirits from reaching him that could exchange him on his cub. When the newlyweds left the house, heading to the church, a knife was stuck in the ground in front of them, and all the wedding participants stepped over it. When building a house, the knife was placed under the front corner with the tip pointing to the west, so that no one could harm the house and household, so that it would “prick itself” on the knife. Before putting on a new shirt, a knife was passed through it to neutralize the damage. When they were poking, winding or weaving, a knife was tucked into the belt to protect the work from the evil eye.
The knife was widely used to protect against evil spirits and fight against them. With a knife, like other iron objects, they drew magic circle to protect yourself from evil spirits during Christmas fortune-telling at a crossroads or when obtaining a fern flower on Kupala night; a person who is oppressed by pestilence must circle the house with a knife three times (Bosnian Herzegovinian). A knife, scythe, ax, sickle was placed on the threshold, on the window, stuck in the doorposts and gates so that evil spirits could not enter the house: sometimes it was believed that the sorcerer could not enter the house at all, because there, along with the icon and cross, there is a knife. The knife was placed in bed at night to protect oneself from the zmora (Serbian, Croatian, Dalmatian), striga (Horvian), vampire (Serbian), brownie (v-bel), walking dead man (s-rus). The knife was placed in the coffin of an “unclean” dead person: a sorcerer (poles) or a vampire (yu-slav), so that they would stab him if they wanted to rise from the grave after death. To save the deceased from the fate of a vampire, a large knife was stuck in front of his head while he was lying in the house (Bosnia).
In cattle-breeding magic, the knife was used as a talisman for livestock against damage, disease, predatory animals, witches and sorcerers. During the first herding of cattle, a knife, as well as scissors, a sickle, a scythe, an ax and other iron amulets were placed under the threshold of the barn, placed in the gate at the entrance to the pen, making sure that the cattle stepped over them, and also stuck into the ground or above the doors , through which the cattle passed, they dragged them with them when walking around the herd, and waved them crosswise over the cattle. On “dangerous calendar dates, for example, on Kupala, along with other sharp objects and thorny plants, a knife was stuck into the wall, roof, doorways of the barn, placed under the threshold, believing that in this case the witch would not be able to penetrate the barn and take away the milk ( forest.).
When using a knife for protective purposes, actions such as sticking a knife and crossing with a knife had special semantics. In addition to the fact that sticking was one of the ways to place a knife in a protected space (by sticking it into a cradle, wall, door frame, belt, etc.), in a number of cases it could acquire stopping semantics. To prevent thunder from hitting the tree under which the person is standing, a knife is stuck into the tree (forest). If you “dreamed” about a dead person, to stop it, they stuck a knife inside the bowl (poles.).
Sticking a knife, on the one hand, blocked the path of danger, and on the other, symbolically “fenced” the carrier of danger to one place. It was believed that the whirlwind could be stopped by sticking a knife into the ground - in this case, the whirlwind would spin in one place until you remove the knife (woodland). When a hail cloud approached, they stuck a knife into the ground to turn the hail away from the crops (Serb.). To prevent fleas in the house, during thunder they stuck a knife into the ground and said: “Thunder, thunder, for fleas” (Ukrainian). When the bride was sent to the young man's house, a knife was stuck into the ground in the courtyard of her house to protect her from damage (woodland). A charm knife stuck into the ground protected a person or cattle from the attack of wolves (V.-Bel.); on St.'s day Yuri, during the first pasture of cattle they stuck a knife under the threshold of the hut so that the wolf would not touch the cattle (in white). If the cow did not return home for the night, the healer would “spot” the lost cattle by sticking a charmed knife into the wall of the passage.
The knife is a symbol and a necessity. The knife has been and remains one of the most important objects that accompany a person throughout his history. Nowadays we sometimes stop noticing it, because the knife dissolves among many other things surrounding a person’s life. But in the distant past, a knife was often the only metal object that a person possessed. In Ancient Rus' (IX-XII centuries), a knife was an attribute of any free person. A knife hung on every woman's belt. A child, at a certain age, received a knife that he never parted with. Why was this subject given such importance?
The knife was not only an everyday functional item. Ancient people perceived the world through the prism of magic. Therefore, the magical functions of the knife, which our ancestors believed in, were no less important. He had many magical properties, which he shared with his owner, and they tried to never give him into the wrong hands. They swore on it. They protected themselves from witchcraft. The groom gave it to the bride upon engagement. When a person died, the knife went with him and was placed in the owner’s grave.
This is, of course, a somewhat idealized picture. In real life, they lost knives and bought new ones, lent them, gave them as gifts, and those that had served their purpose - knives ground almost to the butt - were simply thrown away. The knife was a universal and most common tool. This is confirmed by the fact that knives are often the most common finds during excavations. In Novgorod, at the Nerevsky excavation site alone, 1,440 copies of knives were found. During excavations of ancient Izyaslav, destroyed by the Tatars, 1358 knives were found.

