Articles analyze the use of metaphor in American newspapers. Metaphor in newspaper headlines. One of the characteristic features of modern newspaper journalism is the metaphorization of terms: “A characteristic sign of many modern newspaper and journalistic technologies

USE OF METAPHORS IN A NEWSPAPER TEXT (ON THE EXAMPLE OF THE THEMATIC GROUP "MILITARY VOCABULARY")

Chepeleva Maria Nikolaevna

1st year master student, IMC&MO NRU "BelSU", Belgorod

E-mail: dubro [email protected]

No one doubts the fact that the mass media (media) play a huge role in modern society. The main types of mass media include the following types: printed publications, including, first of all, newspapers and magazines; electronic media such as Internet publications, radio, television.

The special specificity of newspapers and magazines lies in the fact that they have a significant impact on the reaction and opinion of people, on current events in the world and the country as a whole, making one or another impression on them, which is achieved through the emotionality of ideas, expressiveness of assessments, the use of various means of artistic expression, including paths.

One of the main areas of origin and the most common place for the use of most language processes (lexical, derivational, phraseological, etc.) is the journalistic style. This style has a significant impact on the development of the language norm in general. This emphasizes the need for its study, especially from the perspective of stylistic analysis.

Publicism (Latin publicare - "to make public, open to all" or "to explain publicly, to make public") is a special type of literary work that highlights and explains current issues of socio-political life, raises moral problems. [Big Encyclopedic Dictionary: 4987] The specificity of this style lies in the fact that, thanks to mass use, it is here that new meanings are developed and linguistic means are formed to denote new phenomena in modern society.

Among the functions of a journalistic style, the following can be distinguished:

1) informational;

2) influencing;

3) promotional

Among the functions listed above, the main ones are influencing and informational.

The characteristic features of journalistic texts are the following: the brightness of the image, the relevance of the issue, figurativeness, political sharpness, which is determined by the social purpose of the style. On the one hand, journalism has many features in common with the artistic style, and on the other hand, colloquialism. The difference lies in the fact that works of fiction model the fictional world of artistic reality, generalizing reality, conveying it in specific, sensual images. The author of works of art creates typical images through the image of the concrete, and the journalist explores the types, general problems, specific and individual facts that are of secondary importance to him, which is associated with a different approach to seeing the world around him. The position of a journalist is the position of a person observing, reflecting, evaluating.

A characteristic feature of the language of modern newspapers is the widespread use of metaphors related to military topics. The active use of metaphorical military vocabulary is most often found in materials that are devoted to socio-political, sports and economic issues.

Among metaphorized military terms, in most cases nouns and verbs are used: weapons, war, defense, landing, attack, blitzkrieg, fight, attack, charge, etc.

Thus, the figurative use of the word blitzkrieg arose under the influence of the thematically close traditional metaphor offensive:

"... I must leave the temptation of some kind of blitzkrieg, a lightning-fast entry into the history of cinema" [Soviet Sport - 10/21/2011].

"Everyone is counting on a kind of religious blitzkrieg" [KP.-23.05.2013].

Having studied various examples, we noticed that the thematic rows are constantly developing, replenishing, and in motion. Metaphors may experience changes in semantics, lexical compatibility, expressive and stylistic coloring of words.

The most common form of metaphor expression is binomial phrases built according to the model "nominative case of a noun + genitive case of a noun":

"health landings" [Med. gas. - 13.03.2012].

"rumor war" [KP - 05/23/2013]

Attributive phrases "adjective + noun" are also popular. The prevalence of metaphors of this type is explained by the fact that the very mechanism of metaphorization is found in them in the most obvious form.

"... in stores in December there is always New Year's Eve rush" [Izvestia. - 01/29/2013].

"... set in motion heavy financial artillery" [Soviet Sport. - 09/12/2012]

As the study shows, the figurative meaning of a word and its linguistic environment are not indifferent to each other. From this point of view, the closest syntactic environment of metaphor and its components such as adjectives and verbs are the most interesting.

Adjectives can help strengthen the lexical compatibility of metaphors with dependent nouns, for example in contexts:

"... even an explosion of anti-Russian sentiments is possible" [KP. - 17.09.2013].

Adjectives significantly clarify the main meaning of the metaphors: undermining the company's reputation and undermining the company's business reputation [Izvestiya. - 03.06.2014]. An army of fans and an army of Moscow fans [Soviet Sport. - 07/21/2013] .

In some cases, adjectival characterization of metaphors is used to enhance the evaluative nature of the metaphor. Compare: judicial wars and malicious judicial wars [Soviet Sport. - 09/12/2012]; war of words and a long war of words [KP.-17.09.2013].

The functions of verbs in metaphorical expressions also play an important role. The verb strengthens a complex syntactic construction, contributes to the lexical compatibility of the metaphor with the word being defined, reinforcing the figurativeness of the metaphor and forming a detailed metaphor.

The Yabloko party threw its best forces, heavy artillery into battle" [Izvestiya. - 01.29.2013]; "Giannini went berserk and declared war on the workers' collective [Izvestiya. - 06.03.2014].

In newspaper publications, there are often detailed metaphors, the number of links of which is more than 4 components:

"Having landed the second automobile landing in the west of the country last year, having blitzkrieg reached the Volga and lured large VAZ dealers in Togliatti to their side, this year the Chinese have flooded Moscow and are already encamping on our western borders - the Kaliningrad Avtotor is leading with might and main with them negotiations on the assembly of a number of models. Of course, the battle for such a tidbit of the domestic market by Chinese automakers has not yet been won" [Izvestia. – 06/03/2014].

An expanded metaphor gives the text a special evaluative expressiveness and is aimed at a certain reader resonance. Most of the metaphorical model discussed above consists of verbs and concepts that characterize active offensive military operations. There is a figurative-associative idea of ​​Chinese manufacturers as enemies who started a war in Russia and occupy its territories.

Having considered the structural classification of military metaphors, we came to the conclusion that in newspaper publications the most common forms are verbal and substantive metaphors, which are represented by two-term phrases (i.e., a closed metaphor). Journalism is practically not characterized by "mystery metaphors" in which there is no defined word. Detailed metaphors, in which the metaphorical image is realized in several sentences, give particular expressiveness, accuracy and expressiveness to newspaper articles.

List of used literature:

1. Big encyclopedic dictionary. Linguistics / ch.ed. V.N. Yartsev. M.: Nauch. publishing house "Bolshaya Ros. Encyclopedia", 2000.

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1 . Exploring Metaphor

metaphor- (from the Greek. metaphor- transfer.) - a trope or speech mechanism is called, consisting in the use of a word denoting a certain class of objects, phenomena, etc., to characterize or name an object included in another class, or name another class of objects similar to this one in some or relation. In a broad sense, the term metaphor is applied to any kind of use of words in an indirect sense. Metaphor is the most common means of forming new meanings, most of our everyday concepts are inherently metaphorical.

The foundations of the theory of metaphor were laid down in ancient times (see the works of Aristotle, Quintillian, Cicero). Also, studies of the phenomenon of metaphor belong to the largest thinkers (J. Rousseau, E. Cassirer, X. Ortega y Gasset, etc.). At present, in the course of the development of linguistic science, the study of the phenomenon of metaphor is of particular relevance (N.D. Arutyunova, V.G. Gak, Yu.N. Karaulov, E.S. Kubryakova, V.V. Petrov, G.N. Sklyarevskaya , V. N. Teliya, V. G. Kharchenko, A. P. Chudinov and others).

The conceptual features of metaphor come to the fore, within which several approaches to its study have developed. On the one hand, metaphor is an object of study of stylistics and rhetoric, and, on the other hand, it is considered as a mental universal.

So, metaphors in the language of science, it would seem, contradict the main requirements for scientific terminology - the "strictness" of the nomination, i.e. correspondence of the term to the concept, and its unambiguity. However, a thorough study of the role of metaphor in the development of the language of science revealed the reason for its prevalence in terminology: a metaphor is able to express a hypothesis, setting a special direction for understanding the object under study. It is associative and at the same time correlates new knowledge with existing experience, embodied in the usual meaning of a linguistic unit.

In this situation, two important features are displayed that characterize the nature of the metaphor: firstly, its creativity, i.e. the ability to form new concepts and linguistic meanings based on existing linguistic meanings; secondly, the connection with experience, both individual and cultural and linguistic community, encoded in the lexical and phraseological units of the language with their emotive and cultural connotations.

The foundations for the study of metaphor as a cognitive tool were laid long before our century. In the European tradition, the first who explicitly raised the question of the heuristic possibilities of metaphor was Aristotle. Considering this language tool primarily as an attribute of oratory and poetic arts, Aristotle also analyzes the logical mechanism of metaphor, which determines its ability to express knowledge about the world. For Aristotle, a logically clear metaphor is good, in which the transfer of a name is based on a structurally ordered thought, which is explained by the desire of ancient science to look for a reflection of logical structures in linguistic forms. The analysis of the analogy-based metaphor “sowing the God-given light” is indicative: explaining why this metaphor is good, Aristotle argues his statement by the logical correlation of conceptual complexes: “there is no name for scattering light by the sun; but it is as much to the sun as sowing is to seeds.” Thus, the mechanism of a “good” metaphor consists in the correct correlation of conceptual complexes; at the same time, it is emphasized that there was no separate name for the expression of the sought-for concept in the language before the metaphorical one.

The assertion of the heuristic significance of the method underlying metaphor of likening the unknown and unnamed to the known from experience and having a name in the language has become the starting point in the study of metaphor as a cognitive tool in recent decades. However, this does not mean that all research is moving in the same direction. F. Ankersmit and J. Muizh identify four main directions in the study of metaphor, which determined the approaches to it in this period of time. The leading direction is considered to be the theory of interaction, the most famous representative of which was the American logician M. Black. At the heart of this direction is an approach to metaphor as a result of the associative interaction of two figurative or conceptual systems - the denoted and the figurative means. The projection of one of the two systems onto the other gives a new view of the object and makes the signified of the metaphor a new verbalized concept. This theory goes back to the views of K. Buhler and A.A. Richards.

