Natural areas of the earth. Natural areas of the southern continents Questions and tasks

The southern continents include Africa, South America, Australia and Antarctica. Links their location in Southern Hemisphere Earth, and for the most part a hot climate, with the exception of Antarctica. The natural areas of the southern continents have many common features, however, the characteristics of vegetation and animal life determine the geographical zones in which they are located.

Antarctica

It is the southernmost continent, but its entire surface is covered with blocks of ice and snow. Even in summer, the temperature here rarely exceeds 0-5 degrees Celsius. The soils are frozen by permafrost, which prevents vegetation from developing. In the natural zone of the Antarctic deserts one can find only a sparse growth of mosses and lichens. The local fauna is also very poor. Polar bears live here, seals and walruses can be found on the coast, and in summer bird colonies form on the rocks.

Rice. 1. Antarctica is the southernmost continent on the planet.

Africa

Africa is rightfully considered the hottest continent on Earth. Its distinctive feature is its symmetrical location relative to the equator. This means that the equatorial line divides the continent into two equal parts. As a result, Africa is characterized by the presence of several natural areas, including humid equatorial and variable-humid forests, savannas, tropical desert, hard-leaved forests.

The African continent has the most big desert in the world - Sahara. Despite the apparent lifelessness, here you can still find sparse vegetation and representatives of the animal world that have adapted to life in the difficult desert conditions.

Australia

Australia is considered the driest continent, so it is not surprising that you will not find lush and varied vegetation here. There are practically no forests in Australia, but there are many deserts.

Due to the flat topography of the continent, latitudinal zoning is most pronounced here. Since the main part of the continent is located in tropical latitudes ah, tropical deserts and semi-deserts predominate here. A much smaller area is occupied by savannas, tropical and subtropical forests.

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Rice. 2. Nature of Australia.

For a long time Australia was in great isolation. This is precisely what explains the antiquity and originality of the local flora and fauna, the majority of which are endemic - species that live exclusively on this continent.

South America

This is a unique continent on which more than half of all tropical and equatorial forests on the planet grow. The climate on the mainland is moderately humid and warm, the temperature difference between seasons is insignificant.

Rice. 3. Equatorial forests of South America.

Natural zones are distributed unevenly due to the strong differences between the western and eastern parts of the continent, and are represented by several species:

• selva- equatorial rain forests;
• Llanos- zone of savannas and woodlands;
• pump- subtropical steppes;
• Patagonia- deserts and semi-deserts;
• temperate forests.

The flora and fauna are mostly represented by endemic species.

What have we learned?

Due to their geographical location, the southern continents have many similar features. However, each of them has natural areas with unique plant and natural world, which cannot be found anywhere else on the planet.

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geographical eurasia natural area

Geographic zoning is a pattern of differentiation of the geographic (landscape) shell of the Earth, manifested in a consistent and definite change in geographic zones and zones, due, first of all, to changes in the amount of radiant energy from the Sun falling on the surface of the Earth, depending on geographic latitude. Such zoning is inherent in most components and processes of natural territorial complexes - climatic, hydrological, geochemical and geomorphological processes, soil and plant cover and fauna, and partly the formation of sedimentary rocks. A decrease in the angle of incidence of solar rays from the equator to the poles causes the formation of latitudinal radiation belts - hot, two moderate and two cold. The formation of similar thermal and, even more so, climatic and geographical zones is associated with the properties and circulation of the atmosphere, which big influence affects the distribution of land and oceans (the reasons for the latter are azonal). The differentiation of natural zones on land itself depends on the ratio of heat and moisture, which varies not only by latitude, but also from the coasts inland (sector pattern), therefore we can talk about horizontal zoning, a particular manifestation of which is latitudinal zoning, well expressed on the territory of the Eurasian continent .

Each geographical zone and sector has its own set (spectrum) of zones and their sequence. The distribution of natural zones is also manifested in the natural change of altitudinal zones, or belts, in the mountains, which is also initially determined by the azonal factor - relief, however, certain spectra of altitudinal zones are characteristic of certain belts and sectors. Zoning in Eurasia is characterized for the most part as horizontal, with the following zones identified (their name comes from the predominant type of vegetation cover):

Arctic desert zone;

Tundra and forest-tundra zone;

Taiga zone;

Zone of mixed and deciduous forests;

Zone of forest-steppes and steppes;

Semi-desert and desert zone;

Zone of hard-leaved evergreen forests and shrubs (the so-called

"Mediterranean" zone);

Zone of variable-humid (including monsoon) forests;

Zone of humid equatorial forests.

Now all the presented zones will be examined in detail, their main characteristics, be it climatic conditions, vegetation, animal world.

Arctic desert (“Arktos” translated from Greek means bear) is a natural area part of the Arctic geographical zone, Arctic Ocean basin. This is the northernmost of the natural zones and is characterized by an arctic climate. The spaces are covered with glaciers, rubble and fragments of stones.

The climate of the Arctic deserts is not very diverse. The weather conditions are extremely harsh, with strong winds, little rainfall, very low temperatures: in winter (down to? 60 °C), on average - 30? C in February, the average temperature of even the warmest month is close to 0 ° C. Snow cover on land lasts almost all year round, disappearing only for a month and a half. Long polar days and nights lasting five months, short off-seasons give a special flavor to these harsh places. Only Atlantic currents bring additional heat and moisture to some areas, such as the western shores of Spitsbergen. This state is formed not only due to the low temperatures of high latitudes, but also due to the high ability of snow and ice to reflect heat - albedo. The annual amount of precipitation is up to 400 mm.

Where everything is covered in ice, life seems impossible. But this is not true at all. In places where nunataks emerge from under the ice to the surface, there is a plant world of its own. Mosses, lichens, some types of algae and even cereals and flowering plants live in cracks in rocks where small amounts of soil accumulate, in thawed areas of glacial deposits - moraines, near snowfields. Among them are bluegrass, cotton grass, polar poppy, dryad partridge grass, sedge, dwarf willows, birches, and various types of saxifrage. But the recovery of vegetation is extremely slow. Although during the cold polar summer it manages to bloom and even bear fruit. On the coastal cliffs, numerous birds find shelter and nest in the summer, setting up “bird markets” on the rocks - geese, gulls, eiders, terns, and waders.

Numerous pinnipeds also live in the Arctic - seals, seals, walruses, elephant seals. Seals feed on fish, swimming to the ice of the Arctic Ocean in search of fish. Their elongated, streamlined body shape helps them move through the water at tremendous speed. The seals themselves are yellowish-gray, with dark spots, and their cubs have beautiful snow-white fur, which they retain until adulthood. Because of her, they received the name squirrels.

Terrestrial fauna is poor: arctic fox, polar bear, lemming. The most famous inhabitant of the Arctic is the polar bear. This is the largest predator on Earth. The length of its body can reach 3 m, and the weight of an adult bear is about 600 kg and even more! The Arctic is the kingdom of the polar bear, where he feels in his element. The absence of land does not bother the bear; its main habitat is the ice floes of the Arctic Ocean. Bears are excellent swimmers and often swim far into the open sea in search of food. The polar bear eats fish and hunts seals, seals, and walrus cubs. Despite its power, the polar bear needs protection; it is listed in both the International and Russian Red Books.

In the high northern latitudes (these are territories and waters lying north of the 65th parallel) there is a natural zone of arctic deserts, a zone of eternal frost. The boundaries of this zone, like the boundaries of the Arctic as a whole, are quite arbitrary. Although the space around North Pole has no land; its role here is played by solid and floating ice. In high latitudes there are islands and archipelagos washed by the waters of the Arctic Ocean, and within their boundaries lie the coastal zones of the Eurasian continent. These pieces of sushi are almost entirely or mostly bound " eternal ice”, or rather, the remains of huge glaciers that covered this part of the planet during the last ice age. Arctic glaciers in archipelagos sometimes extend beyond the land and into the sea, such as some glaciers in Spitsbergen and Franz Josef Land.

In the Northern Hemisphere, along the outskirts of the Eurasian continent south of the polar deserts, as well as on the island of Iceland, there is a natural tundra zone. Tundra is a type of natural zone that lies beyond the northern limits of forest vegetation, a space with permafrost soil that is not flooded by sea or river waters. The tundra is located north of the taiga zone. The nature of the surface of the tundra is swampy, peaty, rocky. The southern border of the tundra is taken to be the beginning of the Arctic. The name comes from the Sami language and means “dead land”.

These latitudes can be called subpolar; winters here are harsh and long, and summers are cool and short, with frosts. The temperature of the warmest month - July does not exceed +10... + 12 °C; it may snow already in the second half of August, and the established snow cover does not melt for 7-9 months. Up to 300 mm of precipitation falls in the tundra per year, and in areas of Eastern Siberia, where the continental climate increases, their amount does not exceed 100 mm per year. Although there is no more precipitation in this natural zone than in the desert, it falls mainly in the summer and, at such low summer temperatures, evaporates very poorly, so excess moisture is created in the tundra. The ground, frozen during the harsh winter, thaws only a few tens of centimeters in the summer, which does not allow moisture to penetrate deeper; it stagnates, and waterlogging occurs. Even in minor depressions in the relief, numerous swamps and lakes are formed.

