The reason for the Crimean War. Crimean War

The spirit in the troops is beyond description. During the times of ancient Greece there was not so much heroism. I was not able to be in action even once, but I thank God that I saw these people and live in this glorious time.

Lev Tolstoy

The wars of the Russian and Ottoman empires were a common phenomenon in international politics in the 18th-19th centuries. In 1853, the Russian Empire of Nicholas 1 entered into another war, which went down in history as the Crimean War of 1853-1856, and ended in the defeat of Russia. In addition, this war showed the strong resistance of the leading countries of Western Europe (France and Great Britain) to the strengthening of Russia’s role in Eastern Europe, in particular in the Balkans. The lost war also showed Russia itself problems in domestic policy, which led to many problems. Despite victories in the initial stage of 1853-1854, as well as the capture of the key Turkish fortress of Kars in 1855, Russia lost the most important battles on the territory of the Crimean Peninsula. This article describes the causes, course, main results and historical significance in a short story about the Crimean War of 1853-1856.

Reasons for the aggravation of the Eastern Question

By the Eastern Question, historians understand a number of controversial issues in Russian-Turkish relations, which at any moment could lead to conflict. The main problems of the Eastern question, which became the basis for the future war, are the following:

• The loss of Crimea and the northern Black Sea region to the Ottoman Empire at the end of the 18th century constantly stimulated Turkey to start a war in the hope of regaining the territories. Thus began the wars of 1806-1812 and 1828-1829. However, as a result, Turkey lost Bessarabia and part of the territory in the Caucasus, which further increased the desire for revenge.
• Belonging to the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits. Russia demanded that these straits be opened for the Black Sea Fleet, while the Ottoman Empire (under pressure from Western European countries) ignored these Russian demands.
• Availability in the Balkans, including Ottoman Empire, Slavic Christian peoples who fought for their independence. Russia provided them with support, thereby causing a wave of indignation among the Turks about Russian interference in the internal affairs of another state.

An additional factor that intensified the conflict was the desire of Western European countries (Britain, France, and Austria) not to allow Russia into the Balkans, as well as to block its access to the straits. For this reason, countries were ready to provide support to Turkey in a potential war with Russia.

The reason for the war and its beginning

These problematic issues were brewing throughout the late 1840s and early 1850s. In 1853, the Turkish Sultan handed over the Bethlehem Temple of Jerusalem (then the territory of the Ottoman Empire) to the administration catholic church. This caused a wave of indignation among the highest Orthodox hierarchy. Nicholas 1 decided to take advantage of this, using the religious conflict as a reason to attack Turkey. Russia demanded the transfer of the temple Orthodox Church, and at the same time also open the straits for the Black Sea Fleet. Türkiye refused. In June 1853, Russian troops crossed the border of the Ottoman Empire and entered the territory of the Danube principalities dependent on it.

Nicholas 1 hoped that France was too weak after the revolution of 1848, and Britain could be appeased by transferring Cyprus and Egypt to it in the future. However, the plan did not work; European countries called on the Ottoman Empire to act, promising it financial and military assistance. In October 1853, Türkiye declared war on Russia. This is how, to put it briefly, the Crimean War of 1853-1856 began. In the history of Western Europe, this war is called the Eastern War.

Progress of the war and main stages

The Crimean War can be divided into 2 stages according to the number of participants in the events of those years. These are the stages:

1. October 1853 – April 1854. During these six months, the war was between the Ottoman Empire and Russia (without direct intervention from other states). There were three fronts: Crimean (Black Sea), Danube and Caucasian.
2. April 1854 - February 1856. British and French troops enter the war, which expands the theater of operations and also marks a turning point in the course of the war. Allied forces outnumbered Russians technical side, which was the reason for the changes during the war.

As for specific battles, the following key battles can be identified: for Sinop, for Odessa, for the Danube, for the Caucasus, for Sevastopol. There were other battles, but the ones listed above are the most basic. Let's look at them in more detail.

Battle of Sinop (November 1853)

The battle took place in the harbor of the city of Sinop in Crimea. The Russian fleet under the command of Nakhimov completely defeated the Turkish fleet of Osman Pasha. This battle was perhaps the last major world battle on sailing ships. This victory significantly raised the morale of the Russian army and inspired hope for an early victory in the war.

Map of the Sinopo naval battle November 18, 1853

Bombing of Odessa (April 1854)

At the beginning of April 1854, the Ottoman Empire sent a squadron of the Franco-British fleet through its straits, which quickly headed for the Russian port and shipbuilding cities: Odessa, Ochakov and Nikolaev.

On April 10, 1854, the bombardment of Odessa, the main southern port, began Russian Empire. After a rapid and intense bombardment, it was planned to land troops in the northern Black Sea region, which would force the withdrawal of troops from the Danube principalities, as well as weaken the defense of Crimea. However, the city survived several days of shelling. Moreover, the defenders of Odessa were able to deliver precise strikes on the Allied fleet. The plan of the Anglo-French troops failed. The Allies were forced to retreat towards Crimea and begin battles for the peninsula.

Fighting on the Danube (1853-1856)

It was with the entry of Russian troops into this region that the Crimean War of 1853-1856 began. After success in the Battle of Sinop, another success awaited Russia: the troops completely crossed over to the right bank of the Danube, an attack was opened on Silistria and further on Bucharest. However, the entry of England and France into the war complicated the Russian offensive. On June 9, 1854, the siege of Silistria was lifted, and Russian troops returned to the left bank of the Danube. By the way, Austria also entered the war against Russia on this front, which was worried about the rapid advance of the Romanov Empire into Wallachia and Moldavia.

In July 1854, a huge landing of the British and French armies(according to various sources, from 30 to 50 thousand). The troops were supposed to enter the territory of Bessarabia, displacing Russia from this region. However, a cholera epidemic broke out in the French army, and the British public demanded that the army leadership give priority to the Black Sea Fleet in the Crimea.