The second approach, which is in many respects the opposite of the first one, can be called "asemantic" (no-semantics approach), since it denies not only the cognitive potential of metaphor, but also the very concept of metaphor semantics, which, from this point of view, is either nonsense or a substitution direct meaning for pragmatic purposes. This approach was developed by D. Davidson.

Proponents of the third approach, based on the views of F. Nietzsche, believe that the metaphor is historically the first and main type of linguistic meaning, since the language itself, with established meanings that all members of the community had to reckon with from now on, was the first metaphor, from which then developed all other types of linguistic meanings, including "individual" poetic metaphors.

The fourth approach, which can be called anthropological, seeks the origins of linguistic metaphor not in the rules of logic, but in the peculiarities of human consciousness and worldview, in the laws of the emergence of images and concepts, both in the universal human plane and in relation to the worldview of the language community.

2 . Classification of metaphors

In the history of linguistics, there have been several interpretations of the issue of classification of metaphors. Different researchers singled them out into certain types, developed various approaches and criteria, in accordance with which they then distributed metaphors into different classes. A metaphor is a complex sign that has a number of structural features and specific features of the content side, and also performs certain functions in the language. But, as V.M. Moskvin, “We still do not have a set of parameters by which a metaphor can be classified. Therefore, the systematization, and in a number of cases, the identification of such parameters, i.e. classification of metaphors from a linguistic point of view, seem to be really urgent tasks of the domestic science of language. Moskvin proposed, in the opinion of researchers, the most complete classification of metaphors. He developed a structural, semantic and functional classification of metaphors.

2.1 Semantic classification of metaphors

Semantic classification in the opinion of researchers is of the greatest interest, due to the vast field for research activities. This classification is based on the features of the content side of the metaphorical sign, which lie in their semantic duality (simultaneous indication of the main and auxiliary subject), i.e. comparison of something (main subject) with something (auxiliary subject, comparison-term) on some basis (comparison aspect). Thus, the content of the metaphor "epidemic of non-payments" is a comparison of non-payments with an epidemic on the basis of prevalence; prevalence is the sphere of similarity of two specified objects.

This classification delimits metaphors:

by the main subject of comparison;

according to the auxiliary subject of comparison (anthropocentric or personification, animalistic, "machine");

by the generality of the auxiliary and main subjects of comparison;

according to the degree of integrity of the internal form of metaphors (figurative metaphors (general poetic (usual, generally accepted) and neological (individual author's), erased metaphors and dead metaphors).

Based on the belonging of the sign-bearer of the image (auxiliary subject) to the system of terms of a particular industry, researchers traditionally distinguish the following groups of metaphors:

medical (“pre-election fever”, “acute attack of remorse”, “economic stroke”, etc.);

sports (“non-payment relay race”, “record production indicators”, “one-sided game”, etc.);

military ("pre-election battles", "food war", "economic breakthrough", etc.);

technical (“levers of power”, etc.);

gambling (“political roulette”, etc.);

biological (“political childbirth”), etc.

Classification by an auxiliary subject of comparison is of interest not only to philologists, but also to historians, cultural scientists, political scientists, and sociologists. The metaphor is social. Metaphors show how the picture of the world is reflected in the public mind. According to G. Paul, from the totality of metaphors that have become commonplace in the language, one can see what interests prevailed among the people in one or another era, what ideals were laid down in the basis of culture at one or another stage of its development. A.P. Chudinov continues this thought: “Each new stage of the country's social development is reflected in a metaphorical mirror, where, regardless of anyone's intentions, a true picture of public self-consciousness is recorded. The system of basic metaphors is a kind of key to understanding the "zeitgeist". “Therefore, the relevance of their research is determined not only by linguistic needs proper, but is an interdisciplinary problem.”

2.2 Structural classification of metaphors

This classification is based on the consideration of the external structure of the metaphor as a certain lexico-grammatical construction.

The external structure of the metaphor is represented by two elements:

§ a comparison term (a metaphorized component of a phrase, a word in a figurative sense);

§ a word-argument (supporting word) (a metaphorizing component of a phrase that sets the theme of a figurative meaning).

With this classification, the features of the metaphor expression plan can be taken into account, in particular, the level affiliation of the unit, which acts as a carrier of the metaphorical image. According to this parameter, verbal and phrasal metaphors are distinguished.

Verbal metaphors are divided into substantive, adjectival, verbal and adverbial metaphors according to part-of-speech.

According to the number of units-carriers of a metaphorical image, there are:

§ a simple metaphor, in which the plan of expression is represented by one word;

§ expanded metaphor (metaphorical chain), in which the carrier of the metaphorical image is a group of thematically related units.

Known classification by the presence / absence of a reference word:

§ Metaphor of comparison (closed metaphor). It contains both the parameter word and the reference word.

§ Metaphor-mystery, where there is no reference word.

2.3 Functional classification of metaphors

Metaphors are also classified according to their functional characteristics.

§ Nominative metaphor, used to refer to an object that does not yet have its own name (satellite of the Earth). This type of metaphor exists only at the moment of nomination, having carried out the function of nomination, it loses its internal form and “extinguishes”. Such a metaphor is widely used in the process of term creation in various sublanguages ​​of science and technology.

§ Decorative (artistic) metaphor. Serves as a means of decorating speech (diamond dew, gold hair). The main sphere of its use is artistic speech.

Evaluative metaphor (about people: bear, snake) Typical for newspaper and colloquial metaphors. An expressive metaphor in journalism is intended, first of all, to create an emotional and evaluative effect. Metaphorical models of journalism are created mainly in order to transfer the evaluative attitude from the source concept to the metaphorical meaning. The following evaluative phrases are quite common in modern newspapers: food war, gas war, branch headquarters, political capitulation, etc.

§ Explanatory (pedagogical, didactic) metaphor. Typical for scientific speech.

Unlike the nominative metaphor, decorative, evaluative, explanatory metaphors retain imagery for a long time, since they are, in fact, created for the sake of internal forms, which in metaphors of this type have a certain functional load. The internal form of the nominative metaphor does not have such a load and therefore immediately fades into the background and is forgotten.

The views of scientists on the functionality of the metaphor are different; experts name up to fifteen of its functions.

Thus, the classification parameters of metaphors are determined by the originality of the plans of content and expression, the dependence on the context and the functional specificity of the metaphorical sign. Analysis of metaphors can be carried out not only by any one, but also by various combinations of the parameters discussed above.

3. Pproblemsa"living" and "erased" metaphors

The problem of “living” and “erased” metaphors is discussed in the works of V.G. Gaka, V.N. Telia, O.R. Platonova, O.Yu. Buynova, N.D. Arutyunova, N. Goodman, A. Martinet, B. Fraser and others. However, the heuristic potential of these theories, in our opinion, has not yet been fully used. In particular, it seems possible to use it to determine the degree of novelty or obliteration of a metaphor.

As the language and society developed, the old metaphor lost its connections in the language, was repeatedly replaced by a new one. Etymological metaphor loses all figurativeness. According to the figurative expression of V.G. Gak language is a graveyard of dead metaphors [Gak 1988].

This brief review shows that the boundaries within which the combinatorics of features creates a metaphorical meaning have not yet been determined.

Traditionally, the reason for the erasure of a metaphor was their repeated use. However, some metaphors are doomed to death already at birth, while others can turn into a stamp from repeated use, but not die. This fact can be explained by the fact that an insignificant, dim literal truth gives rise to a weak and lifeless metaphor. Metaphorical power requires a combination of novelty and usefulness, unusualness and obviousness. N.D. Arutyunova believes that “the transition to monosemy is ... the main difference between speech (occasional, individual, poetic) metaphor and metaphor that has become the common property of speakers of the same language” [Arutyunova 1992, 339].

The repeated use, in turn, is explained by the fact that word-symbols are used as an auxiliary component of the “dead” metaphor, i.e. words that a given national consciousness considers a symbol of some quality.

The reasons for erasing metaphors are closely related to understanding the features of some features that are extracted when interpreting a metaphor. The language community considers some signs to belong to one or another concept (name). For a language community, there are names - “standards”, whose denotations, in the opinion of this language community, have this feature to a greater extent than the denotations of other names. "Reference" features are most often the connotations of a given word, but may also be part of its meaning [Platonova 1992, 4]. The language community may be mistaken in the choice of "standards" for a particular feature. Since the selection of "reference" features depends on the opinion of the language community, these features can be different for different linguistic consciousnesses, and besides, they can be discovered by different linguistic societies at different times. For example, the British say as slow as a snail - slow like a snail, to run like the wind - rush like the wind, butterflies in the stomach - butterflies in the stomach (when hungry), and the Russians, respectively, say "slow like a turtle", " rush like a bullet”, “revolution in the stomach”.

The formalization of the "reference" attribute can be observed in a stable comparison, the formation of which probably precedes the creation of a metaphor. “The question of what appears first - the auxiliary subject or its properties, apparently, should be resolved in favor of the properties” [Telia 1988, 209]. Subsequently, according to the law of economy of effort put forward by A Martinet, the sign (or property) ceases to be explicated, since it is duplicated in an auxiliary nomination included in the comparative circulation. If for the interpretation of a metaphor it is sufficient to single out an auxiliary component of one feature from the significate or connotative zone, and, moreover, a “reference” one, such a metaphor is erased. If two or more “reference” features stand out, then we can talk about a lifeless metaphor that sounds trite. The meaning revealed to us by such a metaphor was previously found by stable comparison. In some cases, the process of metaphor formation is an unconscious search for "reference" features.

So, we call a “reference” feature such a semantic component, due to which the word containing it becomes an obligatory component of stable comparisons or an erased metaphor. But even in an erased metaphor, extralinguistic knowledge about the denotations of the components is actualized.

All this leads to the idea that there are at least two stages in the process of interpreting a metaphor. At the first step, it is necessary to find at least one feature common to the base of the auxiliary component. If such a feature is found, the interpretation process can be completed. If this feature is already highlighted in a given linguistic consciousness, i.e. "reference", the interpreter does not receive new knowledge, and the metaphor performs a duplicating function, it turns out to be erased. However, the interpretation process can be continued, the interpreter can turn to his extralinguistic knowledge and highlight new features that were not previously fixed by the language, and therefore not fixed in the linguistic consciousness, which, perhaps, are not even inherent in the object itself, but in the situation associated with it. . Thus, even an erased metaphor can serve as a tool for understanding the world [Platonova 1992, 6].