Cold summers, strong winds, excess moisture and permafrost determine the nature of vegetation in the tundra. +10… +12°C are the maximum temperatures at which trees can grow. In the tundra zone they acquire special, dwarf forms. On humus-poor infertile tundra-gley soils, dwarf willows and birches with curved trunks and branches, low-growing shrubs and shrubs grow. They press themselves to the ground, densely intertwined with each other. The endless flat plains of the tundra are covered with a thick carpet of mosses and lichens, hiding small trunks of trees, shrubs and grass roots.

As soon as the snow melts, the harsh landscape comes to life, all the plants seem to be in a hurry to use the short warm summer for their growing season. In July the tundra becomes carpeted flowering plants- polar poppies, dandelions, forget-me-nots, mynaria, etc. The tundra is rich in berry bushes - lingonberries, cranberries, cloudberries, blueberries.

Based on the nature of the vegetation, three zones are distinguished in the tundra. Northern arctic tundra It has a harsh climate and very sparse vegetation. The moss-lichen tundra located to the south is softer and richer in plant species, and in the very south of the tundra zone, in the shrub tundra, you can find trees and shrubs reaching a height of 1.5 m. To the south, the shrub tundra is gradually replaced by forest-tundra - a transition zone between tundra and taiga. This is one of the most swampy natural areas, because more precipitation falls here (300-400 mm per year) than can evaporate. Low-growing trees such as birch, spruce, and larch appear in the forest-tundra, but they grow mainly along river valleys. The open spaces are still occupied by vegetation characteristic of the tundra zone. To the south, the area of ​​forests increases, but even there the forest-tundra consists of an alternation of open forests and treeless spaces, overgrown with mosses, lichens, shrubs and shrubs.

Mountain tundras form a high-altitude zone in the mountains of the subarctic and temperate zones. On rocky and gravelly soils from high-altitude open forests they begin as a shrub belt, as in the lowland tundra. Above are moss-lichens with cushion-shaped subshrubs and some herbs. The upper belt of mountain tundras is represented by crustose lichens, sparse squat cushion-shaped shrubs and mosses among stone placers.

The harsh climate of the tundra and the lack of good food force the animals living in these regions to adapt to difficult living conditions. The most large mammals tundra and forest-tundra - reindeer. They are easily recognized by the huge horns that not only males, but also females have. The horns first move back, and then bend up and forward, their large processes hang over the muzzle, and the deer can rake snow with them, getting food. Deer see poorly, but have sensitive hearing and a keen sense of smell. Their dense winter fur consists of long, hollow, cylindrical hairs. They grow perpendicular to the body, creating a dense thermal insulation layer around the animal. In the summer, deer grow softer, shorter fur.

Large diverging hooves allow the deer to walk on loose snow and soft ground without falling through. In winter, deer feed mainly on lichens, digging them out from under the snow, the depth of which sometimes reaches 80 cm. They do not refuse lemmings, voles, they can destroy bird nests, and in hungry years they even gnaw each other’s antlers.

Deer lead a nomadic lifestyle. In the summer they feed in the northern tundra, where there are fewer midges and gadflies, and in the fall they return to the forest-tundra, where there is more food and warmer winters. During seasonal transitions, animals cover distances of 1000 km. Reindeer run fast and swim well, which allows them to escape from their main enemies - wolves.

Reindeer of Eurasia are distributed from the Scandinavian Peninsula to Kamchatka. They live in Greenland, on the Arctic islands and on the northern coast North America.

For a long time, the peoples of the North domesticated reindeer, receiving from them milk, meat, cheese, clothing, shoes, material for tents, vessels for food - almost everything necessary for life. The fat content of the milk of these animals is four times higher than that of cows. Reindeer are very hardy; one reindeer can carry a load weighing 200 kg, walking up to 70 km per day.

Along with reindeer, polar wolves, arctic foxes, arctic hares, white partridges, and polar owls live in the tundra. In summer, many migratory birds arrive; geese, ducks, swans, and waders nest along the banks of rivers and lakes.

Of the rodents, lemmings are especially interesting - touching furry animals the size of a palm. There are three known species of lemmings, which are common in Norway, Greenland and Russia. All lemmings are brown in color, and only the hoofed lemming is winter time changes its skin to white. These rodents spend the cold period of the year underground; they dig long underground tunnels and actively reproduce. One female can give birth to up to 36 cubs per year.

In the spring, lemmings come to the surface in search of food. Under favorable conditions, their population can increase so much that there is not enough food for everyone in the tundra. Trying to find food, lemmings make mass migrations - a huge wave of rodents rushes across the endless tundra, and when a river or sea is encountered on the way, the hungry animals, under the pressure of those running after them, fall into the water and die in the thousands. The life cycles of many polar animals depend on the number of lemmings. If there are few of them, the polar owl, for example, does not lay eggs, and arctic foxes - polar foxes - migrate south, to the forest-tundra, in search of other food.

The white, or polar, owl is undoubtedly the queen of the tundra. Its wingspan reaches 1.5 m. Old birds are dazzlingly white, while young ones are variegated in color, both have yellow eyes and a black beak. This magnificent bird flies almost silently, hunting voles, lemmings, and muskrats at any time of the day. She attacks partridges, hares and even catches fish. In summer White Owl lays 6-8 eggs, making a nest in a small depression on the ground.

But due to human activity (and primarily due to oil production, construction and operation of oil pipelines), the danger of environmental disaster looms over many parts of the Russian tundra. Due to fuel leaks from oil pipelines, the surrounding area is polluted; burning oil lakes and completely burnt areas that were once covered with vegetation are often encountered.

Despite the fact that during the construction of new oil pipelines, special passages are made so that deer can move freely, the animals are not always able to find and use them.

Road trains move across the tundra, leaving behind garbage and destroying vegetation. The tundra soil layer damaged by tracked vehicles takes decades to recover.

All this leads to increased pollution of soil, water and vegetation, and a decrease in the number of deer and other inhabitants of the tundra.

Forest-tumndra is a subarctic type of landscape in which, in the interfluves, oppressed woodlands alternate with shrubby or typical tundra. By different researchers forest-tundra is considered a subzone of either tundra or taiga, and in Lately tundra forest. Forest-tundra landscapes stretch in a strip from 30 to 300 km wide from the Kola Peninsula to the Indigirka basin, and to the east they are distributed fragmentarily. Despite the low amount of precipitation (200-350 mm), the forest-tundra is characterized by a sharp excess of moisture over evaporation, which determines the widespread occurrence of lakes from 10 to 60% of the subzone area.

Average air temperatures in July are 10-12°C, and in January, depending on the increase in continental climate, from -10° to -40°C. With the exception of rare taliks, the soils are everywhere permafrost. The soils are peaty-gley, peat-swamp, and under open forests - gley-podzolic (podbur).

The flora has the following character: shrub tundras and open forests change due to longitudinal zonation. On the Kola Peninsula - warty birch; east to the Urals - spruce; in Western Siberia - spruce with Siberian larch; east of Putorana - Daurian larch with lean birch; to the east of the Lena there is Kayander larch with skinny birch and alder, and to the east of Kolyma dwarf cedar is mixed in with them.

The fauna of the forest-tundra is also dominated by lemmings of various species in different longitudinal zones, reindeer, arctic foxes, white and tundra partridges, polar owls and a wide variety of migratory, waterfowl and small birds that settle in bushes. Forest-tundra is a valuable reindeer pasture and hunting grounds.

To protect and study the natural landscapes of the forest-tundra, reserves and National parks, including Taimyr Nature Reserve. Reindeer husbandry and hunting are traditional occupations of the indigenous population, who use up to 90% of the territory for reindeer pastures.

The natural taiga zone is located in the north of Eurasia. Taiga is a biome characterized by the predominance of coniferous forests. It is located in the northern subarctic humid geographical zone. Coniferous trees form the basis there plant life. In Eurasia, starting from Scandinavian Peninsula, it spread to the shores of the Pacific Ocean. The Eurasian taiga is the largest continuous forest zone on Earth. It occupies more than 60% of the territory of the Russian Federation. The taiga contains huge reserves of wood and supplies large amounts of oxygen to the atmosphere. In the north, the taiga smoothly turns into forest-tundra, gradually taiga forests are replaced by open forests, and then by separate groups of trees. The furthest taiga forests enter the forest-tundra are along river valleys, which are most protected from strong northern winds. In the south, the taiga also smoothly transitions into coniferous-deciduous and broad-leaved forests. In these areas, humans have interfered with the natural landscapes for many centuries, so now they represent a complex natural-anthropogenic complex.

On the territory of Russia, the southern border of the taiga begins approximately at the latitude of St. Petersburg, stretches to the upper reaches of the Volga, north of Moscow to the Urals, further to Novosibirsk, and then to Khabarovsk and Nakhodka in the Far East, where they are replaced by mixed forests. All of Western and Eastern Siberia, most of the Far East, the mountain ranges of the Urals, Altai, Sayan, Baikal region, Sikhote-Alin, Greater Khingan are covered with taiga forests.