Fighting in the Caucasus (1853-1856)

An important battle took place in July 1854 near the village of Kyuryuk-Dara (Western Armenia). The combined Turkish-British forces were defeated. At this stage, the Crimean War was still successful for Russia.

Another important battle in this region took place in June–November 1855. Russian troops decided to attack eastern part Ottoman Empire, Karsu fortress, so that the Allies would send some troops to this region, thereby slightly easing the siege of Sevastopol. Russia won the Battle of Kars, but this happened after the news of the fall of Sevastopol, so this battle had little impact on the outcome of the war. Moreover, according to the results of the “peace” signed later, the Kars fortress was returned to the Ottoman Empire. However, as the peace negotiations showed, the capture of Kars still played a role. But more on that later.

Defense of Sevastopol (1854-1855)

The most heroic and tragic event of the Crimean War is, of course, the battle for Sevastopol. In September 1855, French-English troops captured the last point of defense of the city - Malakhov Kurgan. The city survived an 11-month siege, but as a result it was surrendered to the Allied forces (among which the Sardinian kingdom appeared). This defeat was key and provided the impetus for ending the war. From the end of 1855, intensive negotiations began, in which Russia had practically no strong arguments. It was clear that the war was lost.

Other battles in Crimea (1854-1856)

In addition to the siege of Sevastopol, several more battles took place on the territory of Crimea in 1854-1855, which were aimed at “unblocking” Sevastopol:

1. Battle of Alma (September 1854).
2. Battle of Balaklava (October 1854).
3. Battle of Inkerman (November 1854).
4. Attempt to liberate Yevpatoria (February 1855).
5. Battle of the Chernaya River (August 1855).

All these battles ended in unsuccessful attempts to lift the siege of Sevastopol.

"Distant" battles

Basic fighting the wars took place near the Crimean Peninsula, which gave the war its name. There were also battles in the Caucasus, on the territory of modern Moldova, as well as in the Balkans. However, not many people know that battles between rivals also took place in remote regions of the Russian Empire. Here are some examples:

1. Petropavlovsk defense. The battle, which took place on the territory of the Kamchatka Peninsula between the combined Franco-British troops on one side and the Russian ones on the other. The battle took place in August 1854. This battle was a consequence of Britain's victory over China during the Opium Wars. As a result, Britain wanted to increase its influence in eastern Asia by displacing Russia. In total, the Allied troops launched two assaults, both of which ended in failure. Russia withstood the Petropavlovsk defense.
2. Arctic company. The operation of the British fleet to attempt to blockade or capture Arkhangelsk, carried out in 1854-1855. The main battles took place in the waters Barents Sea. The British also launched a bombardment of the Solovetsky Fortress, as well as the robbery of Russian merchant ships in the White and Barents Seas.

Results and historical significance of the war

Nicholas 1 died in February 1855. The task of the new emperor, Alexander 2, was to end the war, and with minimal damage to Russia. In February 1856, the Paris Congress began its work. Russia was represented there by Alexey Orlov and Philip Brunnov. Since neither side saw the point in continuing the war, already on March 6, 1856, the Paris Peace Treaty was signed, as a result of which the Crimean War was completed.

The main terms of the Treaty of Paris 6 were as follows:

1. Russia returned the Karsu fortress to Turkey in exchange for Sevastopol and other captured cities of the Crimean peninsula.
2. Russia was prohibited from having a Black Sea fleet. The Black Sea was declared neutral.
3. The Bosporus and Dardanelles straits were declared closed to the Russian Empire.
4. Part of Russian Bessarabia was transferred to the Principality of Moldova, the Danube ceased to be border river, therefore navigation was declared free.
5. On the Allad Islands (an archipelago in the Baltic Sea), Russia was prohibited from building military and (or) defensive fortifications.

As for losses, the number of Russian citizens who died in the war is 47.5 thousand people. Britain lost 2.8 thousand, France - 10.2, Ottoman Empire - more than 10 thousand. The Sardinian kingdom lost 12 thousand military personnel. The number of deaths on the Austrian side is unknown, perhaps because it was not officially at war with Russia.

In general, the war showed the backwardness of Russia, in comparison with European countries, especially in terms of the economy (completion of the industrial revolution, construction railways, use of steamships). After this defeat, the reforms of Alexander 2 began. In addition, the desire for revenge had been brewing in Russia for a long time, which resulted in another war with Turkey in 1877-1878. But this is a completely different story, and the Crimean War of 1853-1856 was completed and Russia was defeated in it.

On October 23, 1853, the Turkish Sultan declared war on Russia. By this time, our Danube Army (55 thousand) was concentrated in the vicinity of Bucharest, with forward detachments on the Danube, and the Ottomans had up to 120 - 130 thousand in European Turkey, under the command of Omer Pasha. These troops were located: 30 thousand at Shumla, 30 thousand in Adrianople, and the rest along the Danube from Viddin to the mouth.

Somewhat earlier than the announcement of the Crimean War, the Turks had already begun military operations by seizing the Oltenice quarantine on the left bank of the Danube on the night of October 20. The arriving Russian detachment of General Dannenberg (6 thousand) attacked the Turks on October 23 and, despite their numerical superiority (14 thousand) almost occupied the Turkish fortifications, but was pulled back by General Dannenberg, who considered it impossible to hold Oltenica under the fire of Turkish batteries on the right bank of the Danube . Then Omer Pasha himself returned the Turks to the right bank of the Danube and disturbed our troops only with isolated surprise attacks, to which the Russian troops responded.

At the same time, the Turkish fleet delivered supplies to the Caucasian highlanders, who were acting against Russia at the instigation of the Sultan and England. To prevent this, Admiral Nakhimov, with a squadron of 8 ships, overtook the Turkish squadron, which had taken refuge from bad weather in Sinop Bay. On November 18, 1853, after a three-hour Battle of Sinop, the enemy fleet, including 11 ships, was destroyed. Five Ottoman ships were blown up, the Turks lost up to 4,000 killed and wounded and 1,200 prisoners; The Russians lost 38 officers and 229 lower ranks.

