Features of the dynamic side of mental activity. Dynamic signs of a person. W. James, G. Lange

In domestic psychology, the opinion has long been established that the behavior of animals is inherently instinctive behavior. Instincts are also associated with those forms of behavior that are acquired by a particular animal in the course of its life.

Instinctive behavior is a species behavior that is equally directed in all representatives of the same animal species. As a rule, instinctive behavior is determined by biological expediency and consists in ensuring the possibility of the existence (survival) of a particular representative or species as a whole. But it would not be entirely true to say that the behavior of an animal is only genetically determined and does not change during its life.

The conditions in which the animal is located are constantly changing, therefore, as IP Pavlov pointed out, individual adaptation exists in all animals. For example, annelids usually react to being touched with a stick with defensive movements, but if this movement is associated with feeding, then it causes them behavioral responses associated with searching for food. The possibility of changing the behavior of daphnia, mollusks, bees, etc. has also been proven.

A feature of animal behavior in the early stages of development is that it is always motivated and controlled individual properties of objects that affect the animal. For example, as soon as an insect gets into the web, the spider runs to it and entangles it with its thread. The movement of the spider towards the victim is due to the vibration of the web.

This stage of development is characterized by Animal behavior is motivated by individual properties of an object due to the fact that they are associated with the implementation of basic life animal functions is called stage of elementary behavior . Accordingly, this level of development of the psyche is called stage of elementary sensory psyche .

Such behavior of an animal is possible due to the existence of certain organs, which are the material basis of the mental. At the stage of elementary behavior in the development of animals, differentiation of the organs of sensitivity..

Animals that have reached the stage of elementary behavior in their development have more developed organs of movement (which is associated with the need to pursue prey) and a special organ for communication and coordination of behavioral processes - nervous system. Initially, it is a network of fibers running in different directions and directly connecting sensory cells laid on the surface of the body with the contractile tissue of the animal. (net nervous system). A feature of such a nervous system is the absence of inhibition processes, and the nerve fibers are not differentiated into sensory and motor and have bilateral conduction.

In the process of further development of the nervous system, the allocation of central nerve nodes, or ganglia, is observed. This level of development of the nervous system is called nodal nervous system . The emergence of nodes in the nervous system is associated with the formation of segments of the animal's body.

In this case, the complication of the behavior of the animal is observed. First, the appearance chain behavior, which is a chain of reactions to separate, sequentially acting stimuli.

Chain behavior is characteristic of worms, insects and arachnids, in which it reaches the highest stage of development. Their search for food occurs, according to the famous Russian zoopsychologist V. A. Vagner, “through any one sense organ without the assistance of other organs: touch, less often smell and vision, but always only one of them.” It should be emphasized that this line of development of behavior does not lead to further progressive and qualitative changes.

A feature of another form of behavior is that it is carried out under simultaneous m exposure to more and more stimuli. This behavior is typical for chordates and vertebrates . For example, the behavior of fish is directed by the simultaneous action of olfactory, tactile, visual, and other stimuli. At the same time, information about the acting stimuli is combined, which is possible only with a more developed nervous system than the nodal one. If in the nodal nervous system of invertebrates individual nerve nodes - ganglia are connected only by thin bridges, then in chordates and vertebrates the nervous system is a continuous cord, or tube, with a thickening of the head end - the simplest brain, which allows the animal to perform more complex behavioral acts based on simultaneous actions of various stimuli. This nervous system is called tubular nervous system (Fig. 3.5).

Rice. 3.5.tubular nervous system

Changes in the behavior of animals are explained by the development of the nervous system and brain. The volume of the brain increases, its structure becomes more complicated. Among the sense organs, vision begins to predominate. At the same time, the organs of movement also develop. The main physiological basis of animal behavior at this stage of development is the formation of nerve connections in the cerebral cortex - conditioned reflexes .

Nervous activity of the cerebral cortex was first studied by I.P. Pavlov. Among the most important laws and principles discovered by Pavlov, first of all, should be attributed the principle of closing conditional (temporary) nerve connections.

It is as follows. If a with a sufficiently strong excitation of a section of the cortex under the influence of an irritant that causes an innate reaction (unconditioned reflex), in another part of the cortex, excitation is created by the action of an irritant that does not in itself cause a definite unconditioned reflex, that is, it is neutral, then this second excitation enters into connection with the first. As a result, with repeated repetition of such a connection a neutral stimulus (such as sounds or light) will itself elicit the same response (such as salivation) that the unconditioned stimulus previously elicited(for example, a niche). The stimulus, which was previously neutral, now turns into conditioned stimulus, and the reflex evoked by it becomes conditioned reflex . Consequently, as a result of repeated repetition of the procedure, a new neural connection is closed.