The climate of the taiga zone within the temperate climate zone varies from marine in the west of Eurasia to sharply continental in the east. In the west, there are relatively warm summers (+10 °C) and mild winters (-10 °C), and more precipitation falls than can evaporate. Under conditions of excess moisture, the decay products of organic and mineral substances are carried into the lower soil layers, forming a clarified podzolic horizon, from which the predominant soils of the taiga zone are called podzolic. Permafrost contributes to the stagnation of moisture, so large areas within this natural zone, especially in the north European Russia and in Western Siberia, they are occupied by lakes, swamps and swampy woodlands. Dark coniferous forests growing on podzolic and frozen-taiga soils are dominated by spruce and pine and, as a rule, there is no undergrowth. Twilight reigns under the closing crowns; in the lower tier grow mosses, lichens, herbs, dense ferns and berry bushes - lingonberries, blueberries, blueberries. In the north-west of the European part of Russia, pine forests predominate, and on the western slope of the Urals, which is characterized by large clouds, sufficient precipitation and heavy snow cover, spruce-fir and spruce-fir-cedar forests.

On the eastern slope of the Urals, the humidity is less than on the western, and therefore the composition of forest vegetation here is different: light coniferous forests predominate - mainly pine, in places with an admixture of larch and cedar (Siberian pine).

The Asian part of the taiga is characterized by light coniferous forests. In the Siberian taiga, summer temperatures are continental climate rise to +20 °C, and in winter in northeastern Siberia they can drop to -50 °C. On the territory of the West Siberian Lowland in the northern part, predominantly larch and spruce forests, in the central - pine, in the southern - spruce, cedar and fir. Light coniferous forests are less demanding on soil and climatic conditions and can grow even on infertile soils. The crowns of these forests are not closed, and through them the sun's rays freely penetrate into the lower tier. The shrub layer of the light-coniferous taiga consists of alder, dwarf birches and willows, and berry bushes.

In Central and North-Eastern Siberia, in conditions of harsh climate and permafrost, larch taiga dominates. For centuries, almost the entire taiga zone suffered from the negative impact of human economic activity: slash-and-burn agriculture, hunting, haymaking in river floodplains, selective logging, air pollution, etc. Only in remote areas of Siberia today can one find corners of virgin nature. Balance between natural processes and traditional economic activity, which has developed over thousands of years, is now being destroyed, and the taiga as a natural complex is gradually disappearing.

To generalize, the taiga is characterized by the absence or weak development of undergrowth (since there is little light in the forest), as well as the monotony of the grass-shrub layer and moss cover (green mosses). Species of shrubs (juniper, honeysuckle, currant, willow, etc.), shrubs (blueberries, lingonberries, etc.) and herbs (oxalis, wintergreen) are few in number.

In northern Europe (Finland, Sweden, Norway, Russia) spruce forests predominate. The taiga of the Urals is characterized by light coniferous forests of Scots pine. Siberia and the Far East are dominated by sparse larch taiga with an undergrowth of dwarf cedar, Daurian rhododendron, etc.

The fauna of the taiga is richer and more diverse than the fauna of the tundra. Numerous and widespread: lynx, wolverine, chipmunk, sable, squirrel, etc. Among the ungulates, there are reindeer and red deer, elk, and roe deer; Rodents are numerous: shrews, mice. Common birds include: capercaillie, hazel grouse, nutcracker, crossbills, etc.

In the taiga forest, compared to the forest-tundra, conditions for animal life are more favorable. There are more sedentary animals here. Nowhere in the world, except for the taiga, are there so many fur-bearing animals.

The fauna of the taiga zone of Eurasia is very rich. Both large predators live here - brown bear, wolf, lynx, fox, and smaller predators - otter, mink, marten, wolverine, sable, weasel, ermine. Many taiga animals survive long, cold and snowy winter in a state of suspended animation (invertebrates) or hibernation (brown bear, chipmunk), and many bird species migrate to other regions. Passerines, woodpeckers, and grouse - capercaillie, hazel grouse, and grouse - constantly live in taiga forests.

Brown bears are typical inhabitants of vast forest areas, not only the taiga, but also mixed forests. There are 125-150 thousand brown bears in the world, two thirds of which live in the Russian Federation. The sizes and colors of the subspecies of brown bears (Kamchatka, Kodiak, grizzly, European brown) are different. Some brown bears reach three meters in height and weigh more than 700 kg. They have a powerful body, strong five-fingered paws with huge claws, a short tail, a large head with small eyes and ears. Bears can be reddish and dark brown, almost black, and in old age (by 20-25 years) the tips of the fur turn gray and the animal becomes gray. Bears eat grass, nuts, berries, honey, animals, carrion, dig up anthills and eat ants. In the fall, bears feed on nutritious berries (they can eat over 40 kg per day) and therefore quickly gain weight, gaining almost 3 kg in weight every day. During the year, bears travel from 230 to 260 kilometers in search of food, and with the approach of winter they return to their dens. Animals make winter “apartments” in natural dry shelters and line them with moss, dry grass, branches, pine needles and leaves. Sometimes male bears sleep outdoors all winter. The brown bear's winter sleep is very light; in fact, it is winter torpor. During the thaw, individuals who have not managed to gain enough fat during the fall go in search of food. Some animals - the so-called connecting rods - do not hibernate at all during the winter, but wander in search of food, posing a great danger to people. In January-February, the female gives birth to from one to four cubs in the den. Babies are born blind, without fur and teeth. They weigh just over 500 grams, but grow quickly on mother's milk. In the spring, furry and nimble cubs emerge from the den. They usually stay with their mother for two and a half to three years, and finally mature by the age of 10.

Wolves are common in many areas of Europe and Asia. They are found in the steppe, desert, mixed forests and taiga. The body length of the largest individuals reaches 160 cm and weight 80 kg. Mostly wolves are gray, but tundra wolves are usually somewhat lighter, and desert wolves are grayish-red. These ruthless predators are distinguished by their developed intelligence. Nature has equipped them with sharp fangs, powerful jaws and strong paws, therefore, when chasing a victim, they are able to run many tens of kilometers and can kill an animal much larger and stronger than themselves. The main prey of the wolf are large and medium-sized mammals, usually ungulates, although they also hunt birds. Wolves usually live in pairs, and in late autumn they gather in packs of 15 - 20 animals.

Lynx is found in the taiga zone from Scandinavia to the shores of the Pacific Ocean. She climbs trees well, swims well and feels confident on the ground. High legs, a strong body, sharp teeth and excellently developed sensory organs make it a dangerous predator. The lynx hunts birds, small rodents, less often small ungulates, and sometimes foxes, domestic animals, and gets into herds of sheep and goats. At the beginning of summer, in a deep, well-covered hole, a female lynx gives birth to 2-3 cubs.

The Siberian chipmunk lives in the taiga forests of Siberia - typical representative a genus of chipmunks that is also found in Northern Mongolia, China and Japan. The body length of this funny animal is about 15 cm, and the length of its fluffy tail is 10 cm. On the back and sides, there are 5 longitudinal dark stripes on a light gray or reddish background, characteristic of all chipmunks. Chipmunks make nests under fallen trees or, less commonly, in tree hollows. They feed on seeds, berries, mushrooms, lichens, insects and other invertebrates. For the winter, chipmunks store about 5 kg of seeds and, hibernating in the cold season, do not leave their shelters until spring.

The color of squirrels depends on their habitat. In the Siberian taiga they are reddish or copper-gray with a blue tint, and in European forests they are brown or reddish. The squirrel weighs up to a kilogram, and its body length reaches 30 cm, its tail is about the same length. In winter, the animal’s fur is soft and fluffy, and in summer it is coarser, shorter and shiny. The squirrel is well adapted for life in trees. A long, wide and light tail helps her to deftly jump from tree to tree. The squirrel swims beautifully, raising its tail high above the water. She makes a nest in a hollow or builds a so-called gayno from tree branches, which has the shape of a ball with a side entrance. The squirrel's nest is carefully lined with moss, grass, and rags, so even in severe frosts it is warm there. Squirrels give birth to cubs twice a year; in one litter there are from 3 to 10 squirrels. The squirrel feeds on berries, seeds of coniferous trees, nuts, acorns, mushrooms, and when there is a lack of food, it gnaws the bark from shoots, eats leaves and even lichens, sometimes hunts birds, lizards, snakes, and destroys nests. The squirrel stores up for the winter.

The taiga of Eurasia, mainly the massifs of the Siberian taiga, is called the green “lungs” of the planet, since the oxygen and carbon balance of the surface layer of the atmosphere depends on the state of these forests. To protect and study the typical and unique natural landscapes of the taiga in North America and Eurasia, a number of nature reserves and national parks have been created, including Wood Buffalo, Barguzinsky Nature Reserve, etc. Industrial timber reserves are concentrated in the taiga, large mineral deposits (coal) have been discovered and are being developed , oil, gas, etc.). There is also a lot of valuable wood

Traditional occupations of the population are hunting fur-bearing animal, collection of medicinal raw materials, wild fruits, nuts, berries and mushrooms, fishing, forestry, (building houses), cattle breeding.