Meanwhile, Omer Pasha, having refused offensive operations from the Oltenitsa side, he gathered up to 40 thousand to Kalafat and decided to defeat the weak advanced Lesser Wallachian detachment of General Anrep (7.5 thousand). On December 25, 1853, 18 thousand Turks attacked the 2.5 thousand detachment of Colonel Baumgarten at Cetati, but arriving reinforcements (1.5 thousand) saved our detachment, which had shot all the cartridges, from final death. Having lost up to 2 thousand people, both of our detachments retreated at night to the village of Motsetsei.

After the battle at Chetati, the Lesser Wallachian detachment, reinforced to 20 thousand, settled in apartments near Kalafat and blocked the Turks’ access to Wallachia; further operations of the Crimean War in the European theater in January and February 1854 were limited to minor clashes.

The Crimean War in the Transcaucasian theater in 1853

Meanwhile, the actions of Russian troops in the Transcaucasian theater were accompanied by complete success. Here the Turks, having assembled a 40,000-strong army long before the declaration of the Crimean War, opened military operations in mid-October. The energetic Prince Bebutov was appointed head of the Russian active corps. Having received information about the movement of the Turks towards Alexandropol (Gyumri), Prince Bebutov sent a detachment of General Orbeliani on November 2, 1853. This detachment unexpectedly came across the main forces near the village of Bayandura Turkish army and barely escaped to Alexandropol; The Turks, fearing Russian reinforcements, took a position at Bashkadyklar. Finally, on November 6, a manifesto was received about the beginning of the Crimean War, and on November 14, Prince Bebutov moved to Kars.

Another Turkish detachment (18 thousand) on October 29, 1853 approached the Akhaltsykh fortress, but the head of the Akhaltsykh detachment, Prince Andronnikov, with his 7 thousand. On November 14, he himself attacked the Turks and put them to a disorderly flight; the Turks lost up to 3.5 thousand, while our losses were limited to only 450 people.

Following the victory of the Akhaltsykh detachment, the Alexandropol detachment under the command of Prince Bebutov (10 thousand) defeated a 40 thousand-strong Turkish army on November 19 in a strong Bashkadyklar position, and only the extreme fatigue of people and horses did not allow them to develop the success achieved by pursuit. However, the Turks lost up to 6 thousand in this battle, and our troops - about 2 thousand.

Both of these victories immediately raised the prestige of Russian power, and the general uprising that was being prepared in Transcaucasia immediately died down.

Crimean War 1853-1856. Map

Balkan theater of the Crimean War in 1854

Meanwhile, on December 22, 1853, the united Anglo-French fleet entered the Black Sea in order to protect Turkey from the sea and help it supply its ports with the necessary supplies. Russian envoys immediately broke off relations with England and France and returned to Russia. Emperor Nicholas turned to Austria and Prussia with a proposal, in the event of a war with England and France, to maintain strict neutrality. But both of these powers avoided any obligations, refusing at the same time to join the allies; To secure their possessions, they concluded a defensive alliance among themselves. Thus, at the beginning of 1854, it became clear that Russia was left without allies in the Crimean War, and therefore the most decisive measures were taken to strengthen our troops.

By the beginning of 1854, up to 150 thousand Russian troops were located along the Danube and the Black Sea to the Bug. With these forces it was planned to move deep into Turkey, raise an uprising of the Balkan Slavs and declare Serbia independent, but the hostile mood of Austria, which was strengthening its troops in Transylvania, forced us to abandon this bold plan and limit ourselves to crossing the Danube to capture only Silistria and Ruschuk.

In the first half of March, Russian troops crossed the Danube at Galati, Brailov and Izmail, and on March 16, 1854 they occupied Girsovo. A non-stop advance towards Silistria would inevitably lead to the occupation of this fortress, the armament of which had not yet been completed. However, the newly appointed commander-in-chief, Prince Paskevich, had not yet personally arrived at the army, stopped it, and only the insistence of the emperor himself forced him to continue the offensive towards Silistria. The commander-in-chief himself, fearing that the Austrians would cut off the retreat route of the Russian army, proposed returning to Russia.

The stop of Russian troops at Girsov gave the Turks time to strengthen both the fortress itself and its garrison (from 12 to 18 thousand). Approaching the fortress on May 4, 1854 with 90 thousand, Prince Paskevich, still fearing for his rear, positioned his army 5 versts from the fortress in a fortified camp to cover the bridge across the Danube. The siege of the fortress was carried out only against its eastern front, and on the western side the Turks, in full view of the Russians, brought supplies to the fortress. In general, our actions near Silistria bore the imprint of the extreme caution of the commander-in-chief himself, who was also embarrassed by incorrect rumors about the alleged union of the allies with the army of Omer Pasha. On May 29, 1854, shell-shocked during a reconnaissance mission, Prince Paskevich left the army, handing it over to Prince Gorchakov, who energetically led the siege and on June 8 decided to storm the Arab and Peschanoye forts. All orders for the assault had already been made, and two hours before the assault an order was received from Prince Paskevich to immediately lift the siege and move to the left bank of the Danube, which was carried out by the evening of June 13. Finally, according to the terms concluded with Austria, which pledged to support our interests in front of the Western courts, on July 15, 1854, the withdrawal of our troops from the Danube principalities, which had been occupied by Austrian troops since August 10, began. The Turks returned to the right bank of the Danube.