Further, in his research, Pavlov discovered braking principle these connections. At the same time, Pavlov distinguished two types of inhibition: external and internal. If during the action of the conditioned stimulus some new, extraneous stimulus begins to act, then the conditioned reflex will not manifest itself - it will slow down.

In this case, we are faced with the phenomenon external braking. An example internal inhibition is extinction of the conditioned reflex. If a conditioned stimulus (for example, sound or light) is not reinforced several times in a row by an unconditioned once stimulus (for example, a beggar), then this conditioned stimulus ceases to cause a conditioned reflex - its temporary inhibition occurs.

The next principle established in Pavlov's research was principle of generalization and concentration of excitation in the cerebral cortex. It is expressed in the fact that any conditioned stimulus first gives a generalized ("spilled") excitation, which then, under certain conditions, begins to concentrate in certain areas of the cortex. If, for example, a conditioned reflex is developed in response to some stimulus, then many other similar stimuli (for example, other sounds) will initially cause it. But if only one strictly defined sound stimulus is reinforced by an unconditioned stimulus (food), then the reflexes in response to other sounds will slow down - there will be differentiation of the conditioned reflex.

The presence of the mechanisms described above, as well as the possibility of objective perception of the surrounding world, make it possible to form certain behavioral patterns in animals. skills. Therefore, the development of animals with similar mechanisms and abilities is on stages skills and subject perception.

The main feature of this stage is consolidation of the formed movements, i.e., the animal can repeatedly perform movements in the appropriate situation, which form the basis of the acquired skill. At the same time, the form of fixation of sensory experience changes: the animal first appears representation . For example, if you hide bread in one place and meat in another before the eyes of the dog, then take the dog to a place where the meat is not visible, then the dog will first run to the place where the meat is hidden, and then to the place where the meat is hidden. bread. This suggests that the dog reproduces the image of the external environment, that is, the idea of ​​it. The above example also allows us to say that animals at the stage of skills and object perception develop not only motor, but also figurative memory.

Of course, animals have developed not only memory. For example, if sound is used as an influence - one sound is associated with such a biologically important effect as food, and the other is not supported by anything - then the animal will react to the first sound and ignore the second. Therefore, the animal differentiates sounds. On the contrary, if both sounds are associated with one biologically significant influence, then the animal will respond equally to any of these sounds. Therefore, the animal is able to make certain generalization, concerning biologically important influences. Thus, at this stage of development, animals develop the ability to discrimination and generalization impact. However, these abilities cannot be interpreted as signs of thinking, since the ability to distinguish and generalize is associated mainly with the biological role of exposure.

The next, highest stage in the development of animal behavior is called stage of intellectual behavior, or intellect . But one should immediately make a reservation: the intellect of an animal and the intellect of a person are not the same thing.

Thanks to the experiments carried out by Pavlov's staff and his followers, today we have a clear idea of ​​the level of development of animals at this stage and of the features of the development of their intellect. In these experiments, a banana or orange is hung out of the reach of monkey(chimpanzee) place. In order to get food, she needs to use some kind of device, such as boxes or a stick. In these experiments, the distinctive features of animals at the stage of intellectual behavior were revealed. .

Firstly If, at a lower stage of development, operations were formed gradually, by the method of numerous trials and errors, then the stage of intellectual behavior is characterized first by a period of complete failure - many attempts, none of which is successful, and then, as if suddenly, the decision of the set task comes to the animal. tasks.

Secondly, if the experiment is repeated, the found operation, despite the fact that it was performed only once, will be reproduced relatively easily, i.e. the monkey solves the task at once.

Thirdly, the monkey easily applies the found solution to the problem in other conditions similar to those in which the solution arose for the first time. For example, if after a monkey has learned to get a fruit with a stick, it is deprived of this stick, then to solve the problem it will look for a similar object.

Fourth, animals at the stage of intellectual behavior are capable of combining in one act two successive independent operations, of which the first prepares implementation of the second. For example, a monkey is in a cage with a banana hanging from the ceiling. There are two sticks next to the cage: a short one and a long one. The long stick lies at a distance inaccessible to the monkey, it can be obtained with the help of a short stick, which is very close. Since the monkey cannot get a banana with a short stick, but can get a long one, he must first get a long one with a short stick and only then get a banana with a long stick.

In this way, during the transition to the third stage of animal development, a complication of their behavior is observed. In acts of behavior, there is a phase of preparation for the implementation of the main action. Exactly the presence of a preparation phase and constitutes a characteristic feature of intellectual behavior . We can talk about intelligence when there is a need to prepare for the implementation of a particular operation. At the same time, the new conditions for performing a certain operation do not cause the animal to perform any “trial” actions, but an attempt to apply previously developed operations or skills.