The zone of mixed (coniferous-deciduous) forests is a natural zone characterized by a symbiosis of coniferous and deciduous forests. The condition for this is the possibility of them occupying specific niches in ecological system forests. As a rule, it is customary to speak of mixed forests when there is an admixture of deciduous or coniferous trees constitutes more than 5% of the total.

Mixed forests together with taiga and deciduous forests they make up the forest zone. The forest stand of a mixed forest is formed by trees of various species. Within the temperate zone, several types of mixed forests are distinguished: coniferous-deciduous forest; secondary small-leaved forest with an admixture of coniferous or broad-leaved trees and mixed forest consisting of evergreen and deciduous tree species. In the subtropics, mainly laurel-leaved and coniferous trees grow in mixed forests.

In Eurasia, the zone of coniferous-deciduous forests is widespread to the south of the taiga zone. Quite wide in the west, it gradually narrows towards the east. Small areas of mixed forests are found in Kamchatka and the south of the Far East. The mixed forest zone is characterized by a cold climate. snowy winter and warm summer. Winter temperatures in areas of the marine temperate climate are positive, and as they move away from the oceans they drop to -10 °C. The amount of precipitation (400-1000 mm per year) is not much greater than evaporation.

Coniferous-broad-leaved (and in continental regions - coniferous-small-leaved) forests grow mainly on gray forest and soddy-podzolic soils. The humus horizon of soddy-podzolic soils, located between the forest litter (3-5 cm) and the podzolic horizon, is about 20 cm. The forest floor of mixed forests consists of many grasses. Dying and rotting, they constantly increase the humus horizon.

Mixed forests are distinguished by a clearly visible layering, that is, a change in the composition of vegetation along the height. The upper tree layer is occupied by tall pines and spruces, and below grow oaks, lindens, maples, birches, and elms. Under the shrub layer formed by raspberries, viburnum, rose hips, and hawthorn, shrubs, herbs, mosses and lichens grow.

Coniferous-small-leaved forests, consisting of birch, aspen, and alder, are intermediate forests in the process of coniferous forest formation.

Within the mixed forest zone, there are also treeless spaces. Elevated treeless plains with fertile gray forest soils are called opoles. They are found in the south of the taiga and in the zones of mixed and deciduous forests of the East European Plain.

Polesie - low treeless plains, composed of sandy deposits of melted glacial waters, are common in eastern Poland, in Polesie, in the Meshchera Lowland and are often swampy.

In the south of the Russian Far East, where seasonal winds—monsoons—predominate within the temperate climate zone, mixed and broad-leaved forests called the Ussuri taiga grow on brown forest soils. They are characterized by a more complex layered structure and a huge variety of plant and animal species.

The territory of this natural zone has long been developed by humans and is quite densely populated. Agricultural lands, towns, and cities are spread over large areas. A significant part of the forests has been cut down, so the composition of the forest in many places has changed, and the proportion of small-leaved trees in it has increased.

Fauna of mixed and deciduous forests. Animals and birds living in mixed forests are characteristic of the forest zone as a whole. Foxes, hares, hedgehogs and wild boars are found even in well-developed forests near Moscow, and moose sometimes go out onto roads and on the outskirts of villages. There are a lot of squirrels not only in forests, but also in city parks. Along river banks in quiet places, away from settlements, you can see beaver lodges. Mixed forests are also home to bears, wolves, martens, badgers, and a diverse world of birds.

It is not for nothing that the European moose is called a forest giant. Indeed, this is one of the largest ungulates in the forest zone. Average weight a male weighs about 300 kg, but there are giants weighing more than half a ton (the largest moose are East Siberian moose, their weight reaches 565 kg). The males have a head decorated with huge spade-shaped horns. Moose fur is coarse, gray-brown or black-brown in color, with a bright tint on the lips and legs.

Moose prefer young clearings and copses. They feed on branches and shoots of deciduous trees (aspen, willow, rowan), in winter - pine needles, mosses and lichens. Moose are excellent swimmers; an adult animal can swim for two hours at a speed of about ten kilometers per hour. Moose can dive, searching underwater for tender leaves, roots and tubers of aquatic plants. There are known cases when moose dived for food to a depth of more than five meters. In May-June, the moose cow gives birth to one or two calves; they go with their mother until autumn, feeding on her milk and green food.

The fox is a very sensitive and careful predator. It is about a meter long and has a fluffy tail almost the same size, and triangular ears on its sharp, elongated muzzle. Foxes are most often colored red. various shades, the chest and abdomen are usually light gray, and the tip of the tail is always white.

Foxes prefer mixed forests, alternating with clearings, meadows and ponds. They can be seen near villages, on forest edges, on the edge of a swamp, in groves and bushes among fields. The fox navigates the area mainly with the help of smell and hearing; its vision is much less developed. She is a pretty good swimmer.

Usually the fox settles in abandoned badger holes; less often, it independently digs a hole 2-4 m deep with two or three exits. Sometimes in a complex system of badger holes, foxes and badgers settle side by side. Foxes lead a sedentary lifestyle, often go out hunting at night and at dusk, feed mainly on rodents, birds and hares, and in rare cases attack roe deer cubs. On average, foxes live 6-8 years, but in captivity they can live up to 20 years or longer.

The common badger is found throughout Europe and Asia up to the Far East. The size of an average dog, it has a body length of 90 cm, a tail of 24 cm, and a weight of about 25 kg. At night the badger goes hunting. Its main food is worms, insects, frogs, and nutritious roots. Sometimes he eats up to 70 frogs in one hunt! In the morning the badger returns to the hole and sleeps until the next night. The badger hole is a permanent structure with several floors and about 50 entrances. A central burrow 5-10 m long, lined with dry grass, is located at a depth of 1-3 or even 5 m. The animals carefully bury all waste in the ground. Badgers often live in colonies, and then the area of ​​their burrows reaches several thousand square meters. Scientists believe that some badger burrows are over a thousand years old. By winter, the badger accumulates a significant reserve of fat and sleeps in its hole all winter.

The common hedgehog is one of the most ancient mammals - its age is about 1 million years. The hedgehog has poor eyesight, but a well-developed sense of smell and hearing. To defend itself from enemies, the hedgehog curls up into a prickly ball, which no predator can handle (the hedgehog has about 5,000 spines 20 mm long). In Russia, hedgehogs with gray spines, on which dark transverse stripes are visible, are more common. Hedgehogs live in birch forests with thick grass cover, in thickets of bushes, in old clearings, and in parks. The hedgehog feeds on insects, invertebrates (earthworms, slugs and snails), frogs, snakes, eggs and chicks of birds nesting on the ground, and sometimes berries. Hedgehogs make winter and summer burrows. In winter ones they sleep from October to April, and in summer ones hedgehogs are born. Shortly after birth, the cubs develop soft white needles, and 36 hours after birth, dark-colored needles.

The mountain hare lives not only in forests, but also in the tundra, birch forests, overgrown clearings and burnt areas, and sometimes in steppe bushes. In winter, the brownish or gray color of the skin changes to pure white, only the tips of the ears remain black, and fur “skis” grow on the paws. The mountain hare feeds on herbaceous plants, shoots and bark of willow, aspen, birch, hazel, oak, and maple. The hare does not have a permanent den; in case of danger, it prefers to flee. IN middle lane Usually, twice a summer, a hare gives birth to 3 to 6 cubs. The young become adults after wintering. The number of white hare varies significantly from year to year. During years of high numbers, hares severely damage young trees in forests and make mass migrations.

Deciduous forest is a forest in which there are no coniferous trees.

Deciduous forests are common in fairly humid areas with mild winters. Unlike coniferous forests, a thick layer of litter does not form in the soils of deciduous forests, since a warmer and more humid climate contributes to the rapid decomposition of plant residues. Although leaves fall annually, the mass of deciduous litter is not much greater than that of conifers, since deciduous trees are more light-loving and grow less frequently than conifers. Deciduous litter, compared to coniferous litter, contains twice as much nutrients, especially calcium. Unlike coniferous humus, biological processes with the participation of earthworms and bacteria actively occur in less acidic deciduous humus. Therefore, almost all the litter decomposes by spring, and a humus horizon is formed, which binds nutrients in the soil and prevents their leaching.

Deciduous forest is divided into broad-leaved forests and small-leaved forests.

European broadleaf forests are endangered forest ecosystems. Just a few centuries ago they occupied most of Europe and were among the richest and most diverse on the planet. In the XVI - XVII centuries. natural oak forests grew over an area of ​​several million hectares, and today, according to forest fund records, there are no more than 100 thousand hectares left. So, over several centuries, the area of ​​these forests has decreased tenfold. Formed by deciduous trees with wide leaf blades, broad-leaved forests are common in Europe, Northern China, Japan and the Far East. They occupy an area between mixed forests in the north and steppes, Mediterranean or subtropical vegetation in the south.

Broad-leaved forests grow in areas with humid and moderately humid climates, which are characterized by uniform distribution precipitation (400 to 600 mm) throughout the year and relatively high temperatures. average temperature January -8...0 °C, and July +20...+24 °C. Moderately warm and humid climatic conditions, also active soil organisms(bacteria, fungi, invertebrates) contribute to the rapid decomposition of leaves and the accumulation of humus. Under broad-leaved forests, fertile gray forest and brown forest soils, and less commonly chernozems, are formed.