During these actions, the Allies launched a series of attacks on our coastal cities on the Black Sea and, by the way, on Holy Saturday, April 8, 1854, they brutally bombarded Odessa. Then the allied fleet appeared near Sevastopol and headed towards the Caucasus. On land, the allies supported the Ottomans by landing a detachment at Gallipoli to defend Constantinople. These troops were then transported to Varna in early July and moved to Dobruja. Here cholera caused severe devastation in their ranks (from July 21 to August 8, 8 thousand fell ill and 5 thousand of them died).

The Crimean War in the Transcaucasian theater in 1854

Military operations in the spring of 1854 in the Caucasus began on our right flank, where on June 4, Prince Andronnikov, with the Akhaltsykh detachment (11 thousand), defeated the Turks at Cholok. Somewhat later, on the left flank, the Erivan detachment of General Wrangel (5 thousand) attacked 16 thousand Turks on the Chingil Heights on June 17, overthrew them and occupied Bayazet. The main forces of the Caucasian army, i.e. the Alexandropol detachment of Prince Bebutov, moved towards Kars on June 14 and stopped at the village of Kyuryuk-Dara, having the 60-thousand-strong Anatolian army of Zarif Pasha 15 versts ahead of them.

On July 23, 1854, Zarif Pasha went on the offensive, and on the 24th, Russian troops also moved forward, having received false information about the retreat of the Turks. Faced with the Turks, Bebutov lined up his troops in battle formation. A series of energetic infantry and cavalry attacks stopped the Turkish right wing; then Bebutov, after very persistent, often hand-to-hand combat, threw back the enemy center, using up almost all of its reserves for this. After this, our attacks turned against the Turkish left flank, which had already bypassed our position. The attack was a complete success: the Turks retreated in complete frustration, losing up to 10 thousand; in addition, about 12 thousand bashi-bazouks fled. Our losses amounted to 3 thousand people. Despite the brilliant victory, Russian troops did not dare to begin the siege of Kars without a siege artillery park and in the fall retreated back to Alexandropol (Gyumri).

Defense of Sevastopol during the Crimean War

Panorama of the Defense of Sevastopol (view from Malakhov Kurgan). Artist F. Roubaud, 1901-1904

The Crimean War in the Transcaucasian theater in 1855

In the Transcaucasian theater of war, actions resumed in the second half of May 1855 with our occupation of Ardahan without a fight and an offensive towards Kars. Knowing about the lack of food in Kars, the new commander-in-chief, General Muravyov, limited himself to just a blockade, but, having received news in September about the movement of Omer Pasha’s army transported from European Turkey to the rescue of Kars, he decided to take the fortress by storm. The assault on September 17, although carried out on the most important, but at the same time the strongest, western front (Shorakh and Chakhmakh heights), cost us 7,200 people and ended in failure. The army of Omer Pasha could not advance to Kars due to a lack of transportation means, and on November 16 the garrison of Kars surrendered.

British and French attacks on Sveaborg, Solovetsky Monastery and Petropavlovsk

To complete the description of the Crimean War, it is also worth mentioning some minor actions taken against Russia by the Western allies. On June 14, 1854, an allied squadron of 80 ships, under the command of the English admiral Napier, appeared near Kronstadt, then retreated to the Åland Islands, and in October returned to their harbors. On July 6 of the same year, two English ships bombarded the Solovetsky Monastery on the White Sea, unsuccessfully demanding its surrender, and on August 17, an allied squadron also arrived at the port of Petropavlovsky on Kamchatka and, having fired at the city, made a landing, which was soon repulsed. In May 1855, a strong allied squadron was sent to the Baltic Sea for the second time, which, after standing for some time near Kronstadt, went back in the fall; combat activity it was limited only to the bombing of Sveaborg.

Results of the Crimean War

After the fall of Sevastopol on August 30, military operations in Crimea stopped, and on March 18, 1856, the Parisian world, having completed a long and heavy war Russia against 4 European states (Turkey, England, France and Sardinia, which joined the allies at the beginning of 1855).

The consequences of the Crimean War were enormous. After it, Russia lost its dominance in Europe, which it had enjoyed since the end of the Napoleonic War of 1812-1815. It has now passed to France for 15 years. The shortcomings and disorganizations revealed by the Crimean War ushered in the era of reforms of Alexander II in Russian history, which renewed all aspects of national life.

The article briefly describes the Crimean War of 1853-1856, which influenced further development Russia and became the immediate reason for the reforms of Alexander II. The war revealed Russia's significant lag behind Europe both in the military field and in all spheres of government.

1. Causes of the Crimean War
2. Progress of the Crimean War
3. Results of the Crimean War

Causes of the Crimean War

• The cause of the Crimean War was an aggravation in the middle of the 19th century. eastern question. Western powers showed increased interest in the territories of the weakening Ottoman Empire in Europe, and plans were made for the possible division of these territories. Russia was interested in seizing control of the Black Sea straits, which was necessary in economically. A stronger Russia would allow it to expand its influence in the region, which worried Western countries. They adhered to the policy of maintaining a weak Turkey as a source of constant danger to the Russian Empire. Turkey was promised Crimea and the Caucasus as a reward for a successful war with Russia.
• The central reason for the war was the struggle between the Russian and French clergy for the possession of holy places in Palestine. Nicholas I, in the form of an ultimatum, declared to the Turkish government that it recognized the right of the Russian emperor to provide assistance to all Orthodox subjects of the Ottoman Empire (mainly the Balkan region). Hoping for support and promises from the Western powers, Türkiye rejected the ultimatum. It became clear that war could no longer be avoided.