From the extensive theoretical part above, you have the opportunity to choose dozens of methods for using a knife by a modern pagan in your life, including in ritual practice.
It remains to make a small recommendation for the ritual knife spell, which is based on the NLG of several practitioners and the processing of ancient spells.
For ritual religious practices, a knife is a frequently used tool.
In rituals associated with cutting off and restriction, a knife is used if the ritual process involves “reification of the unmanifested.”
To make many protective and ritual objects, a knife is used to apply sacred graphics.
In addition, the ritual knife is used to bring animals to the required place, if by lot it fell to be brought with a knife.
Thus, there can be three ritual personal knives. Chisel, ritual knife, knife for making sacrifices. You can combine all functions in one. It's optional.
The dedication of a knife is not much different from the dedication of any other ritual object. Several conditions must be met.
– The knife must be purchased directly for this purpose.
– When purchasing, you cannot haggle or take change.
– The knife should not be used for anything other than its intended purpose.
– A self-forged knife must be completely forged on its own - from the ore to the product, no one should touch the material. Otherwise, it’s better not to bother blacksmiths with these tips unnecessarily, and if you are not a blacksmith, prepare the finished product.
Direct sanctification.
(this is not dogma, just advice)
Do not forget about APPEALS to all those Forces to which you resort for help, and the demands of these forces!
The purchased knife should lie in running water for a full moon in such a way that the moon “sees it.”
After cleansing, the knife must lie for the waxing moon on a natural altar or temple of a predetermined God. If he “leaves” the altar, it means he is unfit.
It’s not a bad idea to leave the knife hanging on a tree so that the Winds blow through it, at least for a full week.
A PART of the ritual is published that directly concerns the knife spell - in general, look for advice on the stages of the rituals in our group!
After preparing the place and all stages of the beginning of the ceremony, the central part begins:
1. additional binding to the owner. Drop blood onto the blade so that it spreads and dries on its own. Do not specifically wash or rinse off. CAUTION – DO NOT CUT YOURSELF WITH THE KNIFE, BUT DRIPP YOUR BLOOD ON IT.
Ritual Knife Spell:
In the presence of living fire, the spell is pronounced three times.

There is an iron pillar, on that pillar there is an iron man, he tempers the iron tightly - firmly, the iron is sharp, the iron is strong, what lay in the ground did not lie, what burned in the fire, did not burn out, was not wasted in running water - It was filled with strength, It was not carried by the winds - it was full of strength, strength in strength, strength came out, both in height and in depth, and will overcome everything, here and here and everywhere, be sharp as a word, be quick as lightning, where I say you will go, then you will cut it, so that there was nothing superfluous, nothing else, everything was according to my word, everything was in my will, everything was good and healthy!
(put a lock on the conspiracy in your own way - some with an action, some with a verbal formula, think about it yourself)))
After three days at night, I take a knife under my pillow during the day. Further store with ritual objects, act at your own discretion.
Also, an example of a plot for a knife, the plot has been greatly revised, and rather it is entirely creative))):
On the Okiyan sea, on the island of Buyan, there stands an iron pillar. On it is an iron man, He tempers damask steel, he speaks and pronounces these words to the iron:
I speak against all Spirits, Earthly and Heavenly, Underground and Underworld, against all Forest, Meadow, Field, Water and Swamp, Wind and Mountain, Naughty and dissolute demons, And from evil people against all malice and wickedness, against envy and jealousy, all kinds of withering, at a dashing glance and other evil, dirty lessons, and evil witchcraft sayings, and witchcraft spells, and for all ailments, and all sorts of harm to the belly, belittlement!
You will not be there during the days or at night, neither at the Dawn nor at the Evening, nor on the roads, nor at the crossroads, nor in the village, nor at the crossroads,
Not near rivers and banks, Not near mountains and valleys, Not near forests and swamps, Not in a house, not in any building! Where this iron is there, there is no lie! (The lock is at your discretion.)

In conclusion, I’ll also add a spell, in a small treatment for cleansing, using a knife. (processing is highlighted in CAPITAL LETTERS - the rest is authentic)
In the golden stone is the THRONE OF GOD.
There is a table, Mother Presveta MOKOSH sits on the throne, holding a copper dish and a knife. Then I will cut off the portions and the portions, and the lessons, the cuts - from the bones and from the ears, and from the clear eyes, from the white hands, from the playful legs, from the heel veins, from a single vein, from a single bone, from a single joint, from a girl from simple-haired, from the white-haired woman, from the peasant from Tsernek. Just as they came, go to the old master, to the old ataman! At dawn, and at dawn, and at midnight - and every day, and at every hour! SO BE IT! . (Rinse it in the water, whether it be for livestock or for a person, or for a child, or for someone else. Pour water into a vessel, take a knife in your hands, lower it into the water and speak.)