The upper tier of these forests is occupied by oak, beech, hornbeam and linden. Ash, elm, maple, and elm are found in Europe. The undergrowth is formed by shrubs - hazel, warty euonymus, and forest honeysuckle. The dense and tall herbaceous cover of European broad-leaved forests is dominated by chickweed, green grass, hoofweed, lungwort, woodruff, hairy sedge, and spring ephemeroids: corydalis, anemone, snowdrop, scilla, goose onion, etc.

Modern broad-leaved and coniferous-deciduous forests formed five to seven thousand years ago, when the planet warmed and broad-leaved tree species were able to move far to the north. In subsequent millennia, the climate became colder and the area of ​​broad-leaved forests gradually decreased. Since the most fertile soils of the entire forest zone formed under these forests, the forests were intensively cut down, and their place was taken by arable land. In addition, oak, which is a very durable wood, was widely used in construction.

The reign of Peter I became for Russia the time of the creation of a sailing fleet. The “royal idea” required a large amount of high-quality wood, so the so-called ship groves were strictly protected. Forests that were not included in protected areas were actively cut down by residents of the forest and forest-steppe zones for arable land and meadows. In the middle of the 19th century. The era of the sailing fleet ended, ship groves were no longer protected, and forests began to be cleared even more intensively.

By the beginning of the 20th century. Only fragments of the once unified and vast belt of broad-leaved forests have survived. Even then they tried to grow new oaks, but this turned out to be difficult: young oak groves died due to frequent and severe droughts. Research conducted under the guidance of the great Russian geographer V.V. Dokuchaev, showed that these disasters were associated with large-scale deforestation and, as a consequence, changes in the hydrological regime and climate of the territory.

Nevertheless, even in the 20th century, the remaining oak forests were intensively cut down. Insect pests and cold winters at the end of the century made the extinction of natural oak forests inevitable.

Today, in some areas where broad-leaved forests once grew, secondary forests and artificial plantations, dominated by coniferous trees, have spread. It is unlikely that it will be possible to restore the structure and dynamics of natural oak forests not only in Russia, but throughout Europe (where they have experienced even stronger anthropogenic influence).

The fauna of broad-leaved forests is represented by ungulates, predators, rodents, insectivores, and bats. They are distributed predominantly in those forests where living conditions are least modified by humans. Moose, red and sika deer, roe deer, fallow deer, and wild boar live here. Wolves, foxes, martens, hori, stoats and weasels represent a group of predators in deciduous forests. Among the rodents there are beavers, nutria, muskrats, and squirrels. Forests are inhabited by rats and mice, moles, hedgehogs, shrews, and different kinds snakes, lizards and swamp turtles. The birds of broad-leaved forests are diverse. Most of them belong to the order of passerines - finches, starlings, tits, swallows, flycatchers, warblers, larks, etc. Other birds also live here: crows, jackdaws, magpies, rooks, woodpeckers, crossbills, as well as large birds- hazel grouse and black grouse. Among the predators there are hawks, harriers, owls, owls and eagle owls. The swamps are home to waders, cranes, herons, various species of ducks, geese and seagulls.

Red deer previously lived in forests, steppes, forest-steppes, semi-deserts and deserts, but deforestation and plowing of the steppes led to their numbers sharply declining. Red deer prefer light, mainly deciduous forests. The body length of these graceful animals reaches 2.5 m, weight - 340 kg. Deer live in a mixed herd of about 10 individuals. The herd is most often headed by an old female, with whom her children of different ages live.

In autumn, males gather a harem. Their roar, reminiscent of the sound of a trumpet, can be heard 3-4 km away. Having defeated rivals, the deer acquires a harem of 2-3, and sometimes up to 20 females - this is how the second type of reindeer herd appears. At the beginning of summer, a doe gives birth to a fawn. It weighs 8-11 kg and grows very quickly up to six months. A newborn fawn is covered with several rows of light spots. From one year on, males begin to develop antlers; after a year, deer shed their antlers, and new ones immediately begin to grow. Deer eat grass, leaves and shoots of trees, mushrooms, lichens, reeds and saltwort; they will not refuse wormwood, but pine needles are destructive for them. In captivity, deer live up to 30 years, and in natural conditions no more than 15.

Beavers are large rodents and are common in Europe and Asia. The beaver's body length reaches 1 m, weight - 30 kg. The massive body, flattened tail and swimming membranes on the toes of the hind legs are maximally adapted to the aquatic lifestyle. Beaver fur is from light brown to almost black; animals lubricate it with a special secretion, protecting it from getting wet. When a beaver dives into water, its ears fold lengthwise and its nostrils close. A diving beaver uses air so economically that it can stay under water for up to 15 minutes. Beavers settle on the banks of slowly flowing rivers forest rivers, oxbow lakes and lakes, preferring reservoirs with abundant aquatic and coastal vegetation. Beavers make burrows or huts near water, the entrance to which is always located under the surface of the water. In reservoirs with unstable water levels below their “houses,” beavers build famous dams. They regulate the flow so that the hut or hole can always be accessed from the water. Animals easily gnaw branches and fell large trees, gnawing them at the base of the trunk. A beaver fells an aspen with a diameter of 5-7 cm in 2 minutes. Beavers feed on aquatic herbaceous plants - reeds, egg capsules, water lilies, iris, etc., and in the fall they cut down trees, preparing food for the winter. In the spring, the beaver gives birth to beaver cubs, which can swim within two days. Beavers live in families; only in the third year of life do young beavers leave to start their own family.

Wild pigs - wild boars - are typical inhabitants of deciduous forests. The boar has a huge head, an elongated muzzle and a long strong snout ending in a movable “patch”. The beast's jaws are equipped with serious weapons - strong and sharp triangular fangs, curved up and back. Boars' vision is poorly developed, and their sense of smell and hearing is very subtle. Boars may encounter a hunter standing motionless, but will hear even the slightest sound made by him. Boars reach a length of 2 m, and some individuals weigh up to 300 kg. The body is covered with elastic, durable bristles of a dark brown color.

They run quite fast, swim excellently and are able to swim across a body of water several kilometers wide. Boars are omnivorous animals, but their main food is plants. Wild boars are very fond of acorns and beech nuts, which fall to the ground in the fall. They do not refuse frogs, worms, insects, snakes, mice and chicks.

Piglets are usually born in mid-spring. They are covered on the sides with longitudinal dark brown and yellow-gray stripes. After 2-3 months, the stripes gradually disappear, the piglets first become ash-gray and then black-brown

Small-leaved forests are forests formed by deciduous (summer-green) trees with narrow leaf blades.

Tree species are represented mainly by birch, aspen and alder; these trees have small leaves (compared to oak and beech).

Distributed in the forest zone of the West Siberian and East European plains, widely represented in the mountains and plains of the Far East, they are part of the Central Siberian and West Siberian forest-steppe, forming a strip of birch forests (kolki). Small-leaved forests make up a strip of deciduous forests that stretches from the Urals to the Yenisei. In Western Siberia, small-leaved forests form a narrow subzone between the taiga and forest-steppe. Ancient stone-birch forests in Kamchatka form the upper forest belt in the mountains.

Small-leaved forests are light-colored forests, they are distinguished by a wide variety of grass cover. These ancient forests were later replaced by taiga forests, but under human influence on taiga forests (clearing of taiga forests and fires) they again occupied large areas. Small-leaved forests, due to the rapid growth of birch and aspen, have good renewability.

Unlike birch forests, aspen forests are very resistant to human influence, since aspen reproduces not only by seeds, but also vegetatively; they are characterized by the highest average growth rates.

Small-leaved forests often grow in floodplains, where they are most widely represented by willow trees. They stretch along the riverbeds for many kilometers in some places and are formed by several species of willows. Most often these are trees or large shrubs with narrow leaves that develop long shoots and have high growth energy.

Forest-steppe is a natural zone of the Northern Hemisphere, characterized by a combination of forest and steppe areas.

In Eurasia, forest-steppes stretch in a continuous strip from west to east from the eastern foothills of the Carpathians to Altai. In Russia, the border with the forest zone passes through cities such as Kursk and Kazan. To the west and east of this strip, the continuous extension of the forest-steppe is disrupted by the influence of the mountains. Individual areas of forest-steppes are located within the Middle Danube Plain, a number of intermountain basins in Southern Siberia, Northern Kazakhstan, Mongolia and the Far East, and also occupy part of the Songliao Plain in northeast China. The climate of the forest-steppe is temperate, usually with moderately hot summers and moderately cool winters. Evaporation slightly prevails over precipitation.

Forest-steppe is one of the zones that make up the Temperate Zone. The temperate zone implies the presence of four seasons - winter, spring, summer and autumn. In the temperate zone, the change of seasons is always clearly expressed.