Progress of the Crimean War

• In June 1853, Russia sent troops into the territory of Moldavia and Wallachia. The pretext is the protection of the Slavic population. In response to this in the fall, Türkiye declares war on Russia.
• Until the end of the year, Russia's military actions are successful. It expands its sphere of influence on the Danube, wins victories in the Caucasus, and the Russian squadron blocks Turkish ports on the Black Sea.
• Russian victories are causing concern in the West. The situation changes in 1854, when the fleet of England and France enters the Black Sea. Russia declares war on them. After this, European squadrons are sent to blockade Russian ports in the Baltic and Far East. The blockades were of a demonstrative nature; landing attempts ended in failure.
• Russia's successes in Moldavia and Wallachia ended under pressure from Austria, which forced the withdrawal of the Russian army and itself occupied the Danube principalities. A real threat has emerged to create a pan-European coalition against Russia. Nicholas I is forced to concentrate his main forces on the western border.
• Meanwhile, Crimea becomes the main arena of the war. The Allies are blocking the Russian fleet in Sevastopol. Then a landing occurs and the Russian army is defeated on the river. Alma. In the autumn of 1854 it begins heroic defense Sevastopol.
• The Russian army is still winning victories in Transcaucasia, but it is already becoming clear that the war is lost.
• By the end of 1855, the besiegers of Sevastopol managed to capture the southern part of the city, which, however, did not lead to the surrender of the fortress. The huge number of casualties forces the allies to abandon further assault attempts. The fighting actually stops.
• In 1856, a peace treaty was signed in Paris, which is a black page in the history of Russian diplomacy. Russia was losing the Black Sea Fleet and all bases on the Black Sea coast. Only Sevastopol remained in Russian hands in exchange for the Turkish fortress of Kars captured in the Caucasus.

Results of the Crimean War

• In addition to territorial concessions and losses, Russia suffered a serious moral blow. Having shown its backwardness during the war, Russia was excluded from the list of great powers for a long time and was no longer perceived in Europe as a serious adversary.
• Nevertheless, the war became a necessary lesson for Russia, revealing all its shortcomings. There was an understanding in society of the need for significant changes. The reforms of Alexander II were a natural consequence of the defeat.

The Eastern or Crimean direction (including the territory of the Balkans) was a priority in Russian foreign policy in the 18th-19th centuries. Russia's main rival in this region was Türkiye, or the Ottoman Empire. In the 18th century, the government of Catherine II managed to achieve significant success in this region, Alexander I was also lucky, but their successor Nicholas I had to face great difficulties, since European powers became interested in Russia’s successes in this region.

They feared that if the empire's successful eastern foreign policy continued, then Western Europe will lose complete control over the Black Sea straits. How the Crimean War of 1853–1856 began and ended, briefly below.

Assessment of the political situation in the region for the Russian Empire

Before the war of 1853−1856. The Empire's policy in the East was quite successful.

1. With Russian support, Greece gains independence (1830).
2. Russia receives the right to freely use the Black Sea straits.
3. Russian diplomats are seeking autonomy for Serbia, and then a protectorate over the Danube principalities.
4. After the war between Egypt and the Ottoman Empire, Russia, which supported the Sultanate, seeks from Turkey a promise to close the Black Sea straits to any ships other than Russian ones in the event of any military threat(the secret protocol was in effect until 1941).

The Crimean or Eastern War, which broke out in last years The reign of Nicholas II became one of the first conflicts between Russia and a coalition of European countries. The main reason The war was a mutual desire of the opposing sides to strengthen themselves on the Balkan Peninsula and the Black Sea.

Basic information about the conflict

The Eastern War is a complex military conflict, in which all the leading powers of Western Europe were involved. Statistics are therefore very important. The prerequisites, causes and general reason for the conflict require detailed consideration, the progress of the conflict is rapid, while the fighting took place both on land and at sea.

Statistical data

Note! Historians and researchers of the military conflict noted that from a logistical point of view, the Russian army was significantly inferior to the coalition forces. The command staff was also inferior in training to the command staff of the combined enemy forces. Generals and officials Nicholas I did not want to accept this fact and was not even fully aware of it.

Prerequisites, reasons and reason for the start of the war

Note! To weaken Russia, the European powers, even before the start of the war, developed the so-called Palmerston Plan (Palmerston was the leader of British diplomacy) and provided for the actual separation of part of the lands from Russia:

Combat actions and reasons for defeat

Crimean War (table): date, events, outcome

Note! The most fierce battles of the Eastern War took place near Sevastopol. The city and strongholds around it were subjected to large-scale bombing 6 times:

The defeats of the Russian troops are not a sign that the commanders-in-chief, admirals and generals made mistakes. In the Danube direction, the troops were commanded by a talented commander - Prince M. D. Gorchakov, in the Caucasus - N. N. Muravyov, the Black Sea Fleet was led by Vice Admiral P. S. Nakhimov, and the defense of Petropavlovsk was led by V. S. Zavoiko. These are the heroes of the Crimean War(you can do about them and their exploits interesting message or report), but even their enthusiasm and strategic genius did not help in the war against superior enemy forces.

The Sevastopol disaster led to the fact that the new Russian emperor, Alexander II, foreseeing an extremely negative result of further hostilities, decided to begin diplomatic negotiations for peace.

Alexander II, like no one else, understood the reasons for Russia’s defeat in the Crimean War):

• foreign policy isolation;
• a clear superiority of enemy forces on land and at sea;
• backwardness of the empire in military-technical and strategic terms;
• deep crisis in the economic sphere.

Results of the Crimean War 1853−1856

Treaty of Paris

The mission was headed by Prince A.F. Orlov, who was one of the outstanding diplomats of his time and believed that Russia could not lose in the diplomatic field. After long negotiations that took place in Paris, 18 (30).03. 1856 a peace treaty was signed between Russia on the one hand, and the Ottoman Empire, coalition forces, Austria and Prussia on the other. The terms of the peace treaty were as follows:

Foreign policy and domestic political consequences of defeat

The foreign policy and domestic political results of the war were also disastrous, although somewhat softened by the efforts of Russian diplomats. It was obvious that

Significance of the Crimean War

But, despite the severity of the political situation inside and outside the country, after the defeat, it was the Crimean War of 1853-1856. and the defense of Sevastopol became the catalysts that led to the reforms of the 60s of the 19th century, including the abolition of serfdom in Russia.