As you can see, the metaphor actualizes associations, i.e. "Registered" subconscious stable signs. Persistent features are not distinctive, i.e. "reference", they may belong not to the name itself, but to a situation that includes the denotation of the given name, however, like "reference" they are transferred from a large number of objects or their states to the entire extension, but from a set of situations to all situations.

In contrast to the "reference", a stable feature can belong not only to a certain national-linguistic consciousness, but also to a part of the linguistic community, and can also be temporary and belong to a certain historical era. It is also interesting that the metaphor allows you to recognize fixed language, but nonetheless non-standard features. "Reference" features cannot be fixed by direct nominations, including terms.

In most cases (especially in a poetic text), the purpose of combining two names in a metaphor is not to identify “reference” features, but to discover and give a linguistic form to the stable characteristics of the elements of reality. This is the process of forming new predicates. The absence of the corresponding predicate can be explained by the fact that the selected common component is only partially inherent in other objects or is combined with other components, or is not observed at all in other objects. As a result, the meaning of most metaphors is conveyed not in one word, but in a paraphrase, i.e. a set of words, and their number remains open, since the interpreter, whose linguistic experience is greater, can establish more correspondences between realities and reveal new signs, i.e. elementary semantic components. If we consider as an elementary semantic component such a component that has a corresponding predicate lexeme in the language, then the meaning of "live" metaphors is always not elementary.

Thus, the appearance of a metaphor can be equated with the birth of a predicate, the peculiarity of which is that its meaning is described not by a lexeme, but by a combination of tokens.

It can be assumed that as soon as a certain object becomes distinguished for a certain linguistic consciousness among other objects by some attribute or property, the name that names it acquires a figurative meaning (cultural connotations differ from the "reference" signs and must be learned through texts, belonging to this national group).

To erase the metaphor, it is necessary that the object, called the auxiliary component, be well known to native speakers of this language. But this condition is not the only one. Only those metaphors that have a concrete basis die and acquire independent meaning.

We consider a “dead” metaphor to be the figurative meaning of a word, recorded in the dictionary. The interpretation of such word usage occurs by substituting the dictionary meaning, and not by dividing the corresponding concept into separate features. Such word usage is a metaphor only etymologically. Erased can be called such metaphors, in the interpretation of which one feature stands out from the auxiliary component. All other metaphors are "live". They serve to establish a connection between any two segments of the real world by highlighting their common associative features.

The function of a dead predicate metaphor is to predicate a specific feature to some object, which is noticed by the speaker, but not yet noticed by the listener, this feature is not called directly, it is hidden in the significate or connotative zone of the “reference” lexeme according to this feature.

The function of erased predicate metaphors is to assert discovered properties of the class specified by the main component.

An interesting property of dead and erased predicate metaphors is the presence in them of an "internal metaphor", i.e. metaphorization of an elementary semantic component when passing through the "filter". “Some signs from the “system of generally recognized associations” themselves experience metaphorization in the transition from an auxiliary subject to the main one” [Black, 166]. It can be assumed that the existence of an internal metaphor is explained by the secondary nature of a predicate metaphor with an identifying lexeme in the predicate position compared to a metaphor with a predicate lexeme in this position. The secondary nature of metaphors is also proved here by the choice of an auxiliary component.

Currently, there are no clear criteria for distinguishing between "live", common and "dead" metaphors. When determining the novelty and obliteration of a metaphor, we rely not on the time of creation of a work of art, but on the criteria for the repetition of a metaphor. We determine the repeatability of a metaphor either by modern sources that fix the metaphorical meaning, or with the help of a computer search engine that gives examples of the repeated use of some metaphors and does not give examples of others, which indicates the degree of obliteration of certain metaphors.

Many scientists also refer to the fuzziness of the boundaries. Bruce Fraser, discussing the problem of "live" and "dead" metaphors (live and dead metaphors), calls the latter simply idioms that were once "live" metaphors, and now they are treated as "conditional" forms (conventionalized form) in language. As an example, Fraser cites the phrase "to kick the bucket" ("stretch your legs, die" according to Lingvo 9.0), which was once used literally and then metaphorically in relation to the final fight of animals kicking their legs against a bar called a bucket. Now this phrase is an idiom that has lost all meaning of its original source, and the meaning of which we understand without context. From this we can conclude that "dead" or obliterated metaphors (idioms), which have a translation in the dictionary, do not require context to update their meaning.

4. Metaphor as a means of speech expressiveness

The metaphor has firmly entered the journalistic arsenal of active means of influencing the reader. Aristotle's statement: “The most important thing is to be skillful in metaphors, you cannot adopt them from another; it is a sign of talent,” remains the fundamental principle of artistic creativity and one of the criteria for the skill of a writer and journalist.

4.1 Features of publicistic metaphor

A journalistic metaphor (as well as an artistic one) is the use by the author of a certain word, rethought on the basis of figurative-associative similarity, which arises as a result of a subjective impression, sensation, emotional perception. On the one hand, this is a reflection of the real world and objective knowledge about it, enshrined in the language, and on the other hand, it is a way of creating an individual, figurative world of a journalist. Associativity, caused by the metaphorical use of the word, helps to more vividly present the reality described by the journalist.

Newspaper metaphors can be divided into common (replicated by journalists) and individual author's.

One of the characteristic features of modern newspaper journalism is the metaphorization of terms: “A characteristic feature of many modern newspaper and journalistic texts is the figurative use in them of special scientific, special professional, military vocabulary, vocabulary , relating to sports."

Special terminology turns out to be an almost inexhaustible source for new, fresh, non-standard ways of speech expression. Many narrow professional words are beginning to be used as language metaphors.

There is some “distrust” of newspaper metaphors, the source of which is rooted in opposing them to literary ones and evaluating the role of newspaper metaphors from the standpoint of artistic speech, which is more adapted for the functioning of metaphors.

According to some authors, the metaphor in the newspaper often goes the way: metaphor - stamp - mistake. In this universality, as it were, the objective conditions for appearing in the newspaper are laid down, as V.G. Kostomarov, "ill-conceived stylistically, and often logically unjustified metaphors." Calling them "the scourge of the printed word", he believes that they confirm the opinion about the utility of the metaphor in the newspaper, where it is used as an expresseme in order to "break the standard". In a polemic with V.G. Kostomarov A.V. Kalinin admits that fiction and newspapers have different tasks and functions. But this does not give grounds "... to belittle the newspaper metaphor, to reduce its function to a purely utilitarian one ... Not so often, but newspapers still contain bright, interesting metaphors that help the reader to see some new connections through which "the world is revealed."

The position of the scientist returns to the metaphors in the newspaper their natural function - the function of artistic knowledge. It is the orientation towards positive, successful images that allows us to approach unsuccessful semantic formations as an optional and not so inevitable phenomenon for newspaper style. Verbal failures should be viewed not as a typical newspaper phenomenon, but as a cost.

The danger of a cliché "lies not in the very repetition, for example, of metaphors, but in their unjustified use." According to I.D. Bessarabova, the creation of a metaphor is the same as the search for the only suitable, necessary word. The introduction of metaphors, like other tropes, largely depends on the genre and content of the publication, not every metaphor will fit the general intonation of the text. A metaphor may remain misunderstood if semantic-paradigmatic, semantic-grammatical connections are violated. The metaphor is sensitive not only to the proximity to the defined word in its direct meaning, but also to another metaphor or metaphors.

But, despite this, metaphors are actively used in newspaper journalism, increasing the informative value of the message with the help of associations caused by the figurative use of the word, participating in the most important functions of journalism - persuasion and emotional impact.

Metaphor, as one of the most popular means of artistic expression, helps to present some complex concept as relatively simple, new as well-known, abstract as concrete. The specificity of newspapers provides for the presence of replicated metaphors, but it depends only on the skill of a journalist that the “standard” does not turn into a “mistake”. We must strive so that the use of metaphors is dictated, first of all, not by the desire to revive the material, but by the desire to achieve the effectiveness of the printed word, its effectiveness. Sluggish expressions, streamlined wording in the language of newspapers are simply unacceptable, because. journalism is designed to actively intervene in life, to shape public opinion.

5. Metaphorization of military vocabulary in the language of the newspaper

A characteristic feature of the language of modern newspapers is the extensive metaphorical use of military vocabulary.

Military metaphor in Russian has deep historical roots. The militaristic nature of pre-revolutionary Russia, the realities of revolutions, wars, wide coverage of military events in the media, their reflection in fiction determines the fact that many special designations are continuously activated in general literary use.

The process of metaphorization of military vocabulary most effectively occurs in the language of newspapers. The active metaphorical use of military vocabulary is most often found in newspaper materials devoted to socio-political and economic issues; the use of military terminology in the language of sports should be especially noted.

metaphor living military newspaper

5.1 Structural classification of military metaphors

Among the metaphorized military terms, nouns and verbs are mainly used: war, attack, landing, headquarters, defense, weapons, camp, army, blockade, fighters, campaign, front, fight, conquer, attack, charge, etc.

There are practically no isolated, single metaphors. The appearance of a rare, unexpected metaphor not marked by explanatory dictionaries has already been prepared by its traditional predecessors.

Thus, the metaphors division, platoon continue the theme of military formations (team, detachment), in which a figurative meaning (`a group of people organized for some activity') is noted:

"football division" (What will happen to the Moscow clubs // KP. - 05/10/2005).

“girls from the “dance platoon” of CSKA” (Army girls won the “Grand Prix” // Soviet Sport. - 04/22/2005).

"Ice squad" (Kazan kingdom // Izvestia. - 04/14/2006).

"a detachment of singing stars" ("Lyubasha, be!" // AiF. - 11/30/2005).

The same meaning is added by analogy to the word guard, which already has a figurative meaning `the best, tested part of any team, group.' exclamatory “Russia!” I would also put an interrogative one - “Russia ?!” // Izvestia. - 09/14/2005).

