Zoology of invertebrates. Cuttlefish Organs of the respiratory system of cuttlefish sepia

general characteristics cephalopods

This class includes about 700 species of large mollusks that live exclusively in the seas and are distinguished by the most complex organization. Due to their perfect adaptations to life in the sea and the complexity of their behavior, cephalopods are often called the “primates of the sea” among invertebrate animals. They are usually free-swimming and mobile predators that prefer the waters of warm seas and oceans. Among them there are few watering species. Their sizes range from a few centimeters to 18 m (giant squid).

The body is clearly divided into head and trunk. The leg is turned into tentacles (arms), which are secondarily moved to the head and surround the mouth opening (sac-shaped (octopuses), in other universal species the body is flattened (cuttlefish). In planktonic forms, the body is gelatinous, medusoid in shape, can be narrow or even spherical. In higher cephalopods, the mouth opening is surrounded by eight or ten tentacles.Eight tentacles of representatives of the order Octopoda gradually narrowing towards the end on the side facing the mouth, they are equipped with numerous disc-shaped suckers, with which the mollusks can firmly stick to the substrate and to the prey. In species of the order Decapoda in addition to these eight tentacles, there are two more, but much longer, catching tentacles, expanded at the end. On the sides of the head there are two large and complex eyes. In primitive forms, the number of smooth and worm-like tentacles can reach several dozen.

The body is covered on all sides with a mantle: on the back it forms the integument of the body, and on the abdominal side - the mantle cavity, which communicates with the external environment through a slit-like opening. This opening can close and isolate the mantle cavity from the external environment. It closes with special “button fasteners”. Between the “buttons” on the ventral side, a funnel in the form of a muscular tube protrudes from this gap. The widened end of the funnel opens into the mantle cavity, and the narrow end opens outward. The funnel (a derivative of the leg) serves for a special jet movement. When the mantle gap is closed by the closures with the help of numerous muscles, the mantle is pressed against the body. Water from the mantle cavity is forcefully pushed through the funnel, pushing the mollusk into reverse side(jet thrust). The funnel can bend in different directions, which allows the mollusk to change the direction of movement. The role of an additional steering wheel is performed by tentacles and fins in the form of folds of skin. Rhythmic contractions of the mantle and expulsion of water allow the mollusk not only to swim, but also to intensively wash its gills with water.

The reproductive and urinary ducts, as well as the anus, open into the mantle cavity on the abdominal side of cephalopods, hence their name - cephalopods). The other part of the leg was transformed into a funnel lying at the entrance to the mantle cavity on the ventral side of the body.

In primitive forms the shell is external, in higher representatives it is internal, and can be partially or completely reduced

Structure and vital functions

Mollusks that live in the water column have a torpedo-shaped body (squid), while benthic forms have a body.

In modern cephalopods, the shell is greatly reduced and is overgrown with lateral folds of the mantle, becoming internal. In some representatives (cuttlefish Sepia) the shell in the form of a calcareous plate lies under the integument on the dorsal side of the body. At the squid (Loligo) All that remains of the shell is the dorsal horny leaf hidden under the integument. In some species, the shell remains only in females or disappears altogether.

Veils represented by single-layer epithelium and a layer of connective tissue underneath. Cephalopods are capable of quickly and abruptly changing their color, which is caused by the presence of numerous pigment cells - chromatophores - in the connective tissue layer of the skin. The mechanism of color change is controlled by the nervous system, which receives information through the optic nerves.

Nervous system cephalopods have the most complex structure. The nerve ganglia form a large peripharyngeal cluster - the brain, enclosed in a cartilaginous capsule (corresponding in function to the skull of vertebrates). Two large pallial nerves arise from the posterior part of the ganglion mass.

Sense organs well developed: olfactory pits under the eyes, which are highly sensitive, a pair of statocysts inside the cartilaginous head capsule, large and complex eyes, capable of accommodation. The eyes are similar in structure to the eyes of mammals (an example of convergence between invertebrates and vertebrates). The eyeball is covered on top with a cornea, which has an opening into the anterior chamber of the eye. The iris forms an opening, the pupil, through which light enters the lens. Accommodation of the eye occurs due to the removal of the lens from the retina or its approach (in mammals, accommodation is carried out by changing the curvature of the lens). The eyes are surrounded by a cartilaginous capsule. The skin has special luminous organs that are similar in structure to eyes.