Lesson objectives:

1. Study the causes, course and consequences of the Crimean War.
2. Show that the war exposed the weakness of the Russian Empire, had an impact on international situation Russia, gave a new impetus to subsequent modernization.
3. Work with the main components of the textbook.
4. Strengthen the ability to use reference and additional literature, the ability to highlight the main thing, and establish cause-and-effect relationships.
5. Create tables based on the text.
6. To cultivate a sense of pride and love for the Motherland through examples of desperate, courageous defense native land Russian soldiers and the population of Sevastopol, the work of doctors in the most difficult conditions of besieged Sevastopol.

New terms and dates: Crimean War (1853-1856), Battle of Sinop - November 18, 1853, defense of Sevastopol - September 1854 - August 1855.

Materials and equipment: personal computer, multimedia projector, screen, educational board, workbook, map, handouts.

Lesson plan.

1. Reasons and reason for the war.
2. Balance of forces and military-technical readiness for war
3. Progress of military operations.
4. Results of the war.

During the classes.

I.Conversation with students. (slide 2)

Remember what the Eastern Question is?

What events foreign policy Are Russia connected with its resolution?

II. New material.

Lesson assignment: Saratov journalist I. Gorizontov, recalling the Crimean War, wrote: “ It was felt that Europe defeated us not by courage, not by personal valor, but through mental development.”How do you understand this phrase? (slide 3)

Today in the lesson, in the process of work, we will have to learn the goals of the parties and the mechanism for unleashing the Crimean War, the balance of forces and the course of military operations, get acquainted with the significance of the technical and economic potential of Russia in the war, find out the consequences of the Crimean War for Russia and its further development .

The Crimean War changed the balance of power in Europe, had a huge impact on the internal development of Russia, and became one of the main prerequisites for the abolition of serfdom and the reforms of the 1860-1870s. Participation in it is considered the main foreign policy mistake of Nicholas I. What were the causes of the Crimean War?

1. The causes and occasion of the Crimean War.

The guys read the text and name the reasons and reason for the war.(slide 4, 5)

(The reasons for the war were the contradictions between the European powers in the Middle East, the struggle of European states for influence on the weakening Ottoman Empire, which was engulfed in the national liberation movement. Nicholas I said that Turkey is a sick person and its inheritance can and should be divided. In the upcoming conflict Russian Emperor counted on the neutrality of Great Britain, to which he promised, after the defeat of Turkey, new territorial acquisitions of Crete and Egypt, as well as the support of Austria, as gratitude for Russia's participation in the suppression of the Hungarian revolution. However, Nikolai’s calculations turned out to be wrong: England itself was pushing Turkey towards war, thus trying to weaken Russia’s position. Austria also did not want Russia to strengthen in the Balkans.

The reason for the war was a dispute between the Catholic and Orthodox clergy in Palestine about who would be the guardian of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem and the temple in Bethlehem. At the same time, there was no talk about access to holy places, since all pilgrims enjoyed them on equal rights. The dispute over the Holy Places cannot be called a far-fetched reason for starting a war. Historians sometimes cite this dispute as one of the reasons for the war, given the "deeply religious mentality of the people of the time"<...>. The defense of the privileges of the Orthodox community of Palestine formed part of the general task of Russian protection of the entire Christian population in Turkey." (Russian historyXIX - startedXX century: Textbook for history departments of universities. M., 1998. P. 172.)

2. Goals of the countries participating in the war

Students work with the textbook, paragraph 14, pp. 84-85 and fill out the table. (slide 6)

Checking the completion of the table. (slide 7)

3. Puzzle game “Correlation of forces and military-technical readiness for war.”

Students are given cards from which they must make blocks based on the presence of statements written on the cards. Correctly assembled puzzles should depict one of the moments of the Crimean War. At the end of the lesson, students determine which event of the Crimean War is depicted on their puzzles.

Question to the class: Based on the data provided, draw a conclusion about the balance of forces and Russia’s readiness for war . (slide 8)

4. Crimean War 1853-1856

Turkey was Russia's enemy, and military operations took place on the Danube and Caucasus fronts. 1853 Russian troops entered the territory of Moldova and Wallachia and military operations on land were sluggish. In the Caucasus, the Turks were defeated at Kars.

• Battle of Sinop November 1853

Students read the text “The Battle of Sinop” and name the reasons for the victory of the Russians and the defeat of the Turks in the Battle of Sinop. ( slides 10-12)

Sinopskythe battle

The event to which we must now turn is written in golden letters in the history of the glory of the Russian people<...>

Nakhimov, as soon as reinforcements arrived, decided to immediately enter Sinop harbor and attack the Turkish fleet.

In essence, by deciding to attack the Turkish fleet, Nakhimov took a very serious risk. The Gurks' coastal batteries in Sinop were good, and the guns on the ships were also in good working order. But for a long time, since the end of the 16th century, the Turkish fleet, once one of the most formidable and capable in the world, did not have any capable admirals at the decisive moments of its existence. This turned out to be the case on the fatal day of Sinop for Turkey. Osman Pasha positioned his fleet, as if in a fan, at the very embankment of the city: the embankment ran in a concave arc, and the line of the fleet turned out to be a concave arc, covering, if not all, then many of the coastal batteries. And the location of the ships was, naturally, such that they could meet Nakhimov with only one side: the other was facing not the sea, but the city of Sinop. The genius of the Russian naval commander and the first-class crew of his squadron in terms of combat morale and training would have coped with all the obstacles, even if the Turkish command had turned out to be more capable <...>

At dawn on November 18 (30), 1853, the Russian squadron found itself fifteen kilometers from the Sinop roadstead<...>

The Turkish fleet, caught by Nakhimov, was completely destroyed; not a single ship survived, and he died with almost his entire crew. Four frigates, one corvette and one steamer Erekli were blown up and turned into a heap of bloody debris. who could also leave. Before the start of the battle, the Turks were so confident of victory that they had already boarded troops in advance, which were supposed to board the Russian ships at the end of the battle.