The climate of the forest-steppe is usually temperate continental. Annual precipitation is 300--400 mm per year. Sometimes evaporation is almost equal to precipitation. Winter in the forest-steppe is mild, the average January temperature is? 7 degrees in the city of Kharkov, Ukraine (the southern border of the forest-steppe) to about? 10 degrees in Orel, where the mixed forest zone begins. Sometimes in the forest-steppe in winter both severe frosts and mild winters can rage. The absolute minimum in the forest-steppe zone is usually equal to?36?40 degrees. Summer in the forest-steppe is sometimes hot and dry. Sometimes it can be cold and rainy, but this is rare. Most often, summer is characterized by fickle, unstable weather, which can be very different, depending on the activity of certain atmospheric processes. The average July temperature, depending on the location, ranges from 19.50C to 250C. The absolute maximum in the forest-steppe is about 37-39 degrees in the shade. However, heat in the forest-steppe occurs less often than extreme cold, while in the steppe zone it is the other way around. One of the features of the forest-steppe is that the flora and fauna of the forest-steppe is an average between the flora and fauna of the mixed forest zone and the steppe zone. Both drought-resistant plants and plants characteristic of the forest, more northern, zone grow in the forest-steppe. The same applies to the animal world.

I will give a description, as well as a comparative description of steppes and deserts, in the second part of this chapter. Now let's move on to considering the natural zone - semi-desert.

Semi-desert, or desert steppe, is a type of landscape that forms in an arid climate.

Semi-deserts are characterized by the absence of forests and specific vegetation and soil cover. They combine elements of steppe and desert landscapes.

Semi-deserts are found in temperate, subtropical and tropical zones of the Earth and form a natural zone located between steppe zone in the north and a desert zone in the south.

In the temperate zone, semi-deserts are located in a continuous strip from west to east of Asia from the Caspian lowland to the eastern border of China. In the subtropics, semi-deserts are widespread on the slopes of plateaus, plateaus and highlands (Anatolian Plateau, Armenian Plateau, Iranian Plateau, etc.).

Semi-desert soils, formed in dry and semi-arid climates, are rich in salts, since precipitation is small and salts are retained in the soil. Active soil formation is possible only where soils receive additional moisture from rivers or groundwater. Compared to precipitation, underground and river waters It's much saltier there. Due to the high temperature, evaporation is high, during which the soil dries out and salts dissolved in water crystallize.

The high salt content causes the soil to become alkaline, to which plants have to adapt. Majority cultivated plants cannot tolerate such conditions. Sodium salts are especially harmful, since sodium prevents the formation of a granular soil structure. As a result, the soil turns into a dense, structureless mass. In addition, excess sodium in the soil interferes with physiological processes and plant nutrition.

The highly sparse vegetation cover of a semi-desert often appears in the form of a mosaic consisting of perennial xerophytic grasses, turf grasses, saltworts and wormwoods, as well as ephemerals and ephemeroids. Succulents, mainly cacti, are common in America. In Africa and Australia, thickets of xerophytic shrubs (see Scrub) and sparse low-growing trees (acacia, doum palm, baobab, etc.) are typical.

Among the animals of the semi-desert, hares, rodents (gophers, jerboas, gerbils, voles, hamsters) and reptiles are especially numerous; among ungulates - antelopes, bezoar goat, mouflon, wild ass, etc. Among small predators, the following are ubiquitous: jackal, striped hyena, caracal, steppe cat, fennec fox, etc. Birds are quite diverse. Many insects and arachnids (karakurt, scorpions, phalanges).

To protect and study the natural landscapes of the world’s semi-deserts, a number of national parks and reserves have been created, including the Ustyurt Nature Reserve, Tiger beam, Aral-Paigambar. The traditional occupation of the population is pasture farming. Oasis agriculture is developed only on irrigated lands (near water bodies).

The subtropical climate of the Mediterranean is dry, precipitation in the form of rain falls in winter, even mild frosts are extremely rare, summers are dry and hot. The subtropical forests of the Mediterranean are dominated by thickets of evergreen shrubs and low trees. Trees stand sparsely, and various herbs and shrubs grow wildly between them. Junipers, noble laurel, strawberry trees that shed their bark annually, wild olives, delicate myrtle, and roses grow here. These types of forests are characteristic mainly in the Mediterranean, and in the mountains of the tropics and subtropics.

The subtropics on the eastern edges of the continents are characterized by a more humid climate. Precipitation fall unevenly, but there is more rain in the summer, that is, at a time when vegetation especially needs moisture. Dense humid forests of evergreen oaks, magnolias, and camphor laurel predominate here. Numerous lianas, thickets of tall bamboos and various shrubs enhance the uniqueness of the humid subtropical forest.

Subtropical forest differs from humid tropical forests in lower species diversity, a decrease in the number of epiphytes and lianas, as well as the appearance of coniferous and tree ferns in the forest stand.

Moist evergreen forests are located in narrow stripes and spots along the equator. The largest tropical rain forests exist in the Amazon River basin (Amazon Rainforest), in Nicaragua, in the southern part of the Yucatan Peninsula (Guatemala, Belize), in most of Central America (where they are called "selva"), in equatorial Africa from Cameroon to Democratic Republic of the Congo, in many areas of Southeast Asia from Myanmar to Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, in the Australian state of Queensland.

Tropical rainforests are characterized by:

· continuous vegetation growth throughout the year;

· diversity of flora, predominance of dicotyledons;

· the presence of 4-5 tree layers, the absence of shrubs, a large number of epiphytes, epiphalls and lianas;

· predominance of evergreen trees with large evergreen leaves, poorly developed bark, buds not protected by bud scales, in monsoon forests- deciduous trees;

· formation of flowers and then fruits directly on trunks and thick branches (cauliflory).

“Green Hell” - this is what many travelers of past centuries who visited here called these places. Tall multi-tiered forests stand like a solid wall, under the thick crowns of which there is constantly darkness, monstrous humidity, constant high temperatures, there is no change of seasons, and rainfalls regularly fall with an almost continuous stream of water. The forests of the equator are also called permanent rain forests.

The upper floors are at a height of up to 45 m and do not have a closed cover. As a rule, the wood of these trees is the strongest. Below, at a height of 18-20 m, there are tiers of plants and trees, forming a continuous closed canopy and almost preventing sunlight from passing down to the ground. The rarer lower zone is located at an altitude of about 10 m. Shrubs and herbaceous plants, such as pineapples and bananas, and ferns, grow even lower. Tall trees have thickened, overgrown roots (they are called plank-shaped), which help the gigantic plant maintain a strong connection with the soil.

In warm and humid climate The decomposition of dead plants occurs very quickly. From the resulting nutritional composition, substances for the life of the gyl plant are taken. Among such landscapes flow the deepest rivers on our planet - the Amazon in the rural areas of South America, the Congo in Africa, the Brahmaputra in Southeast Asia.

Partially the rain forests have already been cleared. In their place, man cultivates various cultures, including coffee, oil palm and rubber palms.

Like vegetation, the fauna of humid equatorial forests is located at different altitude levels of the forest. The less populated lower tier is home to various insects and rodents. In India, Indian elephants live in such forests. They are not as large as African ones and can move under the cover of multi-story forests. IN deep rivers Hippos, crocodiles and water snakes live in lakes and on their shores. Among rodents there are species that live not on the ground, but in the crowns of trees. They acquired devices that allow them to fly from branch to branch - leathery membranes similar to wings. Birds are very diverse. Among them there are very small bright sunbirds that extract nectar from flowers, and quite large birds, such as a huge turaco or banana-eater, a hornbill with a powerful beak and a growth on it. Despite its size, this beak is very light, like the beak of another forest dweller - the toucan. The toucan is very beautiful - bright yellow neck plumage, green beak with a red stripe, and turquoise skin around the eyes. And of course, one of the most common birds is wet evergreen forests- various parrots.

Monkey. When jumping from branch to vine, monkeys use their paws and tails. IN equatorial forests chimpanzees, monkeys, and gorillas live there. The permanent habitat of gibbons is at an altitude of about 40-50 m above the ground, in the crowns of trees. These animals are quite light (5-6 kg) and literally fly from branch to branch, swinging and clinging with flexible front paws. Gorillas are the largest representatives of the apes. Their height exceeds 180 cm, and they weigh much more than a person - up to 260 kg. Despite the fact that their impressive size does not allow gorillas to jump along branches as easily as orangutans and chimpanzees, they are quite fast. Gorilla packs live primarily on the ground, roosting in branches only to rest and sleep. Gorillas only eat plant foods, which contains a lot of moisture and allows them to quench their thirst. Adult gorillas are so strong that large predators are afraid to attack them.

Anaconda. The monstrous size (up to 10 meters) of the anaconda allows it to hunt large animals. Usually these are birds, other snakes, small mammals that come to a watering hole, but crocodiles and even people can be among the victims of the anaconda. When attacking a victim, pythons and anacondas first strangle it; and then gradually swallow, “putting on” the body of the prey like a glove. Digestion is slow, so these huge snakes go without food for a long time. Anacondas can live up to 50 years. Boa constrictors give birth to live young. In contrast, pythons that live in the humid forests of India, Sri Lanka, and Africa lay eggs. Pythons also reach very large sizes and can weigh up to 100 kg.

Comparative analysis of steppe and desert zones

In the process of writing this course work, a comparison of two natural zones was carried out and the following picture was obtained. It will be presented in table form (Appendix 1).