It should also be noted that since the monkey is already able to connect two such objects as a stick and a fruit, then, accordingly, the level of intellectual behavior is characterized by the presence of some ability to generalize relationships and connections of things. The anatomical and physiological basis for the emergence and development of intelligence in animals is a fairly high level of development of the cerebral cortex, and first of all, the frontal lobes. It has been experimentally proven that it is the so-called prefrontal fields that determine the possibility of performing two-phase tasks. If they are removed, the animal "loses its ability to perform complex tasks.

In this way, we examined the main stages in the development of behavior in various animals. These stages are described by A. N. Leontiev. Later, on the basis of the latest zoopsychological data, K. E. Fabry developed the views of Leontiev and developed the concept of the development of the psyche of Leontiev-Fabry. There are two stages in this concept. The first - the stage of the elementary sensory psyche - has two levels: the lowest and the highest. The second - the stage of the perceptual psyche - has three levels: the lowest, the highest and the highest. The allocation of these two stages of the development of the psyche is based on the main characteristics of the methods for obtaining information about the world around us. The first stage is characterized by a sensory mode, or level of sensations. For the second - a perceptual way, or level of perception (see Table 3.1).

Table 3.1 Stages and levels of development of the psyche and behavior of animals

(according to A. N. Leontiev and K. E. Fabry)*

Stages and levels of mental reflection, its characteristics	Features of behavior associated with a given stage and level	Types of living beings that have reached this level of development
1. Stage of elementary sensory psyche
A. The lowest level. Primitive elements of sensitivity. Developed irritability	A. Clear reactions to biologically significant properties of the environment through a change in the speed and direction of movement. Elementary forms of movements. Weak plasticity of behavior. Unformed ability to respond to biologically neutral, lifeless properties of the environment. Weak, non-purposeful motor activity	A. Protozoa, Many lower multicellular organisms living in the aquatic environment
B. Top level. The presence of feelings. The appearance of the most important organ of manipulation - the jaws. Ability to form elementary conditioned reflexes	B. Clear reactions to biologically neutral stimuli. Developed physical activity (crawling, digging in the ground, swimming out of the water to land). The ability to avoid environmental conditions, move away from them, actively search for positive stimuli. Individual experience and learning play little role. Rigid innate programs are of primary importance in behavior.	B. Higher (annelid) worms, gastropod mollusks (snails), some other invertebrates
II. Stage of perceptual psyche
A. Low level. Reflection of external reality in the form of images of objects. Integration, unification of influencing properties into a holistic image of a thing. The main organ of manipulation is the jaw	A. Formation of motor skills. Rigid, genetically programmed components predominate. Motor abilities are very complex and varied (diving, crawling, walking, running, jumping, climbing, flying, etc.). Active search for positive stimuli, avoidance of negative (harmful), developed protective behavior	A. Fish and other lower vertebrates, as well as (in part) some higher invertebrates (arthropods and cephalopods). Insects
B. Top level. Elementary forms of thinking (problem solving). The formation of a certain "picture of the world"	B. Highly developed instinctive forms of behavior. Learning Ability	B. Higher vertebrates (birds and some mammals)
B. The highest level. Allocation in practical activity of a special, tentative-research, preparatory phase. The ability to solve the same problem in different ways. Transferring the once found principle of solving the problem to new conditions. Creation and use of the activity of primitive tools. The ability to cognize the surrounding reality, regardless of the existing biological needs. Direct discretion and consideration of causal relationships between phenomena in practical actions (insight)	B. Isolation of specialized organs of manipulation "paws and hands. Development of exploratory forms of behavior with the wide use of previously acquired knowledge, skills and abilities	B. Monkeys, some other higher vertebrates (dogs, dolphins)

Firstly, the method and level of adaptation of animals to the conditions of existence is determined by the degree of development of the psyche of animals. The available scientific material makes it possible to single out several stages in the development of the animal psyche. These stages differ in the way and level of obtaining information about the surrounding world, which prompts the animal to act. In one case, this is the level of individual sensations, in the other, objective perception.

Secondly, the highest level of development of the psyche of animals at the stage of objective perception allows us to speak of the simplest intellectual behavior of animals. However, the peculiarity of animal behavior is mainly the satisfaction of their basic biological needs.

Hypothesis A.N. Leontiev on the origin of human consciousness.

In order to answer the question about the origin of consciousness, it is necessary to dwell on fundamental differences between humans and other representatives of the animal world.

One of the main differences between humans and animals lies in its relationship with nature. If a Since the animal is an element of wildlife and builds its relationship with it from the position of adaptation to the conditions of the surrounding world, then a person does not just adapt to the natural environment, but seeks to subjugate it to a certain extent, creating tools for this . With the creation of tools, the way of life of a person changes. The ability to create tools for the transformation of the surrounding nature indicates the ability to consciously work . Work - this is a specific type of activity inherent only to man, which consists in the implementation of influences on nature in order to ensure the conditions for its existence.