The figurative use of the word blitzkrieg arose under the influence of the thematically close traditional metaphor offensive:

“... I must leave the temptation of some kind of blitzkrieg, a lightning-fast entry into the history of cinema” (Ruminov P.: “I want to create a live film” // Parliament. Gaz. - 21.09.2005).

“They counted on a kind of religious blitzkrieg” (KP - 24.08.2005).

“The United States has recently experienced a vigorous offensive by the ideology of secularism” (Metropolitan Kirill of Smolensk and Kaliningrad: “The Russian Church and the Christian Dimension of the Problem of Human Rights and Freedoms” // Izvestia. - 04/05/2006).

The most common form of metaphor expression is binomial phrases (metaphor plus the base, most frequent word). These can be generative phrases built according to the model “nominative case of a noun + genitive case of a noun”:

"health landings" (From cooperation to commonwealth // Med. Gas. - 06/29/2005.

"army of citizens-beneficiaries" (You have to be on your guard // Med. Gas. - 08/19/2005)

"war of rumors" (Chernobyl: they live and die like everyone else. // Ekonom.gaz. - 04/19/2006)

Attributive phrases "adjective + noun" are very popular. The prevalence of metaphors of this type is explained by the fact that the very mechanism of metaphorization is found in them in the most obvious form. A metaphor is always binary (two-term), since it is based on the interaction of two information-semantic complexes. are in motion.

“... I remember the pre-New Year emergency” (Depression according to plan // Izvestia. - 13.01.2006).

“... they launched heavy financial artillery” (“Spider” is being torn to pieces. “Vanguard”, “Dynamo” or “Detroit”? // Soviet Sport. - 09/12/2005)

"Comment on ice battles ..." (Who will become the champion in Vienna-2005 // KP. - 04/25/2005).

infectious blitzkrieg . In Russia, the number of cases of dysentery has reached five hundred (Ros.gaz. - 02.11.2005).

Metaphors expressed by nouns, in the role of predicates, differ from non-metaphors by some semantic lack of independence. If you say: “the fifth match is a war”, “the behavior of the medical staff is a powerful weapon”, “Ukraine is a foothold”, then the semantic connection between the predicate and the subject is violated. Only the full syntactic block gets the finished meaning (“The fifth match is a war of nerves and characters.” (Defender of Avangard Oleg Tverdovsky: “Yardo” created a miracle // Council. Sport. - 03/25/2005). “Ethically competent behavior of medical staff - a powerful weapon of treatment and prevention "(To treat not only the body, but also the soul // Med. Gas. - 08.05.2005). "For Berezovsky, Ukraine is a springboard for an attack on Russia" (KP. - 06.25.2005)

The studied material shows that the figurative meaning of a word and its linguistic environment are not indifferent to each other. From this point of view, the closest syntactic environment of metaphor and its components such as adjectives and verbs are the most interesting.

Adjectives can help strengthen the lexical compatibility of metaphors with dependent nouns, for example in contexts:

“... even an explosion of anti-Russian sentiment is possible” (Cover up a freebie for the “orange”! // KP. - 04/11/2006).

Without an adjective, the compatibility of a noun-metaphor with a dependent noun and the viability of the metaphor itself are called into question.

A number of adjectives significantly clarify the direction of understanding the metaphors: undermining the company's reputation and undermining the company's business reputation (GAZ is suspected of tax evasion // Izvestia. - 06/03/2005). An army of fans and an army of St. Petersburg fans (“Zenith” believed in the crisis of “Wings”? // Soviet Sport. - 04/25/2005).

Sometimes the characterization of metaphors by adjectives is translated into the realm of emotions. Adjectives enhance the evaluation of the metaphor (mostly negative), their expressiveness. Compare: judicial wars and fetid judicial wars (Rose on Ice // Council. Sport. - 03/21/2005); war of words and protracted war of words (Baltic boycott // Izvestia. - 03/10/2005).

The functions of verbs in metaphorical contexts are also diverse. The verb (verbal form) strengthens a complex (combined) syntactic construction, promotes lexical compatibility of the metaphor with the word being defined, enhancing the figurativeness of the metaphor and forming a detailed metaphor.

"United Russia" threw into battle the best forces, heavy artillery. At the head of the list is Mayor Yuri Luzhkov "(Can the voter relax? // Izvestia. - 10/19/2005; "Giannini went berserk and declared war on the board of directors. (Wild banker // Izvestia. - 03/11/2005; Belgium enters the flower war (Izvestia . - 03/22/2005).

In newspaper publications, there are often detailed metaphors, the number of links of which is more than 4 components:

“Having landed the first automobile landing in the east of the country last year, having blitzkrieg reached the Volga and enticed large VAZ dealers in Togliatti to their side, this year the Chinese have captured Moscow and are already becoming a camp on our western borders - the Kaliningrad Avtotor is leading with might and main with them negotiations on the assembly of a number of models. Of course, the battle for such a tasty segment of the domestic market by Chinese car builders has not yet been won.

The given example illustrates a six-member extended metaphor represented by the words: landing, landing, blitzkrieg, luring to their side, captured, become a camp.

An extended metaphor gives a special evaluative expressiveness to the text and aims at a certain reader resonance. Most of the presented metaphorical model is made up of verbs and concepts that characterize active offensive military operations. There is a figurative-associative idea of ​​Chinese manufacturers as enemies who started a war in Russia and occupy its territories.

Having carried out a structural classification of military metaphors, we can conclude that verbal and substantive metaphors, represented by two-term phrases (i.e., a closed metaphor), are most common in newspaper publications. Journalism is almost uncharacteristic of "mystery metaphors" in which there is no defined word. Detailed metaphors, in which the metaphorical image is realized in several sentences, give particular expressiveness, accuracy and expressiveness to newspaper articles.

6. Newspaper Metaphors and Political Persuasion: An Experimental Study

The metaphor is often used by politicians and reporters to simplify complex political phenomena. Metaphors achieve this by blending people's diverse life experiences with commonly known truths. But the way the metaphor is used can do more than just improve news comprehension. When a metaphor is used to frame a political problem or event in some way, it is likely to draw attention to those aspects of the topic that may benefit a particular group. As a result, the choice of metaphors used to convey political information can have a powerful impact on news audiences. This article explores the effect that newspaper metaphors have on readers in three different dimensions: 1) what information readers receive; 2) whether the audience accepts the dominant metaphorical model (frame) when thinking about the content; 3) whether the metaphor affects the readers' ideas about the relevant problem. Experimental evidence supports the notion that metaphor influences political thinking in all three of these areas.

First, if, as the theory claims, metaphors do indeed distill complex information into formats that are easier to understand (Lakoff, 1987), then it follows that metaphors should facilitate the acquisition of knowledge. Thus, the presence of metaphors in the content of communication should increase the amount of factual information that a person is able to obtain from communication. To test whether this is indeed the case, a test will be made of the number of facts that the individual is able to recall from the summary. Accordingly, the following hypothesis is proposed regarding the role of metaphor in learning:

Learning hypothesis: Individuals who receive information containing metaphors will be able to recall more information about a topic than individuals who receive the same information without metaphors.

The second element in the definition of belief is related to the process of modeling (framing). The theory of persuasive power of metaphor advanced here asserts that metaphor distills complex material, and through this process, models it in a specific way. For example, the metaphor "Saddam is Hitler" implies a "conflict" frame. The conflict frame is created because the metaphor uses Hitler as a metaphorical shell that conveys a core set of characteristics that includes the "war" reference model as well as the "good versus evil" model.

Research on the use of problem modeling in the media has shown that individuals who have been forced into certain problem models are more likely to adopt those models when thinking about the problem (Entman, 1993; Gamson, 1992). In order to discover whether a frame is indeed accepted by an individual, William Gamson analyzed the terminology used by individuals when explaining the problem at hand to other individuals (Gamson 1992, pp. 17-27). Expanding on Gamson's arguments about metaphor, if individuals are able to select more information from summaries containing metaphors as a result of modeling, then, to a certain extent, it should be obvious that the individual has adopted a frame when discussing these summaries. Researchers studying the effect of metaphor have referred to audience acceptance of such language as the "assimilation effect" (Johnson and Taylor, 1981; Ottati, Rhoads and Graesser, 1999; Zhou, 1995). Accordingly, the Frame Assimilation Hypothesis is proposed: Frame Assimilation Hypothesis: Individuals who receive information that includes metaphors that activate a particular frame will use that frame when discussing facts about the topic and their significance more often than those individuals who did not receive information that includes such metaphors. .

Conclusion

In this paper, the features, functions, classifications and varieties of metaphor as an integral part of the literature and language of modern journalism were considered. As a metaphor, they are actively used in military vocabulary and in political beliefs. The universality of metaphor and its often unconscious use in the media and in the speech of public politicians with the aim of specifically influencing the reader, as well as numerous modern attempts at a professional approach to metaphor as a structured technology, prompted us to turn to this topic: only a comprehensive study of such a powerful tool, what a metaphor is, makes it possible to competently and effectively use this tool, guided not by "intuition" (at least not only intuition), but having at its disposal a clear and understandable mechanism, the technology by which the formation of a political metaphor will become directed and effective , while perception is analytical, revealing the original thesis and motives for using a particular coding.

Although the arguments presented here seem convincing, a few caveats need to be made. This study only touches the surface of the potential depth and versatility of metaphor.

literal listtours

Nikitin M.V. On the semantics of metaphor // Questions of linguistics. - 1979. - No. 1.-S. 91-102.

Aristotle. On the art of poetry. - M., 1997. - 183 p.

Arutyunova N.D. Metaphor // Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary. - M., 1990. - S. 296-297.

Arutyunova N.D. Metaphor and discourse // Theory of metaphor: collection. - Moscow, 1990

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Introduction

metaphor newspaper political article

It is the universality of the metaphor and its often unconscious use in the media and in the speech of public politicians with the aim of specifically influencing the reader, as well as numerous modern attempts at a professional approach to political metaphor as a structured technology, which are of particular interest to us in this work. A comprehensive study of such a powerful tool as metaphor enables a journalist working in political discourse to competently and effectively use this tool, guided not by intuition, but having at his disposal a clear and understandable mechanism, the technology by which the formation of a political metaphor will become directed and effective. , while perception is analytical, revealing the original thesis and motives for using a particular coding.