The common features are:

1) a type of landscape characterized by a flat surface (only with small hills)

2) complete absence trees

3) similar fauna (both in species composition and in some ecological features)

4) similar humidification conditions (both zones are characterized by excessive evaporation and, as a consequence, insufficient moisture)

5) it is possible to distinguish the types of these zones (for example, in the forest-steppe zone it is impossible to indicate additional types)

6) the location of the steppes and deserts of Eurasia in the temperate zone (with the exception of the desert territories of the Arabian Peninsula)

The differences are as follows:

1) latitudinal localization: deserts are located further south than the steppe zone

2) a significant difference is the types of soils: steppes have chernozems, and deserts have brown soils

3) steppe soils have a high humus content, and desert soils are highly saline

4) not the same and climate regime: in the steppe you can observe sudden change seasons; in deserts, temperature imbalance is observed throughout the day

5) the amount of precipitation in the steppe is much higher

6) grasses growing in the steppe form an almost closed carpet; in deserts, the distance between individual plants can reach several tens of meters.

The warmth of the sun, clean air and water are the main criteria for life on Earth. Numerous climatic zones have led to the division of the territory of all continents and waters into certain natural zones. Some of them, even separated by huge distances, are very similar, others are unique.

Natural areas of the world: what are they?

This definition should be understood as very large natural complexes (in other words, parts of the Earth’s geographic zone), which have similar, homogeneous climatic conditions. The main characteristic of natural areas is the flora and fauna that inhabit the given territory. They are formed as a result of the uneven distribution of moisture and heat on the planet.

Table “Natural areas of the world”

This characteristic of the natural zones of the world is only for informational purposes, because you can talk about each of them for a very long time, and all the information will not fit into the framework of one table.

Natural zones of the temperate climate zone

1. Taiga. It surpasses all other natural zones of the world in terms of land area (27% of the territory of all forests on the planet). It is characterized by very low winter temperatures. Deciduous trees they cannot be maintained, so the taiga is dense coniferous forests (mainly pine, spruce, fir, larch). Very large areas of the taiga in Canada and Russia are occupied by permafrost.

2. Mixed forests. Characteristic to a greater extent for the Northern Hemisphere of the Earth. It is a kind of border between the taiga and deciduous forest. They are more resistant to cold and long winters. Tree species: oak, maple, poplar, linden, as well as rowan, alder, birch, pine, spruce. As the table “Natural Zones of the World” shows, the soils in the mixed forest zone are gray and not highly fertile, but are still suitable for growing plants.

3. Broad-leaved forests. They are not adapted to harsh winters and are deciduous. They occupy most of Western Europe, the south of the Far East, northern China and Japan. Suitable for them is maritime climate or temperate continental with hot summers and fairly warm winters. As the table “Natural zones of the world” shows, the temperature in them does not fall below -8°C even in the cold season. The soil is fertile, rich in humus. The following types of trees are typical: ash, chestnut, oak, hornbeam, beech, maple, elm. The forests are very rich in mammals (ungulates, rodents, predators), birds, including game birds.

4. Temperate deserts and semi-deserts. Their main distinguishing feature is the almost complete absence of vegetation and sparse fauna. There are quite a lot of natural areas of this nature; they are located mainly in the tropics. There are temperate deserts in Eurasia, and they are characterized by sharp changes in temperature across the seasons. Animals are represented mainly by reptiles.

Arctic deserts and semi-deserts

They are huge areas of land covered with snow and ice. A map of the world’s natural zones clearly shows that they are located in North America, Antarctica, Greenland and the northern tip of the Eurasian continent. In fact, these are lifeless places, and only along the coast are polar bears, walruses and seals, arctic foxes and lemmings, and penguins (in Antarctica). Where the ground is free of ice, lichens and mosses can be seen.

Equatorial rainforests

Their second name is rain forests. They are located mainly in South America, as well as in Africa, Australia and the Greater Sunda Islands. The main condition for their formation is constant and very high humidity (more than 2000 mm of precipitation per year) and a hot climate (20°C and above). They are very rich in vegetation, the forest consists of several tiers and is an impenetrable, dense jungle, which has become home to more than 2/3 of all types of creatures now living on our planet. These rain forests are superior to all other natural areas in the world. The trees remain evergreen, changing foliage gradually and partially. Surprisingly, the soils of humid forests contain little humus.

Natural zones of the equatorial and subtropical climate zone

1. Variably humid forests, they differ from rain forests in that precipitation falls there only during the rainy season, and during the period of drought that follows, the trees are forced to shed their leaves. The flora and fauna are also very diverse and rich in species.

2. Savannas and woodlands. They appear where moisture, as a rule, is no longer sufficient for the growth of variable-humid forests. Their development occurs in the interior of the continent, where tropical and equatorial air masses dominate, and the rainy season lasts less than six months. They occupy a significant part of the territory of subequatorial Africa, the interior of South America, partly Hindustan and Australia. More detailed information about the location is reflected in the map of natural areas of the world (photo).

Hardleaf forests

This climate zone is considered the most suitable for human habitation. Hard-leaved and evergreen forests are located along sea and ocean coasts. Precipitation is not so abundant, but the leaves retain moisture due to their dense leathery shell (oaks, eucalyptus), which prevents them from falling. In some trees and plants they are modernized into spines.

Steppes and forest-steppes

They are characterized by an almost complete absence of woody vegetation, due to the poor level of precipitation. But the soils are the most fertile (chernozems), and therefore are actively used by humans for farming. The steppes occupy large areas in North America and Eurasia. The predominant number of inhabitants are reptiles, rodents and birds. Plants have adapted to the lack of moisture and most often manage to complete their life cycle in a short spring period, when the steppe is covered with a thick carpet of greenery.

Tundra and forest-tundra

In this zone the breath of the Arctic and Antarctic begins to be felt, the climate becomes more severe, and even coniferous trees cannot withstand it. There is an abundance of moisture, but there is no heat, which leads to swamping of very large areas. There are no trees at all in the tundra; the flora is mainly represented by mosses and lichens. It is considered to be the most unstable and fragile ecosystem. Due to the active development of gas and oil fields, it is on the verge of an environmental disaster.

All natural areas of the world are very interesting, be it a desert that seems at first glance absolutely lifeless, endless Arctic ice or thousand-year-old rain forests with boiling life inside.

The natural complexes of the Earth are very diverse. These are hot and icy deserts, evergreen forests, endless steppes, and bizarre mountains. This diversity is the unique beauty of our planet.

You already know how natural complexes, “continents”, “oceans” were formed. But the nature of each continent, like each ocean, is not the same. Various natural zones are formed on their territory.

Topic: Nature of the Earth

Lesson: Natural Areas of the Earth

1. Today we will find out

Why are natural areas formed?

On the patterns of distribution of natural zones,

Features of natural zones of continents.

2. Formation of natural areas

A natural zone is a natural complex with uniform temperatures, moisture, similar soils, flora and fauna. A natural area is called according to the type of vegetation. For example, taiga, deciduous forests.

The main reason for the heterogeneity of the geographical envelope is uneven redistribution solar heat on the surface of the Earth.

Almost every climatic zone The oceanic parts of the land are moistened more than the internal, continental parts. And this depends not only on the amount of precipitation, but also on the ratio of heat and moisture. The warmer it is, the more moisture that falls with precipitation evaporates. The same amount of moisture can lead to excess moisture in one zone and insufficient moisture in another.

Rice. 1. Swamp

Thus, the annual precipitation amount of 200 mm in the cold subarctic zone is excessive moisture, which leads to the formation of swamps (see Fig. 1).

And in hot tropical zones it is sharply insufficient: deserts are formed (see Fig. 2).

Rice. 2. Desert

Due to differences in the amount of solar heat and moisture, natural zones are formed within geographic zones.

3. Patterns of placement

There is a clear pattern in the distribution of natural zones on the earth's surface, which is clearly visible on the map of natural zones. They extend in the latitudinal direction, replacing each other from north to south.

Due to the heterogeneity of the relief of the earth's surface and moisture conditions in different parts of the continents, natural zones do not form continuous strips parallel to the equator. More often they change in the direction from the coasts of the oceans to the interior of the continents. In the mountains, natural zones replace each other from the foothills to the peaks. This is where the altitudinal zone appears.

Natural zones are also formed in the World Ocean: from the equator to the poles, the properties of surface waters, the composition of vegetation and fauna change.

Rice. 3. Natural areas of the world

4. Features of the natural zones of the continents

In the same natural zones on different continents, the flora and fauna have similar features.

However, in addition to climate, the distribution of plants and animals is influenced by other factors: the geological history of the continents, relief, and people.

The unification and separation of continents, changes in their topography and climate in the geological past became the reason that in similar natural conditions, but different continents are inhabited by different species of animals and plants.

For example, African savannas are characterized by antelopes, buffalos, zebras, and African ostriches, and in South American savannas several species of deer and the ostrich-like flightless bird rhea are common.

On every continent there are endemics - both plants and animals that are unique to that continent. For example, kangaroos are found only in Australia, and polar bears are found only in the Arctic deserts.

Geofocus

The Sun heats the spherical surface of the Earth unequally: the areas above which it stands high receive the most heat.