The main feature of labor is that labor activity, as a rule, is carried out only together with other people . This is true even for the simplest labor operations or activities of an individual nature, since in the process of their implementation a person enters into certain relationships with the people around him. For example, the work of a writer can be characterized as individual. However, in order to become a writer, a person had to learn to read and write, receive the necessary education, i.e., his labor activity became possible only as a result of involvement in the system of relations with other people. In this way, any work, even seemingly purely individual at first glance, requires cooperation with other people .

Consequently, labor contributed to the formation of certain human communities that were fundamentally different from animal communities . These differences were that firstly , the unification of primitive people was caused by the desire not just to survive, which is typical to a certain extent for herd animals, but to survive by transforming the natural conditions of existence, i.e. through teamwork .

Secondly, the most important condition for the existence of human communities and the successful performance of labor operations is the level development of communication between community members . The higher the level of development of communication between members of the community, the higher not only the organization, but also the level of development of the human psyche. So, the highest level of human communication - speech- caused a fundamentally different level of regulation of mental states and behavior - regulation with the help of the word . A person who is able to communicate using words does not need to make physical contact with the objects around him to form his behavior or idea of ​​the real world. To do this, it is enough for him to have information that he acquires in the process of communicating with other people.

It should be noted that exactly features of human communities, consisting in the need for collective labor, led to the emergence and development of speech . In its turn, speech predetermined the possibility of the existence of consciousness, since a person’s thought always has a verbal (verbal) form . For example, a person who, due to a certain set of circumstances, got into childhood with animals and grew up among them, cannot speak, and the level of his thinking, although higher than that of animals, does not at all correspond to the level of thinking of a modern person.

Thirdly, for the normal existence and development of human communities, the laws of the animal world, based on the principles of natural selection, are unsuitable. The collective nature of labor, the development of communication not only led to the development of thinking, but also led to the formation of specific laws of the existence and development of the human community . These laws are known to us as principles of morality and morality .

Thus, there is a certain sequence of phenomena that determined the possibility of the emergence of consciousness in humans: labor led to a change in the principles of building relationships between people. This change was expressed in the transition from natural selection to the principles of organizing a social community, and also contributed to the development of speech as a means of communication. . The emergence of human communities with their moral norms, reflecting the laws of social coexistence, was the basis for the manifestation of the criticality of human thinking . This is how the concepts of "good" and "bad" appeared, the content of which was determined by the level of development of human communities. Gradually, with the development of society, these concepts became more complex, which to a certain extent contributed to the evolution of thinking. At the same time, the development of speech took place. She has more and more features. It contributed to a person's awareness of his "I", the isolation of himself from the environment. As a result, speech has acquired properties that make it possible to consider it as a means of regulating human behavior. All these phenomena and patterns determined the possibility of manifestation and development of consciousness in humans.

Functions of the psyche . The manifestations of the psyche are so multifaceted that it is very difficult to give an unambiguous answer. For example, if we restrict ourselves to the statement that the psyche provides adaptation to the conditions of the external environment, then how to explain such a phenomenon as human creativity ? Should creativity be considered as a form of adaptation to social conditions, since very often creativity does not so much contribute to solving a person's problems as it gives him these problems? Another example: why does a person experience special feelings when they get acquainted with an outstanding work of art, be it a book, a picture, music, or anything else? It is unlikely that this can be explained only by the adaptive reactions of a person.. And such examples, when manifestations of various forms of the mental cannot be explained from the standpoint of expediency, can be cited a lot.

Apparently, in order to determine all the functions of the psyche, it is necessary to list all the forms and nature of its manifestation. This is unlikely to be done at present. More precisely, we can define the functions of the psyche, perhaps, only in one area. This is the sphere of interaction between living organisms and the environment (Figure 3.1). From this point of view, we can distinguish three main functions of the psyche :

reflection of the surrounding reality,

maintaining the integrity of the body,

Basic concepts on the topic

Psyche- this is a systemic quality of the brain, realized through multi-level functional systems of the brain, which is formed in a person in the process of life and mastering historically established forms of human activity and experience through his own vigorous activity.

Psyche - this is the property of animals and humans to reflect the objective world in its connections and relationships.

The human psyche it is a qualitatively higher level than the psyche of animals; it is "a subjective image of the objective world."

Approaches to the presence of a psyche in living beings:

1 Anthropopsychism(Descartes) - the psyche is inherent only in man.

2 panpsychism m (French materialists) - universal spirituality.