Political metaphor is one of the most widespread and effective tools of public policy and PR technologies.

Metaphor is considered by many scientists (literary critics, linguists, culturologists, etc.) to be the most important trope, while this word itself is sometimes used as a synonym for the figurativeness of speech, as an indication that words act here not in a direct, but in a figurative sense. Metaphorical language is the language "allegorical" or "figurative". A review of the literature on the theory of metaphor, which is given in the works of Beztsennaya Zh.P., Blokhina N.G., Koksharova N.F. and so on shows how wide the range of opinions is on all the major aspects of the theory. It should be immediately noted that the existing differences in approaches are not the result of a "wrong" understanding of the essence of the issue. Of course, there are controversial provisions in the positions of many researchers, but the main thing that determines the fundamental differences in opinions is the complexity of the subject of research itself. Thus, the study of metaphor has become one of the most important areas of modern cognitive linguistics, which considers this trope as a "tool for analyzing the state of social consciousness." A person not only expresses his thoughts with the help of metaphors, but also thinks in metaphors, creates with the help of metaphors the world in which he lives. The study of metaphorical models in political discourse makes it possible to identify the general characteristics of the attitude to reality, to social and cultural phenomena. The relevance of the topic is determined by the general orientation of the authors of linguistic works of recent years, dealing with the problem of means of expression in the language, the presence in linguistics at the moment of controversial and ambiguous opinions on the status of political metaphor in the newspaper and journalistic style at the present level, as well as the lack of research into the main means of expression (tropes) in the language.

The topic of this study is "Political metaphor in modern media (on the example of an article)". It is no coincidence that the phenomenon of metaphoricality attracts the close attention of researchers. This is explained, first of all, by the general interest in the study of a political speech, manifesto, statement, as well as a journalistic text in general in the broad sense of this concept. Not the last role here is played by the desire to give a linguistic justification and interpretation of various stylistic devices that create the expressiveness of the text. Researchers are also attracted by the problems associated with the mechanisms of manipulation of public consciousness. In the modern approach, the facts are not studied in isolation, but in a context that allows you to give a complete picture.

Of particular importance for researchers is the work with samples of fiction, a special analysis of which will help to assess their artistic value, expressiveness not at an arbitrary, intuitive level, but on the basis of a conscious perception of the expressive means of the language.

The purpose of this work is to explore the use of metaphor in the text of the article and prove its significance for a more complete understanding of the specific situation, as well as the political situation in the country and the world.

The object of the study is a political metaphor. The subject of the study is the peculiarities of the use of political metaphor in the language of the media.

The purpose, object and subject of the study determined the range of the following tasks:

to study the features and functions of newspaper and journalistic style;

consider the role of metaphor in newspaper and journalistic style

consider the concept of "political metaphor";

demonstrate a variety of classifications of metaphors;

identify cases of manifestation of metaphor in the text of the newspaper-journalistic style;

analyze the contextual significance of political metaphors.

During the study, the following methods were used: continuous sampling and analytical methods in combination with the method of contextual analysis and stylistic analysis of the text.

The scientific and practical significance of the course work lies in the fact that the material presented in it can be used to further study the features of the functioning of political metaphor in the language of modern media.

The purpose and objectives of this study determined its structure: the course work consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion and a list of references.

1. Stylistic features of the newspaper and journalistic style

1 Features of newspaper and journalistic style

The journalistic style is one of the functional styles that serves political, economic, cultural, sports and other relations. The journalistic style is represented by the mass media - newspapers, magazines, radio, television, documentaries [Kazakova, Malerwein, Raiskaya, Frick: 21].

Scientific and business literature is focused on the intellectual reflection of reality, artistic speech - on its emotional reflection, while journalism seeks to satisfy both intellectual and aesthetic needs [Kazakova, Malervein, Raiskaya, Frick: 21].

In the journalistic style, it is customary to distinguish three groups of genres:

) informational: note, reportage, interview, report;

) analytical: conversation, article, correspondence, review, review, review;

) artistic and journalistic: essay, essay, feuilleton, pamphlet [Kazakova, Malerwein, Raiskaya, Frick: 21].

This is the style of newspaper and magazine articles, interviews, reports, as well as political speeches, radio and television shows. It is characterized by:

) economy of language means, brevity of presentation with informative saturation;

) selection of language means with a focus on their intelligibility;

) genre diversity and the associated variety of language means used;

) eclecticism - a combination of features of a journalistic style with other styles;

) the use of figurative and expressive means;

) the syntax is mostly bookish, with extended syntactic constructions, inversion is often used - a rearrangement of words in a sentence [Rayskaya, 2009: 22].

The variety of journalism genres is due to the fact that the works of this style are not uniform, they cover a huge variety of topics and spheres of public life, cover almost all problems and news [Rayskaya, 2009: 23].

The journalistic style aims to have a permanent and deep influence on public opinion, to convince the reader or listener that the information given by the writer or presenter is the only correct one, and also to make him accept the point of view expressed in the speech, essay or article, not only through logical argumentation, but and emotional impact.

Publicistic style is characterized by brevity of presentation.

In journalism, colloquial words and phraseological units are also used (to paint, to get a hold of, strong in hindsight, on a blue eye) [Rayskaya, 2009: 23].

Often there are adjectives and adverbs with an estimated value (serious, secondary, contemptuously, great-powerful). The pronounced personal position of the author predetermines the frequency of personal pronouns [Rayskaya, 2009: 23].

The syntactic features of the style are associated with the need to combine expressiveness and information richness: exclamatory sentences, interrogative (including rhetorical questions), repetitions, changing the order of words in a sentence to highlight a word: This is myopic politics [Rayskaya, 2009: 23].

Modern media are full of borrowing words denoting new socio-economic, political, scientific, technical, cultural and everyday phenomena, such as broker, distributor, impeachment, inauguration, killer, croupier, display. Terms from various fields of knowledge are rethought, most often economic, political, "computer": wild market, stagnation, database [Rayskaya, 2009: 24].

Increasingly relevant is the appeal to religious vocabulary: the righteous, Orthodoxy, catholicity, tolerance, churching. Bookish words are used that used to be of little use, naming eternal spiritual values ​​- mercy, charity, patronage [Rayskaya, 2009: 24].

Colloquial and slang vocabulary is quite intensively used, which becomes a special expressive means: disassembly, scoop, lawlessness, chernukha [Rayskaya, 2009: 24].

A characteristic linguistic feature of journalism is the widespread use of journalistic standards, which are necessary in the media in order for the reader to perceive the text in blocks, spending a minimum of time and effort to assimilate information [Rayskaya, 2009: 24]. Journalistic expressive standards as a result of prolonged and immoderate use lose their expressiveness and expressiveness, "are erased", begin to annoy and tire the addressees of journalistic texts. Thus, standards turn into clichés that journalists have to fight against [Rayskaya, 2009: 25].

In the practice of speech, styles usually do not occur in their pure form; they, as a rule, are mixed in one proportion or another. Therefore, it is more appropriate to talk about the predominance of features of one style or another in speech segments [Rayskaya, 2009: 25].

The journalistic style is the style of the mass media that serves socio-economic, political, cultural relations [Blokhina, 2006: 105].

Blokhina N.G. and features of the journalistic style of speech include logicality, consistency, concreteness, strict validity, accessibility, emotionality and appeal. In the works of the journalistic style, socio-political and abstract vocabulary, professionalism, figurative means of language with bright emotional coloring are actively used. Often there are complex syntactic constructions with introductory words and sentences, participial and adverbial phrases [Blokhina, 2006: 105].

Shakhovsky V.I. distinguishes the following types of printed materials in newspaper and journalistic style:

brief news (brief news) and official announcement; communiqué é);

Editorial article (editor), headings (headline);

Press Releases

informative articles (articles purely informative in character)

According to Koksharova N.F. the style of journalism is an excellent example of the historical variability of the stylistic differentiation of discourses. In ancient Greece, for example, the style of journalism was realized mainly in oral form (oratorical style). Today, the political, ideological, social statements and opinions of a journalist (publicist) are mainly expressed in writing [Koksharova, 2009: 62].

The author refers to oral forms of expression of opinion: oratorical / public speech, radio and television commentary. Written forms include: essays (ethical, philosophical, literary; journal reviews, booklets), journal articles (political, social, economic) [Koksharova, 2009: 62].

The general features of the journalistic style, according to Gorshkov A.I., determined by the unity of the content and linguistic expression of journalistic texts, are as follows:

) expressiveness, determined by the requirement to influence the mass reader and listener,

) a standard determined by the requirement for the speed of dissemination of information (corridors of power) [Gorshkov, 2006: 272].

Thus, the newspaper-journalistic style is expressed in the media - newspapers, magazines, radio, television, documentaries.

It has informational, analytical and artistic-journalistic genres.

1.2 Functions of newspaper-journalistic style

The scope of the journalistic style is political-ideological, socio-economic and cultural relations [Gorshkov, 2006: 271].

In addition to the function of communication in this style, Gorshkov A.I. highlights the informative and influencing functions of the language, which brings it closer to scientific and even official business styles [Gorshkov, 2006: 272].

Information in a journalistic style is intended not for a narrow circle of specialists, but for a wide range of readers or listeners and should be brought to the addressee quickly and efficiently [Gorshkov, 2006: 272].

The impact is directed not only to the mind, but also to the feelings of the addressee.

The journalistic style is focused both on the communication of information and on the impact on the reader (viewer, listener), i.e., it performs the functions of influencing and transmitting information [Raiskaya, 2009: 22].

Since journalistic works implement the function of influence, they are characterized by the use of figurative and expressive means of language (epithets, synonyms, antonyms, antitheses, metaphors, rhetorical questions, etc.) [Rayskaya, 2009: 22].

Thus, the newspaper-journalistic style has informative and influencing functions, each of which has its own characteristics.

1.3 The role of metaphor in newspaper and journalistic style

As you know, the use of metaphors is traditionally characteristic of journalistic texts. On the pages of newspapers and magazines, metaphor is one of the characteristic means of the so-called textual expression, which over time is transformed into a standard, a stamp. Especially metaphorical nominations can be observed in the journalism of the post-Soviet period.