Above the poles, the rays of the Sun only glide over the Earth. The climate depends on this: hot at the equator, harsh and cold at the poles. The main features of the distribution of vegetation and fauna are also associated with this.

Moist evergreen forests are located in narrow stripes and spots along the equator. “Green Hell” - this is what many travelers of past centuries who visited here called these places. Tall multi-tiered forests stand like a solid wall, under the thick crowns of which there is constantly darkness, monstrous humidity, constant high temperatures, there is no change of seasons, and rainfalls regularly fall with an almost continuous stream of water. The forests of the equator are also called permanent rain forests. The traveler Alexander Humboldt called them “hyleia” (from the Greek hyle - forest). Most likely, this is what the humid forests of the Carboniferous period looked like with giant ferns and horsetails.

The rainforests of South America are called “selvas” (see Fig. 4).

Rice. 4. Selva

Savannas are a sea of ​​grasses with rare islands of trees with umbrella crowns (see Fig. 5). Vast areas of these amazing natural communities are located in Africa, although there are savannas in South America, Australia, and India. A distinctive feature of savannas is the alternation of arid and wet seasons, which take about six months, replacing each other. The fact is that subtropical and tropical latitudes, where savannas are located, are characterized by a change in two different air masses - humid equatorial and dry tropical. The monsoon winds, which bring seasonal rains, significantly influence the climate of the savannas. Because these landscapes are located between the very wet natural zones of equatorial forests and the very dry zones of deserts, they are constantly influenced by both. But moisture is not present in savannas long enough for multi-tiered forests to grow there, and dry “winter periods” of 2-3 months do not allow the savanna to turn into a harsh desert.

Rice. 5. Savannah

The natural taiga zone is located in the north of Eurasia and North America (see Fig. 6). On the North American continent it stretches from west to east for more than 5 thousand km, and in Eurasia, starting on the Scandinavian Peninsula, it spread to the shores of the Pacific Ocean. The Eurasian taiga is the largest continuous forest zone on Earth. It occupies more than 60% of the territory of the Russian Federation. The taiga contains huge reserves of wood and supplies large amounts of oxygen to the atmosphere. In the north, the taiga smoothly turns into forest-tundra, gradually taiga forests are replaced by open forests, and then by separate groups of trees. The taiga forests extend farthest into the forest-tundra along river valleys, which are most protected from strong northern winds. In the south, the taiga also smoothly transitions into coniferous-deciduous and broad-leaved forests. In these areas, humans have interfered with the natural landscapes for many centuries, so now they represent a complex natural-anthropogenic complex.

Rice. 6. Taiga

Under the influence of human activity, the geographical environment is changing. Swamps are drained, deserts are irrigated, forests disappear, and so on. This changes the appearance of natural areas.

Homework

Read § 9. Answer the questions:

· What determines the moisture content of an area? How various conditions Do moisturizers affect natural complexes?

· Are there natural areas in the ocean?

Bibliography

MainI

1. Geography. Land and people. 7th grade: Textbook for general education. uch. / A. P. Kuznetsov, L. E. Savelyeva, V. P. Dronov, “Spheres” series. – M.: Education, 2011.

2. Geography. Land and people. 7th grade: atlas, “Spheres” series.

Additional

1. N. A. Maksimov. Behind the pages of a geography textbook. – M.: Enlightenment.

Literature for preparing for the State Exam and the Unified State Exam

Remember:

Question: What is a natural complex?

Answer: A natural complex is a relatively homogeneous area of ​​the earth’s surface, the unity of which is due to its geographical location, general history of development and modern similar natural processes. All components of nature interact within the natural complex: Earth's crust with its inherent structure in a given place, the atmosphere with its own properties (the climate characteristic of this place), water, the organic world. As a result, each natural complex is a new integral formation that has certain characteristics that distinguish it from others. Natural complexes within the land are usually called natural territorial complexes (NTC). On the territory of Africa there are large natural complexes - the Sahara, the East African Highlands, the Congo Basin (Equatorial Africa), etc. Formed in the ocean and another body of water (lake, river) - natural aquatic (NAC); natural-anthropogenic landscapes (NAL) are created by human economic activity on a natural basis.

Question: What do the terms “latitudinal zonation” and “altitudinal zonation” mean?

Answer: Altitudinal zonation is a natural change in natural complexes in the mountains associated with changes in climatic conditions in altitude. The number of altitudinal zones depends on the height of the mountains and their position in relation to the equator. The change in altitudinal zones and the order of their placement are similar to the change in natural zones on the plains, although they have some features associated with the nature of the mountains, as well as with the existence of altitudinal belts that have no analogues in the lowland territories.

Question: What natural component gives names to natural areas?

Answer: A natural zone (geographical zone) is a land area (part of a geographical zone) with certain conditions of temperature and moisture (the ratio of heat and moisture). It is distinguished by the relative homogeneity of flora and fauna and soils, precipitation and runoff regimes, and the characteristics of exogenous processes. The change of natural zones on land is subject to the laws of latitudinal (geographical) zoning, as a result of which natural zones on the plains naturally replace each other either in the latitudinal direction (from the poles to the equator) or from the oceans to the interior of the continents. Most zones are named after the predominant type of vegetation (for example, tundra zone, coniferous forest zone, savanna zone, etc.).

My geographical research:

Question: Which continent has the largest set of natural areas and which has the smallest?

Answer: The Eurasian continent has the largest set of natural zones.

The continent of Antarctica has the smallest set of natural areas.

Question: Which continents are close to each other in terms of their set of natural zones?

Answer: In terms of the set of natural zones, the continents of Eurasia and North America are close to each other.

Question: On which continents the location of natural zones is close to the latitudinal one?

Answer: There are not so many areas in which natural zones have a precise latitudinal extension and they occupy very limited areas on the Earth’s surface. In Eurasia, such areas include the eastern part of the Russian Plain and the West Siberian Plain. On the Ural ridge separating them, latitudinal zoning is disrupted by vertical zonality. Within North America, the areas in which natural zones have a strictly latitudinal position are even smaller than in Eurasia: latitudinal zoning is expressed with sufficient clarity only between 80 and 95° W. e. In equatorial Africa, areas with zones stretching strictly from west to east are significant, they occupy the western (large) part of the continent, and do not extend to the east further than 25° east. d. In the southern part of the continent, the areas of zones elongated in longitude extend almost to the tropics. In South America and Australia there are no areas with clearly defined latitudinal zonality; there are only boundaries of zones that are similar in longitude in extent (in the southern part of Brazil, Paraguay and Argentina, as well as in the central part of Australia). So, the location of natural zones in the form of strips stretching strictly from west to east is observed in the following conditions: 1) on plains, 2) in areas of temperate continentality, remote from advection centers, where conditions of heat and moisture are close to average latitudinal values, and 3) in areas where the amount of average annual precipitation varies from north to south.

Areas that meet such conditions have a limited distribution on the Earth's surface, and therefore latitudinal zoning in its pure form is relatively rare.

Question: On which continents do natural zones have a nearly meridional strike?

Answer: Distance from the oceans and the peculiarities of the general circulation of the atmosphere are the main reasons for the meridional change of natural zones; in Eurasia, where the land reaches its maximum size, the meridional change of natural zones can be traced especially well.

In the temperate zone, westerly transport brings moisture relatively uniformly to the western coasts. On the eastern coasts there is a monsoon circulation (rainy and dry seasons). When moving inland, the forests of the western coast give way to steppes, semi-deserts and deserts. As you approach the east coast, forests reappear, but of a different type.

Questions and tasks:

Question: What determines the moisture content of areas? How does hydration affect natural complexes?

Answer: Humidification of territories depends on the amount of precipitation, the ratio of heat and moisture. The warmer it is, the more moisture evaporates.

Equal amounts of precipitation in different belts leads to different consequences: for example, 200 ml. precipitation in the cold subarctic zone is excessive (can lead to the formation of swamps), and in the tropical zone it is too insufficient (can lead to the formation of deserts).

Question: Why do natural zones on continents not always change consistently from north to south?

Answer: The location of natural zones on continents is subject to the law of broad zonality, that is, they change from north to south with an increase in the amount of solar radiation. However, there is also significant differences, are explained by the conditions of atmospheric circulation over the continent, some natural zones replace each other from west to east (along the meridianity), because the eastern and western outskirts of the continent are the most humid, and the interior areas are much drier.

Question: Are there natural complexes in the ocean and why?

Answer: In the ocean there is a division into natural belts or zones, it is similar to the division according to the principle latitudinal zonality natural land zones, but without distinguishing climate types.

That is, arctic, subarctic, northern and southern temperate, northern and southern subtropical, northern and southern tropical, northern and southern subequatorial, equatorial, subantarctic, antarctic.

In addition, large and smaller natural complexes are distinguished: the largest are oceans, smaller ones are seas, even smaller ones are bays, straits, the smallest are parts of bays, and so on.

In addition, the law of altitudinal zonation operates in the ocean as on land, which makes it possible to divide the natural complexes of the ocean into littoral complexes (coastal waters, shallow waters), pelagic zones ( surface water in the open sea), bathyal (medium-deep areas of the oceans) and abyssal (the deepest parts of the ocean).