3 Biopsychism- the psyche is a property of living matter and plants too.

4 Neuropsychism(Ch. Darwin) - the psyche is characteristic of living organisms that have a nervous system.

5 Brainpsychism(K. Platonov) - only creatures with a tubular nervous system that have a brain have a psyche.

6 Presence of sensitivity- the criterion for the emergence of the rudiments of the psyche (A.N. Leontiev) - the ability to respond to biologically insignificant stimuli.

Stages of development of the psyche and behavior of humans and animals(according to A.N. Leontiev and K.E. Fabry):

1 stage - stage elemental sensitivity;

2 stage - stage object perception;

3 stage - stages I am intellect.

Higher mental functions- specifically human, socially historically conditioned forms of memory, thinking, perception, mediated by the use of auxiliary means, speech signs created in the process of historical development. The unity of higher mental functions forms consciousness person.

The human psyche consists of three groups of mental phenomena:

- mental processes(cognitive, emotional, volitional, motivational, etc.);

- mental states(creativity, fatigue, joy, sleep, stress, etc.);

- mental properties of a person(temperament, abilities, character, personality orientation).

Psychic reflection- it is an active reflection of the world in connection with some needs. This is a subjective, selective reflection. At the same time, the objective reality that exists independently of a person is transformed into a subjective mental reality, refracting through the individuality of the subject in the process of his behavior and activity.

mental activity depends on the characteristics of the human body and the functioning of the cerebral cortex, in which:

- sensory areas(receive and process information from the sense organs and receptors);

- motor zones(control the skeletal muscles of the body and movements, actions of a person);

- associative zones(serve for information processing).

In psychology, there are other ideas about the structure of the psyche. For example, the Austrian psychiatrist and psychologist 3. Freud identified three levels in the human psyche: the unconscious, the preconscious, and the conscious.

Main differencehuman psyche from animal psyche is the presence of consciousness, especially self-consciousness.

Consciousness- this is the highest level of mental reflection of reality by a person. Consciousness determines the preliminary, mental construction of actions, foresight of their consequences, control and management of human behavior, his ability to be aware of what is happening in the world around him and in himself.

Consciousness- this is the highest, peculiar only to a person and associated with speech, brain function, which consists in a generalized and evaluative reflection of reality, as well as its creative transformation, and preliminary mental construction of actions and anticipation of results, in a reasonable regulation of behavior.

Consciousness is the highest, unconsciously integrating form of the psyche, the result of the socio-historical conditions for the formation of a person in labor activity, with constant communication (using language) with other people. In this sense, consciousness is a “social product”, consciousness is nothing but conscious being.

Characteristics of human consciousness:

- a body of knowledge about the world around us;

- fixing in it a clear distinction between subject and object;

Ensuring goal-setting human activity;

The presence of emotional evaluations in interpersonal relationships.

self-awareness- an integral sign of consciousness, a person's assessment of himself as a person.

Structural Components self-consciousness (L.D. Stolyarenko):

Awareness of near and distant goals, motives of one's Self;

Awareness of one's real and desired qualities (real self and ideal self);

Cognitive cognitive representations of oneself;

Emotional, sensual self-image.

The structure of self-consciousness- the unity of three components (I.I. Chesnokova): self-knowledge, emotionally-valuable attitude towards oneself and self-regulation of personality behavior.

Components of the structure of self-consciousness(E.T. Sokolova):

– cognitive component(the image of the physical I);

- affective component(emotional-value attitude, self-esteem);

- behavioral component,

which have a relatively independent logic of development, but are closely interconnected.

Forms of consciousness: individual, group and public.

Unconscious- this is a set of mental processes, acts and states caused by influences, in the influence of which a person does not give himself an account. The unconscious is a form of reflection of reality in which the completeness of orientation in time and place of action is lost, speech regulation of behavior is violated, purposeful control over the actions performed is impossible, and it is also impossible to evaluate their results.

Unconscious mechanisms of conscious actions include:

- unconscious automatisms- these are acts that are performed without the participation or with minimal participation of consciousness (primary and automated actions);

- the phenomenon of unconscious installation– it is the readiness of the body to perform certain actions or to respond in a certain way;

- unconscious accompaniment of conscious actions- this is the opening of the mouth when feeding, the expansion of the pupil when perceiving an attractive object, etc.

Unconscious stimuli of conscious actions - the main ways to break through the unconscious are sleep and dreams, slips of the tongue and slips of the tongue, i.e. erroneous actions, neurotic symptoms.

Subconscious processes - these are the processes of solving creative problems (insight) that are not amenable to individual conscious-volitional control.

Temperament - Dynamic characteristics of the mental activity of the individual. It manifests itself first of all in its impressionability, i.e., the strength and stability of the impact that the impression has on a person. Temperament also affects emotional excitability, manifesting itself in the strength of emotional excitement, the speed with which it covers the personality, in the stability with which it persists. The expression of temperament is impulsivity, which is characterized by the strength of impulses, the speed with which it takes possession of the motor sphere and goes into action, the stability with which it retains its active force.