The origins of modern political linguistics can be found in ancient rhetoric: the problems of political eloquence were actively dealt with in ancient Greece and Rome [Chudinov, 2001: 123].

According to Beztsennaya Zh.P. "The role of metaphor in political discourse", modern cognitive science considers metaphor as the main mental operation, as a way of knowing, structuring and explaining the world. A person not only expresses his thoughts with the help of metaphors, but also thinks in metaphors, creates with the help of metaphors the world in which he lives [Beztsennaya 2007: 56].

In communicative activity, a metaphor is an important means of influencing the intellect, feelings and will of the addressee.

Metaphor corresponds to the ability of a person to capture and create similarities between different individuals and classes of objects of reality.

Metaphor is one of the most important features of modern propaganda and political speech.

Metaphor as a natural figure of thinking is rich material for the cognitive understanding of the language, the linguistic picture of the world, the interaction of linguistic phenomena and the human factor.

Interest in the problem of manipulating a person has now revived due to the paradoxical socio-psychological and political situation in Russian society, which is characterized by an extremely low political culture. A significant part of the population makes their political choice not on the basis of a rational assessment of the programs of certain political movements and their leaders, but on an emotional level [Beztsennaya 2007: 56].

Metaphor is one of the most effective means of manipulating consciousness [Chudinov, 2001: 123].

For political discourse, such a method of emphasizing metaphors as a metaphorical title is relevant, the use of which is subject to certain political techniques, among which one can note the effect of deceived expectation, the effect of heightened expectation and the effect of justified expectation [Budaev, 2008: 32].

One of the most important functions of metaphor is the modeling of reality. In cognitive linguistics, a metaphor is not only a trope, but also a way of thinking and moving towards the unknown. The creative properties of metaphor and its cognitive potential make it possible to use metaphor as a means of manipulative influence: political suicide (O. Morozov), the plague of the modern world (G. Zyuganov) [Beztsennaya 2007: 56].

The intensive development of information technologies, the growing role of the media, and the increasing theatricalization of political activity contribute to increasing public attention to political discourse, a bright sign of which in the last decade has become increasingly metaphorical [Chudinov, 2001: 123].

Until recently, metaphor was considered as one of the many means of decorating oratory, and now it is considered as a leading way of thinking and an argumentation tool with a strong pragmatic effect. The study of the metaphorical arsenal makes it possible to reveal the subconscious attitudes and aspirations of a political leader: to clean up the territory, to wet it in the toilet [Chudinov, 2012: 2].

In political metaphor, the path-road motif is very common, recreating in stages the stages in achieving goals: the roadside of capitalism, the road to nowhere, going one’s own (alien) path, a brake on the way to what, a currency corridor [Chudinov, 2012: 3].

The use of metaphors often turns out to be a good way for a political leader to "express a lot by saying a little", subtly influence the mood in society. Studying the metaphorical repertoire of this or that politician helps to better understand the subconscious mechanisms of his activity and the true attitude to this or that problem [Budaev, 2008: 45].

Political metaphors are a significant tool for manipulating public consciousness [Chudinov, 2001: 123].

In the speech of politicians, the morbid (medical) metaphor prevails: the Balkan bacillus, the recipe for independence, shock therapy - and the nature-morphic metaphor: grow into power, the top of power, the seeds / fruits of the future rebellion, the constitutional field, the hotbed of crime, the personnel field. The criminal metaphor shows a high degree of verbal aggression in society: scumbags, specific boys, lawlessness, pissing in the toilets, the Kremlin-Putin group, the Yeltsin clan, assaults, kickbacks, showdowns, pressing, wiping bloody snot, waving a penknife [Chudinov, 2012: 1 ].

Chudinov A.P. in the work "Russia in a Metaphorical Mirror" he identifies the following functions of political metaphor:

cognitive - the function of processing and processing information: The CPRF, which has grown fat, is not ready for such drastic steps;

nominative - the function of fixing knowledge, creating the name of a realia, realizing the essential properties of this realia. This function also includes replenishment of the lexical and phraseological inventory of the language. For example: an obstacle course, a mountain ridge, a river bend.

communicative - the function of presenting new information in a concise and accessible form for the addressee. For example: the party "Bear" is perceived much easier than its official name "Interregional Movement" Unity "" or MDE.

pragmatic - (impact on the addressee): the function of forming the necessary emotional state and worldview of the addressee. For example, the party "Bear" is associated with the image of a bear, the name is perceived as "master of the taiga", "General Toptygin", a strong and good-natured hero of folk and literary tales.

pictorial - the function of giving the message imagery, brightness, clarity, aesthetic significance.

instrumental - a function that contributes to the mental activity of the subject, the formation of one's own ideas about the world: the "occupation regime" of the administration of President B.N. Yeltsin.

hypothetical - the function of creating some assumption about the essence of the metaphorically characterized object: "restructuring".

modeling (schematizing) - the function of creating a certain model of the world: pan-European, i.e., relationships that, according to M.S. Gorbachev, develop between European countries.

euphemistic - a function of information transfer, which the author does not consider it appropriate to designate with the help of direct nominations.

popularizing - the function of transferring a complex idea in a form accessible to a poorly trained addressee [Chudinov, 2001: 123].

In addition to the listed functions, one can also single out a conceptual function. In this function, the metaphor is used to designate non-objective entities in the scientific, socio-political and everyday spheres: the circle of concepts, the grain of truth, the field of activity, the knot of contradictions, the stumbling block, the burden of reflection [Chudinov, 2012: 2].

Any metaphor "lives" not by itself, but in a certain context, text, discourse. A metaphor can only be correctly understood by the addressee if he takes into account at least the context in which it is implemented. For example, in an isolated form, the word bear is perceived only as the name of an animal, but already minimal [Chudinov, 2001: 123].

The figurative designation of Russia with the word bear (or the phrase Russian bear) is quite traditional, and the context of the sentence under consideration is quite sufficient to understand the meaning of the metaphor [Budaev, 2008: 23].

At the same time, in some cases, in order to fully understand the actual meaning and associative potential of a political metaphor, it is necessary to take into account not only the immediate context, but also the text as a whole, as well as the specifics of political discourse at the corresponding stage of the development of society [Chudinov, 2012: 2].

To fully appreciate the meaning of the metaphors under consideration, we need "background knowledge" [Chudinov, 2012: 1].

Chudinov A.P. considers the regularities of the implementation of political metaphor, first within the minimum lexical and grammatical context (usually within a sentence), then - within the whole text (most often a newspaper or magazine article), then - within the discourse of one or another significant political event (referendum, " coup", attempts to start impeachment proceedings, parliamentary and presidential elections) and, finally, within the decade under consideration (Yeltsin's period) as a whole [Chudinov, 2001: 123].

So, the considered functions of metaphor, according to the author, are only relatively autonomous, they are closely intertwined, and some of them can be considered as a specific variant of the cognitive function.

Thus, a political metaphor is a tool for understanding, modeling and evaluating political processes, a means of influencing public consciousness.

Among the functions of political metaphor, cognitive, nominative, communicative, pragmatic and other functions are distinguished.

2.2 Classification of political metaphors

Metaphors can be classified according to the auxiliary subject:

animalistic;

spatial.

Semantic categories of political metaphors:

anthropomorphic metaphor (man, parts of his body);

nature-morphic metaphor (weather, climate, bowels, water);

sociomorphic metaphor (sport, theater);

artifact metaphor (vehicles, musical instruments, radio, television, photographic equipment) [Chudinov, 2001: 123].

Metaphors show how the picture of the world is reflected in the public mind. The structural classification is based on the consideration of the external structure of the metaphor as a certain lexical and grammatical construction.

Semantic classification of political metaphors: - Medical metaphors: cancer of crime, chronic unemployment, healthy competition, symptoms of a crisis, sitting on an oil needle. - Sports metaphors: players in the market, electoral race, political arena, oil relay race, home stretch. - Financial metaphors: political capital, credibility, price jump, extract political dividends. - Building metaphors: foremen of perestroika, laying the foundation for a common European home, making a fortune, working under a roof. - Theatrical metaphors: puppet regime, Yugoslav scenario, political show, behind-the-scenes games, political debut / duet / trio. - Meteorological metaphors: friendly atmosphere, political climate, freeze prices, sink the financial system. - Technical metaphors: settlement mechanism, relationship reset, financial blowout, let the brakes go. - Military metaphors: assault on the heights of science, the fighting vanguard of the working class, the ideological front, the army of the unemployed [Budaev, 2008: 21],

It is also possible to single out an evaluative metaphor (about people: a bear, a snake), which is most typical for newspaper and colloquial metaphors. This metaphor in journalism is intended, first of all, to create an emotional and evaluative effect. Metaphorical models of journalism are created mainly in order to transfer the evaluative attitude from the source concept to the metaphorical meaning. The following evaluative phrases are quite common in modern newspapers: food war, gas war, branch headquarters, political capitulation, etc. [Budaev, 2008: 23]

Thus, the classification parameters of metaphors are determined by the originality of the plans of content and expression, the dependence on the context and the functional specificity of the metaphorical sign. The analysis of metaphors can be carried out not only by any one, but also by combinations of the parameters discussed above.

2.3 Trends in the development of political metaphor in the language of the media

The development of the modern Russian literary language, characterized by dynamism in the field of vocabulary, word formation, gradually affecting more conservative levels of grammar, has been accompanied by the development of new ways of fixing texts (for example, on the Internet) and the emergence of new forms of language functioning (a variety of genres in the media, advertising texts) [Vyatkina, Rudnev, 2006: 330].

According to Golub IB, many newspapers today demonstrate a tendency to reduce the style of newspaper articles. This leads to the use of jargon and argotism even in serious materials, and for short notes, reports, the style, "colored" with reduced vocabulary, has become common. For example: I won't give you a corridor [Golub, 2010: 91].

Along with other speech impact technologies, political metaphor is becoming an increasingly manageable phenomenon. There is an increase in the effectiveness of its application: the political metaphor is sensitive to events in the country and to the language fashion. Recently, in the media, one can more and more often observe the use of vocabulary that was previously unacceptable in the language of the media: youth slang, criminal slang, colloquial words, etc.