The Turkish artillery in the Battle of Sinop was weaker than ours, if you count only the guns on ships (472 guns against the Russian 716), but it acted energetically. The most absurd arrangement of the ships of the Turkish fleet neutralized, fortunately for Nakhimov, some of the very strong coastal Turkish batteries, but still two batteries caused great harm to the Russian ships. Some ships left the battle in serious condition, but none sank<...>

Here is the picture that appeared before the eyes of the crew of the Kornilov squadron when it entered Sinop Bay: “ Most of The city was burning, the ancient battlements with towers from the Middle Ages stood out sharply against the background of a sea of ​​flames. Most of the Turkish frigates were still burning, and when the flames reached the loaded guns, shots fired themselves and the cannonballs flew over us, which was very unpleasant. We saw the frigates take off one after another. It was terrible to see how the people on board were running and thrashing about on the burning decks, probably not daring to throw themselves into the water. Some, it was clear, sat motionless and awaited death with the resignation of fatalism. We noticed flocks seabirds and doves standing out against the crimson background of fire-lit clouds. The entire raid And our ships were so brightly illuminated by the fire that our sailors worked to repair the ships without needing lanterns. At the same time, the entire sky to the east of Sinop seemed completely black."<...>

Among the prisoners was the flagship of the Turkish squadron, Osman Pasha, whose leg was broken. The wound was very serious. The old Turkish admiral had no shortage of personal courage, just like his subordinates. But this quality alone was not enough to resist Nakhimov’s attack.

On November 23, after a stormy passage through the Black Sea, Nakhimov’s squadron landed in Sevastopol.

The entire population of the city, having already learned about the brilliant victory, greeted the victorious admiral with an endless “Hurray, Nakhimov!” also rushed from all ships anchored in Sevastopol Bay. Jubilant news of the crushing Russian naval victory flew to Moscow, to St. Petersburg, to the Caucasus to Vorontsov, to the Danube to Gorchakov. “You cannot imagine the happiness that everyone in St. Petersburg experienced upon receiving the news of the brilliant Sinope case. This is a truly remarkable feat,” this is how Vasily Dolgorukov, Minister of War, congratulated Prince Menshikov, the commander-in-chief of the fleet in Sevastopol. Nikolai gave Nakhimov George 2nd degree - a rare military award - and generously rewarded the entire squadron. Slavophiles in Moscow (including even the skeptical Sergei Aksakov) did not hide their delight. The glory of the winner resounded everywhere.

[Tarle E.V. Crimean War.)

Watching the video fragment “Surrender of Osman Pasha” (excerpt from the film “Nakhimov”) (slide 13)

Concerned that Russia would completely defeat Turkey, England and France, in the person of Austria, delivered an ultimatum to Russia. They demanded that Russia refuse to patronize the Orthodox population of the Ottoman Empire. Nicholas I could not accept such conditions.

Türkiye, France, England and Sardinia united against Russia . (slide 14-18)

The following were attacked:

• on the Black Sea - Odessa,
• in the Baltic - Åland Islands,
• on the Barents Sea - Kola Bay,
• on the White Sea - Solovetsky Monastery and Arkhangelsk,
• on Pacific Ocean– Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky.

In September 1854 An allied army of more than 60 thousand landed in the Crimea near Yevpatoria and began an attack on Sevastopol, the main Russian fortress on the Black Sea. The city was invulnerable from the sea, but practically defenseless from land. After the failure of the Russian troops in the battle on the Alma River, Commander-in-Chief Prince A.S. Menshikov (“Izmenshikov”) decided to “maintain contact with the internal provinces,” for which he ordered the army to retreat deep into the Crimea. Essentially, Sevastopol became doomed. Menshikov's attempts to help the city (the Battle of Inkerman and the battle in the Valley of Death near Balaklava) were unsuccessful.

• Defense of Sevastopol(slide 19 - 31)

Working with additional material students answer the questions:

Why is the defense of Sevastopol considered the only bright page for the Russian army? Crimean War?

Why, expressing disagreement with the commander-in-chief’s decision to scuttle the ships, V.A. Kornilov and P.S. Nakhimov not only carried out this order, but also found words for his subordinates that proved the correctness of this decision?

Why were the actions of the main enemy forces directed against Sevastopol?

On October 17, 1854, the first bombardment of Sevastopol began. The enemy hoped to destroy the land fortifications of the fortress with powerful bombardment from sea and land and take it by storm. However, the fire of the Russian coastal batteries caused significant damage to the siege artillery and ships of the French and British, which forced them to postpone the assault on the city. The defenders of Sevastopol suffered an acute need for weapons, ammunition and food. However, in the most difficult conditions, Russian soldiers and sailors maintained high morale and the will to fight. To protect the city, it was decided to flood some of the ships across the entrances to Sevastopol Bay. Vice Admiral V.A. Kornilov was against this decision, But found the strength not only to carry out the order, But and explain to the sailors the necessity of this action. Although one can imagine the horror of the situation when the admiral is told about the sinking of ships, no. In his opinion, opponents are also achieving this. At about 4 a.m. on September 10, 1854, five ships were sunk. The Russian army under the command of A.S. Menshikov tried to provide assistance to the residents of Sevastopol. On October 13 (25), a battle took place in the valley between Sevastopol and Balaklava. The Russians managed to infiltrate the rear and capture several Turkish guns. In this battle, the light artillery cavalry, in which representatives of the most aristocratic families of England served, lost about 1.5 thousand people. This battle raised the morale of the Russian troops. At the same time, it served as a good lesson for the Allies, who allocated additional forces to guard their rear. Although the operation did not change the situation of the besieged city. The situation in and around the city was difficult. The defenders were not provided with sufficient quantities of ammunition, water, or food. After death

V.A. Kornilov's defense was led by P. S. Nakhimov, the hero of Sinop.