The choleric temperament is characterized by strong impressionability and great impulsiveness; sanguine - weak impressionability and great impulsiveness; melancholic - strong impressionability and low impulsiveness; phlegmatic - weak impressionability and low impulsiveness.

Temperament finds a particularly visual expression in the strength, as well as the speed, rhythm and tempo of all human motor manifestations - his practical actions, speech, expressive movements.

The dynamic characteristic of mental activity (i.e., the manifestation of temperament) does not have a self-sufficient character; it depends on the content and specific conditions of activity, on the attitude of the individual to what he does, and to the conditions in which he finds himself.

In all its manifestations, temperament is transformed in the process of character formation, and the properties of temperament pass into character traits, the content of which is associated with the orientation of the personality.

The temperament of the child is based on the properties of his nervous system - strength and lability, the specifics of the processes of excitation and inhibition. Temperament is rarely found in its pure form, but nevertheless it leaves an imprint on the educational activity of the student. Children with a weak and mobile nervous system (which are usually called melancholic) are especially sensitive to the teacher's remarks, upset because of the little things that others do not pay attention to. Their heightened sensitivity may prevent them from adapting to school. From a phlegmatic person with his strong, sedentary nervous system, one should hardly expect a quick response or instant inclusion in the performance of written work. It is worth reckoning with his slow reactions, the right to his own pace. Violent emotional reactions, restlessness of a choleric person can be the result of his temperament, strength and mobility of the nervous system, and not bad manners, as the teacher sometimes believes. It should be noted that with age, the upbringing and increasing self-control of a growing child smooth out all these manifestations, they become less pronounced and bright. To break, to eradicate the inconvenient features of the child's temperament is not only senseless, but also harmful.

The activity and everyday behavior of a person depends on the social conditions in which the personality was formed, and on the characteristics of the natural organization of a person.

Temperament - a set of typological features of a person, manifested in the dynamics of his mental processes: in the speed and strength of his reactions, in the emotional tone of his life.

Temperament is a manifestation in the human psyche of an innate type of nervous activity.

Three basic properties of nervous processes have been established - strength, balance and mobility. Various combinations of these properties form the following four types of higher nervous activity:

I. Strong, balanced (the process of excitation is balanced with the process of inhibition), mobile (the processes of excitation and inhibition easily replace each other). This type of higher nervous activity corresponds to a sanguine temperament.

II. Strong, unbalanced (the process of excitation prevails over the process of inhibition), mobile. This type of higher nervous activity corresponds to the choleric temperament.

III. Strong, balanced, inert (the processes of excitation and inhibition are not very mobile). Phlegmatic temperament corresponds to this type of higher nervous activity.

IV. Weak (the nervous system cannot withstand a large and prolonged load), unbalanced, inert. This type of higher nervous activity corresponds to a melancholic temperament.

The names of temperaments were first introduced by the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (IV century BC), who associated the types of temperaments with the predominance of various fluids in the human body: blood (sanguis) - in a sanguine person, yellow bile (chole) - in a choleric person, mucus (phlegm ) - in a phlegmatic person and black bile (melain chole) - in a melancholic. The word "temperament" comes from the Latin "tempero" - mixed in the proper ratio.

Along with the totality of the properties of nervous activity that determine one or another temperament, the following mental features can be distinguished, which in various combinations are included in the corresponding temperament.

1. Speed ​​and intensity of mental processes, mental activity.

2. The predominant subordination of behavior to external impressions - extraversion or its predominant subordination to the inner world of a person, his feelings, ideas - introversion.

3. Adaptability, plasticity, adaptability to external changing conditions, mobility of stereotypes. (Reduced adaptability, inflexibility - rigidity).