The abundance in our country of PR, marketing, image and other agencies, as well as the conduct of linguistic, sociological and psychological research, leads to the creation of political metaphors by professionals.

Thus, the development of the modern Russian literary language in recent years is accompanied by the development of such methods of fixing information as the Internet. The tendency to reduce the style of newspaper articles leads to the use of jargon and argotism even in serious materials. Therefore, the creation of political metaphors today mainly falls on the shoulders of professionals.

Conclusions on chapter 2

In this chapter, we have considered political metaphor as a tool for figurative designation, awareness, modeling and evaluation of political processes, a means of manipulating and influencing public consciousness. The study of the metaphorical repertoire helps to understand the subconscious mechanisms of a politician's activity and the true attitude to a particular problem.

Political metaphor performs cognitive, nominative, communicative, pragmatic and other functions. In each function, the political metaphor is reflected depending on the context.

The metaphor has a very rich classification, the most significant is the classification according to the semantic plan, in which anthropomorphic, nature-morphic, sociomorphic and other metaphors are distinguished. In turn, these categories of metaphors are divided into military, medical, sports, financial and other metaphors.

With regard to the development of the modern Russian literary language, the trend towards a decrease in the style of newspaper articles leads to the use of jargon and argotism even in serious materials. Therefore, the creation of political metaphors today mainly falls on the shoulders of professionals.

3. A practical study of political metaphor in the language of the media on the example of Karen Deyoung's article "European allies join in criticism of republican letter to Iran"

To conduct the study, we selected and studied examples of political metaphor in the language of the media, which are of direct interest in our study, expressing, in terms of their semantic load, the evaluative characteristics of objects or phenomena, expression and imagery of speech.

Work on the practical part of this study was carried out on Karen Deyoung's article "European allies join in criticism of republican letter to Iran".

Let's analyze the use of political metaphor in the language of the media using the article as an example.

Suddenly, Iran can say to us: "Are your proposals actually trustworthy if 47 senators say that no matter what the government agrees to, we can subsequently take it off the table?" - German Foreign Minister Frank-Walter Steinmeier said during a visit to Washington will they pretend that such a decision has not been made?" - Said German Foreign Minister Frank Water Staimaer during a visit to Washington. senators who wrote this letter to the Iranian president.In this example, the metaphor is an artifact.

Meanwhile, Iran "s supreme leader, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, took aim at Washington, saying that political divisions in the United States made Iranian negotiators question the Obama administration"s ability to follow through with any agreement - "At this time, as the Iranian supreme leader Autallah Alli Kaminai "has taken aim at Washington," saying that political separatism in the US has forced Iranian diplomats to question the Obama administration's ability to reach an agreement. In this example, the metaphor is military, and according to the semantic category - artifact.

"Of course I am worried, because the other side is known for opacity, deceit and backstabbing," Khamenei said Thursday, according to Iran's Mehr News Agency Kamenai said on Thursday, according to the Iranian Mehr news agency. Metaphor Back-stabbing in this context means - a knife in the back. In this example, the metaphor is artifactual. According to the semantic classification, the metaphor is medical.

President Obama has so far resisted demands from a bipartisan congressional majority to send lethal military equipment to Ukraine. Germany and France, which helped negotiate a sputtering cease-fire between the Ukrainian government and Russian-backed separatists, have said Western shipment arms would only escalate the conflict and undermine a possible solution. from the bipartisan congressional majority, to send lethal weapons to Ukraine Germany and France, which promoted a "ceasefire" between the Ukrainian government and Russian-targeted separatists, that sending weapons by the West would only escalate the conflict and make a possible solution to the problem impossible." The cease-fire metaphor - A cease-fire is a military metaphor and means "cessation of hostilities". According to the semantic category, the metaphor is natural. Metaphor performs a nominative function.

Republicans, in turn, have struck back at European criticism. Sen. Ted Cruz (R-Tex.) said that what he considered U.S. and European capitulation to Iran was a reminiscent of Western appeasement of Adolf Hitler Hitler." In this example, the metaphor is anthropomorphic. Metaphor performs a communicative function - it presents new information in a concise and accessible form for the addressee.

Sen. John McCain (R-Ariz.) extended the World War II metaphor to Ukraine in a direct attack on Steinmeier."The foreign minister of Germany is the same guy that refuses, in his government, to enact any restrictions on the behavior of Vladimir Putin , who is slaughtering Ukrainians as we speak. He has no credibility - "Senator John McCain continued the metaphor of the Second World War in relation to Ukraine in attacking the position of Steinmeier (German Minister of Foreign Affairs)" The German Foreign Minister, the same person, who refuses "in his government" to impose any sanctions on the behavior of [Russian President] Vladimir Putin, who is slaughtering Ukrainians, while we are now talking. "We have no right to trust him." In this example, according to the semantic category, the metaphor is anthropomorphic.Also, the metaphor refers to the medical classification of metaphors.The metaphor is that V.Putin is Hitler, and the West does not take enough action, like nothing was done in its time imal to stop Hitler. The metaphor is presented in an instrumental function that contributes to the formation of the addressee's own ideas about the world.

The letter warned Iran that any nuclear agreement signed by Obama could be revoked "by the stroke of a pen" by any future president, and that Congress could modify its terms "at any time - "The letter warned Iran that any agreements signed by Obama (the one dealing with radioactive weapons) could be withdrawn "with a stroke of the pen" by the next US president, and that Congress could change the terms of the agreement at "any time". In this example, the metaphor is technical, and on a semantic basis, it is artifactual. The metaphor is presented in the pictorial function, aimed at giving imagery, brightness, clarity, aesthetic significance.

"For them to address a letter to the ayatollah who, they claim, is our mortal enemy and their basic argument to them is: Don"t deal with our president because you can"t trust him to follow through on an agreement," Obama said in an interview with Vice media that is expected to be released Monday, according to the AFP news agency - "The fact that they addressed a letter to Auto-Allah, who they claim is our mortal enemy and their insignificant argument: don't mess with with our president, you can't trust him to sign a peace treaty," Obama said in an interview with a newspaper due for release on Monday, according to the ANP news agency. "In this example, the metaphor is anthropomorphic. By semantic classification, the metaphor is medical.

Earlier this week, Vice President Biden called the letter "a highly misleading signal to friend and foe alike that our commander-in-chief cannot deliver on America"s commitments" - a message that is as false as it is dangerous - "On this week, Vice President Biden called the letter "a very confusing signal that will deceive friend and foe alike because our top commander cannot provide American assurances - a message as false as it is dangerous." In this example, the metaphor is anthropomorphic.

Following publication of the letter Sunday night, French Ambassador Gerard Araud, a diplomat of long experience in this country and a prolific user of social media, posted a Twitter link to the letter and his own comment that "for a foreigner, Washington can be full of surprise - "Following the release of the letter on Sunday evening, French Ambassador Gérard Arraud, a diplomat with extensive experience in this country and a successful social media user, tweeted a link to the letter and his personal comment that "for foreigners, Washington can be full of surprises ". In this example, the metaphor is sociomorphic. According to the semantic classification, the metaphor is theatrical.

Conclusions on chapter 3

In this chapter, examples of the use of political metaphor in the language of the media were considered. From Karen Deyoung's article "European allies join in criticism of republican letter to Iran" 10 examples of political metaphor in newspaper-journalistic style were extracted and analyzed.

Metaphors were analyzed according to the classification of political metaphors and their functions. In accordance with the classification by semantic category, the most common in this case are anthropomorphic metaphors associated with the concept of a person. According to the general semantic classification of metaphors, medical metaphors are the most common.

In accordance with the functional expression, metaphors are equally used in nominative, communicative, instrumental and other functions.

These political metaphors express the evaluative characteristics of objects or phenomena, the expression and figurativeness of the speech of political discourse.

Conclusion

The creation and use of a political metaphor requires a journalist to be aware of modern sociological research, the political and economic situation, to have an idea about the culture of his intended recipient, his standard of living.

The most common today are military, sports, construction, road and other metaphors, from which we can conclude that the meanings of these metaphors and the realities associated with them are important for modern Russian reality.

Journalistic style plays a significant role in the system of varieties of the modern Russian language. It is open to elements of official business and scientific styles, colloquial expressions and artistic means (for example, figurativeness) are used in it. Occupying an intermediate position between the scientific style and the language of fiction, the journalistic style has a noticeable influence on both of these varieties of the modern Russian language.

Modern political leaders should seriously think about their language portrait and remember that language and thinking are inextricably linked.

In this course work, the features of political metaphor as an integral part of the language of modern journalism were considered.

The study of literature has shown that journalism is a special kind of literature, unique in form, method of approach to reality, means of influence. Journalism is thematically boundless, its genre range is huge, and expressive resources are great. In terms of impact, journalism is not inferior to fiction, and in some ways even surpasses it. For the purpose of emotional and aesthetic impact on the addressee, journalists use a wide variety of means of speech expressiveness (metaphors, metonymy, personification, etc., select vocabulary and phraseology, syntactic constructions, etc.), organically combining standard and expression. Metaphors are most popular in newspaper language. Metaphorization of special vocabulary (including military) is a characteristic feature of modern newspaper journalism.

After analyzing the sources, we can say that in the modern newspaper and journalistic style, military metaphors are actively and productively used as a means of speech expressiveness, increasing the informative value and imagery of the message with the help of associations caused by the figurative use of the word. Thus, military metaphors are involved in the performance of the most important functions of journalism - persuasion and emotional impact on the addressee.

Based on the structural analysis of military metaphors, it can be concluded that detailed metaphors, in which the metaphorical image is realized in several phrases or sentences, give particular expressiveness, accuracy and expressiveness to newspaper articles.

The reason for the active use of military metaphors in sports publications lies in the historical relationship between war and sports, in the similar nature of the rules of many sports and combat actions, and in the desire for expression in the description of sports spectacles.

Military metaphors are inherent in a large number of social and political language. The most active use of military metaphors was revealed in publications devoted to economic and political issues.

The practical part of this work illustrates the manifestation of political metaphor.