Despite the difficulties, the defenders of Sevastopol inflicted significant blows on the enemy, carrying out forays into the location of enemy troops. They disabled manpower and equipment, destroyed trenches, and captured prisoners. Even children defended their hometown. For his bravery, the ten-year-old defender of the fifth bastion, Kolya Pishchenko, was awarded a military order. Pyotr Makarovich Koshka became famous for his courage, who participated in eighteen forays into enemy troops, captured ten “tongues” and was awarded the St. George Cross.

Enemy troops stormed the city several times. Sometimes the city was literally bombarded with bombs and rockets. The defenders could not respond with fire of the same force, since there was a catastrophic shortage of ammunition. A bloody struggle took place over one of the important boundaries of Sevastopol - Malakhov Kurgan.

The last forces of the defenders of Sevastopol were exhausted from losses caused by the incessant artillery shelling of the Allies. On July 12, the besieged suffered their most significant loss - Admiral Nakhimov died during the defense of Malakhov Kurgan.

On August 5 (17), 1855, the enemy began preparations for a new assault on Sevastopol with a massive bombardment, which lasted until August 24 (September 5). In total, about 200 thousand shells were fired. As a result of this shelling, the city was completely destroyed, almost not a single intact house remained in it. At the same time, the opponents launched a general offensive, directing the main attack on Malakhov Kurgan. But the defenders repelled the attack. At a price big losses The enemy managed to capture the Malakhov Kurgan, which decided the outcome of the defense of Sevastopol. The garrisons of the city, its defenders, having destroyed the batteries, powder magazines and sunk some of the remaining ships, crossed to the North side. On August 30 (September 11) the last ships were sunk Black Sea Fleet. IN this On the same day, Alexander II, who ascended the throne, gave the order to stop the defense of Sevastopol. The defense of Sevastopol lasted 349 days (1854-1855).

The feat of doctors in the Crimean War

From the very beginning of the Crimean War, women took an active part in helping the wounded. Sisters of mercy communities operated in Odessa, Sevastopol, and Psgropavlovsk-Kamchatsky.

During the defense of Sevastopol, the daily bombing to which the city was subjected to by the enemy, the number of losses increased every day, both among soldiers and among city residents, even more.

there were more wounded.

In 1954, the famous Russian surgeon N.I. Pirogov arrives in besieged Sevastopol with a group of young surgeons. Nikolai Ivanovich Pirogov is the founder of surgery as a scientific medical discipline. He was one of the first to use ether anesthesia in the clinic. And in 1847, for the first time in the world, he used anesthesia in military field surgery.

In Sevastopol, he performed about 400 operations under ether and 300 under chloroform anesthesia. He took the initiative to deploy temporary hospitals for the defenders of Sevastopol. Based on the experience of the Crimean WAR, Pirogov created a doctrine on the general principles of military field surgery.

In October 1854, on the initiative of N.I. Pirogov and thanks to the assistance Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna in St. Petersburg established the Holy Cross community of sisters caring for sick and wounded soldiers of Russia. 200 nurses of this community took part in providing care to the sick and wounded during the Sevastopol defense. The direct leadership of the sisters of the Holy Cross community during the Crimean War was carried out by N. I. Pirogov.

Wives, widows and daughters of officers and sailors also volunteered as nurses and nurses. During the war, women competed with men; under a hail of bullets, they carried kvass and water to the hottest places of the battle, often paying for it with their lives and injuries.

From the very beginning, the main functions of the nurses were dressings, assistance during operations, distributing medicines, monitoring the CLEANNESS of clothes and bed linen of the wounded, the improvement of hospital wards, distributing warm drinks and food, feeding the seriously wounded, and moral reassurance of the sick. On December 6, 1854, that is, a week after the start of the nursing service, Pirogov wrote about the work of the sisters: “...if they do it as they do now, they will, no doubt, bring a lot of benefit. They alternately visit hospitals day and night, help with dressings, are also present during operations, distribute tea and wine to the sick and watch over the ministers and caretakers and even doctors. The presence of a woman, neatly dressed and helpful, enlivens the deplorable vale of suffering and disasters...”

Among the sisters of mercy there were many who can rightfully be considered war heroes, along with soldiers and officers awarded this title. Dasha Sevastopolskaya (Alexandrova) became especially famous for her selfless, selfless service to the wounded. A seventeen-year-old girl went to the front. She provided assistance to the wounded during the bloody battle on the Alma River, during which the Russian army tried to stop the advance of the Anglo-French-Turkish troops.

And in November 1854, Dasha was transferred as a voluntary nurse to the Main Dressing Station, which was located in the building of the Assembly of the Nobility in Sevastopol. Around THESE days, a reward was delivered from St. Petersburg on behalf of Emperor Nicholas 1 himself. The Central State Military Historical Archive preserves a document entitled “On the presentation of the maiden Daria for an award, for the exemplary diligence rendered to her and caring for the sick and wounded in Sevastopol,” dated November 7, 1854. As follows from the document, at the direction of Nicholas I, Daria was awarded a gold medal with the inscription “For zeal” on the Vladimir ribbon and 500 rubles. silver At the same time, it was announced that after marriage, Daria would be awarded another 1000 rubles. The wounded affectionately called her Dasha of Sevastopol, and she went down in the history of the Crimean War under this name.

4. Results of the war.

Students read the textbook, paragraph 14, page 89 and name the terms of the Paris Peace Treaty. (slide 32)

• What is the main result of the Crimean War for Russia?
• What is the main result of the Crimean War for England and France? (slide 33)

5. Homework.

1. Write a syncwine about the Crimean War.
2. Read "Sevastopol Stories." What facts impressed you greatest impression? Is it possible to use this work as a source? Give reasons for your answer.