4. Sensitivity, sensitivity, emotional excitability and strength of emotions, emotional stability.

Characteristics of behavior, indicating a wide variability of behavioral reactions, deft adjustment to the conditions of a problem situation, a low role in the behavior of stereotyped reactions. The meaning is the opposite of complex behavior. Temperament type: calm, unimpressive, low flexibility of thinking. A characteristic of the higher nervous activity of an individual, reflecting how quickly mental processes proceed: thinking, attention, memory, and others. A typology of sustainable dynamic properties of activity, including the following types: sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic and melancholic. A subject with one of the four main types of temperament, characterized by a low level of mental activity, slowness of movement, restraint of motor skills and speech, and rapid fatigue. The melancholic is distinguished by high emotional sensitivity, depth and stability of emotions with their weak external expression, and negative emotions predominate. A characteristic of a person's temperament is the degree of a tendency to unbalance the processes of excitation and inhibition. Gross indicator of human activity, including the intensity of mental processes, physical activity, the number of operations performed per unit of time. One of the primary properties of the nervous system, consisting in the ability to quickly respond to changes in the environment. A characteristic of the nervous system, reflecting the rate of occurrence and termination of nervous processes, the switchability of the nervous system. (from lat. rigidus - hard, hard) - difficulty (up to complete inability) to change the program of activity outlined by the subject in conditions that objectively require its restructuring; insufficient plasticity in mental activity and behavior, difficulty switching to something new, resistance to change, a kind of impenetrability (N.D. Levitov). A subject with one of the main types of temperament, characterized by high mental activity, energy, efficiency, speed and liveliness of movements, variety and richness of facial expressions, a fast pace of speech; strives for frequent changes of impressions, easily and quickly responds to surrounding events, is sociable, emotions are mostly positive. A summary of the main properties of temperament used by various authors. Character is often compared with temperament, and in some cases these concepts are substituted for each other. An indicator of the endurance of the nerve cells of an individual, the amount of work that they are able to perform per unit of time. It characterizes the ability of the human nervous system to withstand heavy loads and stimuli. This is a natural individual feature that shows endurance and performance. Gross characteristic of higher nervous activity, reflecting how quickly the mental processes of an individual proceed. Character (a system of human relations to the world) and temperament (a stable combination of dynamic characteristics of behavior). The procedure of group psychological training. Participants describe to each other the behavior of familiar people, it is required to guess the temperament from this behavior. A characteristic of how balanced the processes of excitation are with the processes of inhibition in the nervous system of an individual. A subject with one of the types of temperament, characterized by a low level of mental activity, slowness, inexpressive facial expressions; a phlegmatic person hardly switches from one type of activity to another and adapts to a new environment; feelings and moods are constant. A subject with one of the main types of temperament, characterized by a high level of mental activity, vigor of actions, sharpness, swiftness, strength of movements, their fast pace, impetuosity; choleric is quick-tempered, impatient, prone to emotional breakdowns, sometimes aggressive. Temperament type - frequent and deep swings between sadness and joy, good and bad mood, activity and depression.

Introduction

The main properties of personality include: temperament and character. Temperament is determined by the type of nervous system and reflects predominantly innate characteristics of behavior. Temperament expresses the attitude of a person to the events taking place around him. Any person must constantly take into account the temperament of the people with whom he has to work and communicate. This is necessary for effective interaction with them, reducing the likelihood of conflict situations, and avoiding possible stress. There are no better or worse temperaments. Therefore, efforts in contact with a person should not be directed at correcting him, but at the competent use of the merits and advantages of temperament while neutralizing negative manifestations.

The temperament and character of a person determine his typical reactions to those life situations, and, accordingly, the reactions of others to his behavior. Relations between people depend on these reactions, especially in cases where people meet for the first time and do not yet know each other well enough.

The type of temperament determines the dynamic features of individual human behavior: speed. Reactions, the pace of work or communication of people, emotionality and the level of general activity. It is necessary to adapt to each type of temperament and, knowing in advance individual differences in temperaments, one can prevent the emergence of tension in relations between people.

Distinguishing between people, according to the properties of temperament, they can be quite noticeable and, most often, they are so great that they cannot be ignored and somehow adapted to them by establishing good business relations and personal relationships.

"Temperament", "character", "personality" - these concepts initially contain a complex internal dialectic. We use them to define human individuality - what distinguishes a given person from all others, what makes him unique. At the same time, we assume in advance in this uniqueness the features that are common with other people, otherwise any classification, and even the very use of the listed concepts, would lose its meaning. What exactly are the features, sides, qualities, features of a person that each of these concepts reflects? The words "temperament", "character", "personality" are used by us constantly and everywhere, they are needed and fulfill their role. In everyday communication, a fairly specific meaning is invested in each of them, and mutual understanding is achieved with their help.

Temperament

General concept of temperament

In various sources of literature, the concept of temperament is interpreted in different ways, let's consider some of them.

Temperament - these are the innate characteristics of a person that determine the dynamic characteristics of the intensity and speed of response, the degree of emotional excitability and balance, the features of adaptation to the environment.

Temperament is the physiological basis for the formation of character.

Temperament is the individual characteristics of a person that determine the dynamics of the course of his mental processes and behavior. Dynamics is understood as the pace, rhythm, duration, intensity of mental processes, in particular emotional processes, as well as some external features of human behavior - mobility, activity, quickness or slowness of reactions, etc. Temperament characterizes the dynamism of a person, but does not characterize her beliefs, views, interests, is not an indicator of the value or low value of a person, does not determine its capabilities (one should not confuse the properties of temperament with the properties of character or abilities).

We can distinguish the following main components that determine temperament.