Thus, political metaphor is a very popular and productive means of speech expressiveness in the language of modern newspapers, acting not only as a tool for describing and evaluating reality, but also as a means of its knowledge.

Having studied the use of metaphor in journalistic texts, we found out that a metaphor is really necessary to create a figurative idea of ​​the situation, objects and characters in the reader, which, in turn, leads to a deeper and more complete understanding of the author's intention and deobjectification of the meanings of the text. It should be noted that for a number of expressive means of language and stylistic devices, metaphor is particularly expressive, since it has unlimited possibilities in rapprochement, often in unexpected assimilation of various objects and phenomena, essentially comprehending the object in a new way.

To create a political metaphor, a journalist needs to be aware of modern sociological research, the political and economic situation, to have an idea about the subculture of his future readers, their standard of living. Otherwise, it will not be effective. An individual author's metaphor always contains a high degree of artistic informativeness, as it deduces the word (and object) from the automaticity of perception, since without the metaphorical richness of the text it is impossible to create associative images for the reader, without which, in turn, it is impossible to achieve a complete understanding of the meanings of the text.

Like other speech impact technologies, political metaphor is becoming an increasingly manageable phenomenon. The effectiveness of its application is also increasing: the political metaphor is sensitive to the events in the country and to the language fashion. Lately, in political metaphor (as well as in other techniques of speech influence) in the media, vocabulary is increasingly used that was previously unacceptable in the language of the media: youth slang, criminal slang, vocabulary of other "grassroots" levels of the language. Such a linguistic inclusion provides a high degree of effectiveness of speech impact.

Of course, neither linguists nor anyone else can influence the activity of the considered or any other metaphorical models, as well as contribute to the activation of a metaphorical storm or the onset of a metaphorical calm. The metaphorical image reflects the unconscious worldview of society, which is formed under the influence of national traditions and the "spirit of the times". But linguists are obliged to fix the system of basic metaphors that exists in the national consciousness at a certain stage of the development of society and try to draw conclusions about the origins and prospects of a particular model, as well as consider the factors that contribute to the activation of metaphorical storms or serve as signs of their attenuation.

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Metaphor

1. Metaphor (Greek metaphora - transfer) is the transfer of the properties of one object (phenomenon or facet of being) to another on the basis of their similarity in some respect or in contrast.

2. Use of metaphors- this is the shortest path to the subconscious. Metaphors are more often a visual image, but there are also sound and olfactory ones.

Metaphor does not have to be absolutely clear and logical. In fact, the best metaphor is one that leaves room for the subconscious mind to come to its own conclusions. That's why it's good to leave the metaphor open and let people find their own explanation. You don't have to seek absolute clarity. The subconscious loves to be challenged. This is a well-known move to increase the impact and emotional depth of communication.

Publicistic metaphor determines the displacement characteristics of evaluative components derived from human experience; as a result, constant updating of figurative elements in the text is ensured.

newspaper headlines

3. Most people read the headline, not the body text, so the headline should grab the reader's interest and attention. To attract attention, the title should be original and contain information that is relevant to the consumer. The main thing is that the headline catches the attention of the representative of the target audience and automatically transfers it from the viewer to the reader.

Metaphor in newspaper headlines

4. In order to grab the reader's attention with a newspaper headline,

various means of expression, one of such means is a metaphor.

Metaphor is one of the most powerful means of expression, designed for long-term impact. Metaphors are well remembered, deposited in long-term memory and become those "bricks" that are used to decorate speech. With the help of metaphor, the title text is made more figurative and powerful, which arouses the interest of the reader.

5. Metaphors visually decorate the text, but not only for this they are used. They, like other tropes, have another noble task - to allegorically convey the hidden meaning under the conditions of some kind of caesura, for example, political or self-censorship. Let, for example, we have complaints against the local authorities, but speaking out openly means getting unpleasant consequences, even if what was said is true. A metaphor will allow us, on the one hand, to boldly express a seditious thought, and on the other hand, not to be afraid that they can be brought to justice for this.

6. Articles, headlines with political overtones, containing in a metaphorical form bold allusions to those in power, in fact, cannot be the object of criminal or civil prosecution, since they do not contain accusations or evidence in an explicit form. Of course, everything has its limit and it is important not to go too far, becoming like newspapers with a touch of yellowness. You should not get too carried away also for the reason that the method of using metaphors should be understandable and noticeable not only to the author himself, but also to most readers. Otherwise, at best, we risk being misunderstood, at worst, being misinterpreted.

An example of metaphorical headings

7. 04/25/2011, newspaper "Kommersant", headline of the article "Peace of Fate". This title is built as if on a hidden comparison with the famous film "The Irony of Fate". The article talks about the resignation of chairman Sergei Mironov, hence the appearance of Mironia (Mironov and irony). According to some, Mironov has a reputation as a clown, which is why there is a comparison with the famous comedy.

8. 04/29/2011, newspaper "Kommersant", headline of the article "Shashlik, beds, let's dance." With this headline, many have an association with the phrase "Tea, coffee, let's dance." And the reader has such bright and funny images.

03/30/2011, Novye Izvestia newspaper, headline of the article "They will bring you to clean vodka." After reading the title, it becomes clear that it is written with a share of humor and is intertwined with the catchphrase "Bring to clean water." Laughter is also present in the article itself, which refers to the laws that do not work for us.

Conclusion

9. Using metaphors, both in the text itself and in headings, we are definitely taking a risk. And, although risk is a noble cause, the figurative meaning born by a metaphor is perceived by different people in different ways. It depends on their age, level of education, religious, political and other views. The ambiguity of an unsuccessful title will play a disservice, in some cases distort the original meaning of the entire article. If you are not sure that the title is successful, it is better to do without the use of metaphors.

With the skillful use of metaphors in the headings of articles, they will decorate the text, prepare and interest, intrigue the reader, and also convey maximum information in a minimum amount. They will give him the information that cannot always be expressed in words. The use of metaphors is one of the methods of language expressiveness, which always gives a guaranteed result, which, in fact, is what we are trying to achieve.

Introduction 3
1. The role of metaphor in journalistic style 5
1.1 Features and functions of journalistic style 5
1.2 General characteristics and typology of metaphors 11
2. The use of metaphors in the English-language media 20
2.1 Semantic classification 21
2.2 Structural classification 26
2.3 Cross-cutting metaphors 29
Conclusion 31
List of sources used 33
Sources of empirical material 34

Introduction

Society life is constantly changing. The language that serves this society reacts quickly to any changes. Social transformations, as in a mirror, are reflected in the language. Publicistic style, to a greater extent than all other styles of language, perceives these changes.
Journalistic style as one of the functional styles of speech has repeatedly attracted the attention of specialists, both domestic and foreign. In Russian linguistics, these are the names of V.G. Kostomarov, V.V. Vinogradov, N.D. Arutyunova, V.P. Moskvin. Among foreign researchers, the names of Charles Balli, Francesca Rigotti, Michel Prandi and Patrick Bacri are significant.
The topic of our study is the role of metaphor in the English-language media.
The relevance of the work is connected with the need to fix those changes that occur in the language of journalism, including at the level of using the means of artistic expression.
The purpose of the work is to analyze the role of metaphor in the English-language media on the basis of newspaper articles.
This goal defines the following tasks:

to characterize the features of the journalistic style;
define the concept of metaphor and identify the types of this means of artistic expression;
analyze the use of metaphors in the media.

The object of our study is metaphor as a language tool.
The subject of the study is the functioning of such a stylistic device as a metaphor in newspaper texts.
In the work we used the following methods: literature analysis on the topic, description, lexico-semantic analysis, contextual analysis, frequency-statistical analysis, generalization. In part, we resorted to the method of continuous sampling. To compare the features of the use of metaphor in different types of print media, we used a comparative method.

2. The use of metaphors in the English-language media

Obviously, both the number and the types and functions of metaphors will vary depending on the particular media.
Consider a brief classification of newspapers and magazines. On a territorial basis, the press is divided into:
- transnational newspapers. Distributed in several countries around the world. There are few such newspapers. The most famous is the English "Financial Times";
- national (central) newspapers and magazines. Distributed throughout the country;
- magazines (general popular and specialized);
- local (regional) publications. Distributed within a certain large settlement and territories adjacent to it;
- local newspapers. Distributed within one locality or part of it.
According to the content of newspapers and magazines are:
- information. Mostly contain editorial content and refer to the traditional form of newspapers;
- advertising. In them, most of the publication is presented for advertising;
- By circulation (the total number of copies printed in the printing house), newspapers are divided into small circulation (tens and hundreds of copies); large-circulation (from thousands to millions of copies). On average, it is believed that each issue of the newspaper is read by 3-4 people.
According to the frequency of publication, newspapers and magazines are:
- daily newspapers. Mainly focused on publishing news;
- weekly newspapers (often supplemented by daily ones) and magazines. Review and comment on the events of the week. More attention is paid to the news of culture, sports, entertainment industry;
- monthly magazines 12 .
The British press is generally considered to be divided into two types of newspapers: broad-sheet established papers, including well-known publications such as the Times and the Sunday Observer, and the popular press, or tabloids. The idea of ​​tabloids is to make it convenient to read the newspaper in the city subway cars. Therefore, in order not to fill the reader's head with serious thoughts, their pages were filled exclusively with criminal and scandalous chronicles. The newspapers Sun and Mirror, examples of which we will use, are called classics of their genre, i.e. classic British yellow press. We will also use examples from the English newspaper Guardian, which is a more serious publication that reviews socio-political phenomena 13 .
However, even as a preliminary hypothesis, based on the above classification, it can be assumed that the goals and frequency of using metaphors will differ depending on the type of publication.
Consider the metaphors found in different types of print media and classify them into groups depending on the type of metaphor. The division into groups will be based on semantic, structural and functional classifications.

2.1 Semantic classification

Two subspecies are distinguished here: classification by an auxiliary subject and classification by the value transfer formula. Semantic classification allows you to highlight those images that lie on the surface of comparison, and therefore attract attention in the first place.
So, an auxiliary subject can be a metaphorical indication of the place of the events taking place. Consider this piece of text from the Sun newspaper: 10 days of fury that left America near the brink of a racial civil war (
etc.................