1. The general activity of mental activity and human behavior is expressed in varying degrees of desire to actively act, to master and transform the surrounding reality, to manifest itself in a variety of activities. The expression of general activity is different for different people.

Two extremes can be noted: on the one hand, lethargy, inertia, passivity, and on the other, great energy, activity, passion and swiftness in activity. Between these two poles are representatives of different temperaments.

2. Motor, or motor, activity shows the state of activity of the motor and speech-motor apparatus. It is expressed in speed, strength, sharpness, intensity of muscle movements and speech of a person, his external mobility (or, conversely, restraint), talkativeness (or silence).

3. Emotional activity is expressed in emotional sensitivity (susceptibility and sensitivity to emotional influences), impulsiveness, emotional mobility (quickness of change of emotional states, their beginning and termination). Temperament is manifested in the activity, behavior and actions of a person and has an external expression. To a certain extent, certain properties of temperament can be judged by external stable signs.

The ancient Greek physician Hippocrates, who lived in the 5th century BC, described four temperaments, which received the following names: sanguine temperament, phlegmatic temperament, choleric temperament, melancholic temperament. The lack of necessary knowledge did not allow at that time to give a truly scientific basis for the doctrine of temperaments, and only studies of the higher nervous activity of animals and humans, conducted by I.P. Pavlov, established that the physiological basis of temperament is a combination of the basic properties of nervous processes.

The physiological basis of temperament

According to the teachings of IP Pavlov, the individual characteristics of behavior, the dynamics of the course of mental activity depend on individual differences in the activity of the nervous system. The basis of individual differences in nervous activity is the manifestation and correlation of the properties of the two main nervous processes - excitation and inhibition.

Three properties of excitation and inhibition processes were established:

1) the strength of the processes of excitation and inhibition,

2) the balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition,

3) mobility (changeability) of the processes of excitation and inhibition.

The strength of nervous processes is expressed in the ability of nerve cells to endure prolonged or short-term, but very concentrated excitation and inhibition. This determines the performance (endurance) of the nerve cell.

Weakness of nervous processes is characterized by the inability of nerve cells to withstand prolonged and concentrated excitation and inhibition. Under the action of very strong stimuli, nerve cells quickly pass into a state of protective inhibition. Thus, in a weak nervous system, nerve cells are characterized by low efficiency, their energy is quickly depleted. But on the other hand, a weak nervous system has great sensitivity: even to weak stimuli, it gives an appropriate reaction.

An important property of higher nervous activity is the balance of nervous processes, that is, the proportional ratio of excitation and inhibition. In some people, these two processes are mutually balanced, while in others this balance is not observed: either the process of inhibition or excitation predominates.

One of the main properties of higher nervous activity is the mobility of nervous processes. The mobility of the nervous system is characterized by the rapidity of the processes of excitation and inhibition, the rapidity of their onset and termination (when life conditions require it), the speed of the movement of nervous processes (irradiation and concentration), the rapidity of the appearance of the nervous process in response to irritation, the rapidity of the formation of new conditioned connections, the development of and dynamic stereotype changes.

Combinations of these properties of the nervous processes of excitation and inhibition formed the basis for determining the type of higher nervous activity. Depending on the combination of strength, mobility and balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition, four main types of higher nervous activity are distinguished.

Weak type. Representatives of the weak type of the nervous system cannot withstand strong, prolonged and concentrated stimuli. Weak are the processes of inhibition and excitation. Under the action of strong stimuli, the development of conditioned reflexes is delayed. Along with this, there is a high sensitivity (i.e., a low threshold) to the actions of stimuli.

Strong balanced type. Distinguished by a strong nervous system, it is characterized by an imbalance in the basic nervous processes - the predominance of excitation processes over inhibition processes.

Strong balanced mobile type. The processes of inhibition and excitation are strong and balanced, but their speed, mobility, and rapid change of nervous processes lead to a relative instability of the nervous connections.

Strong balanced inert type. Strong and balanced nervous processes are characterized by low mobility. Representatives of this type are outwardly always calm, even, difficult to excite.

The type of higher nervous activity refers to natural higher data; this is an innate property of the nervous system. On a given physiological basis, various systems of conditioned connections can be formed, i.e., in the process of life, these conditioned connections will form differently in different people: this will be the manifestation of the type of higher nervous activity. Temperament is a manifestation of the type of higher nervous activity in human activity and behavior.

Features of a person's mental activity, which determine his actions, behavior, habits, interests, knowledge, are formed in the process of a person's individual life, in the process of education. The type of higher nervous activity gives originality to human behavior, leaves a characteristic imprint on the whole appearance of a person - determines the mobility of his mental processes, their stability, but does not determine either the behavior, or actions of a person, or his beliefs, or moral principles.