Digestive organs They are also complexly structured and have features of specialization for feeding on animal food. The mouth opening, located in the center of the crown of tentacles, leads into a muscular pharynx, in which there is a tongue with a grater. In the throat there are two thick horny jaws, curved in the form of a hook and reminiscent of a parrot's beak. The ducts of one or two pairs of salivary glands open into the pharynx, the secretion of which has amylolytic and proteolytic activity and may contain poisons. Cephalopods eat only semi-liquid food because they have a narrow esophagus that passes through the mollusk's brain. The food is first chewed by the horny jaws, and then generously moistened with saliva and ground with a grater. Long esophagus. From the esophagus, food enters the muscular endodermal stomach, which has a blind sac-like process. The small intestine extends from the stomach, passing into the hindgut, ending with the anus into the mantle cavity. The ducts of the liver flow into the stomach, the secretion of which contains the entire set of digestive enzymes. There is also a pancreas in the form of small appendages in the ducts of the liver. In front of the anus, the duct of the ink sac opens, in which a black liquid is formed. Throwing out this inky liquid through the anus, and then from the mantle cavity through the funnel to the outside, the mollusks surround themselves with a dark cloud, which allows them to hide from their enemies. Cephalopods feed mainly on fish, crabs and bivalves, grabbing them with their tentacles and killing them with their jaws and poison.

Respiratory system - gills located in the mantle cavity symmetrically on the sides of the body. Water exchange is carried out by contraction of the mantle muscles and the operation of a funnel through which water is pushed out. Based on the number of gills, cephalopods are divided into two groups: four-gill (Tetrabranchia) and bibranchs (Dibranchia).

Circulatory system represented by a heart with one ventricle and two or four atria (according to the number of gills). Blood moves due to contractions of the heart, as well as due to the pulsation of areas of blood vessels. The cephalic and splanchnic aortas extend from the anterior and posterior ends of the heart ventricle. The capillaries of veins and arteries in the skin and muscles pass into each other and only in some places lacunar spaces are preserved; thus, the circulatory system is almost closed. Blood turns blue in air because it contains hemocyanin (a copper-rich compound that corresponds in physiological functions to vertebrate hemoglobin).

Excretory system consists of two or four buds, originating with openings in the coelom (pericardial sac). The end products of metabolism come from the branchial veins and the pericardial sac and are secreted into the mantle cavity next to the anus.

Reproductive system. Cephalopods are dioecious animals in which sexual dimorphism is often well expressed. The gonads and their ducts are unpaired. Reproductive products accumulate in the coelom and are excreted through the genital ducts. Spermine are glued together into spermatophores - packets with a dense shell.

Fertilization usually occurs in the mantle cavity of the female; the role of the copulatory organ is played by one of the tentacles, which in males is distinguished by the presence of a special spoon-shaped appendage. Using this tentacle, the male introduces spermatophores into the mantle cavity of the female. All embryo development takes place inside the eggs, which the female lays at the bottom. Some cephalopods show concern for their offspring: the female argonaut bears eggs in the brood chamber, octopuses guard the clutch of eggs.

Subclasses of cephalopods

Modern cephalopods belong to two subclasses: subclass Nautilidae (Nautiloidea) and subclass Coleoidea (Coleoidea).

Cephalopods are large in size: from several centimeters to several meters. It was possible to discover a 10-meter tentacle of a cephalopod. Mollusks live only in the seas and lead a varied lifestyle. Most are pelagic animals that live in the water column. In benthic species (part of the octopuses), there is a membrane between the tentacles, which gives the mollusk’s body the appearance of a disk lying on the bottom. All cephalopods are predators, attacking crustaceans and fish, which they grab with their tentacles, kill with their jaws and the poison of their salivary glands.

Many cephalopods are hunted: squid, cuttlefish and octopuses are used as food because their meat has high nutritional value. The global catch of cephalopods reaches more than 1.6 billion tons per year.

Nautilids include only one order Nautilida, which includes only a few species that live in tropical areas of the oceans. Nautilids are characterized by many primitive features: an external multi-chambered shell, numerous tentacles without suction cups, manifestation of metamerism, etc. Nautilus swims in a reactive manner. It is an object of fishing because of its beautiful shell.

Subclass Coleoidea (Coleoidea) includes about 650 species of hard-skinned mollusks without shells. They have a fused funnel and tentacles armed with suckers, in addition, they have two gills, two kidneys and two atria.

A characteristic representative of the order are cuttlefish (Sepia) having ten tentacles, of which two are hunters. They live near the bottom and lead an active swimming lifestyle.

To the Squid squad (Teuthida) include many commercial species ( Todarodes, Loligo etc.) They sometimes retain a rudimentary shell in the form of a horny plate under the skin. Squids have ten tentacles. These are torpedo-shaped inhabitants of the ocean waters.

There are no traces of shells in the most evolutionarily advanced cephalopods - representatives of the order Octopods (Ostododa). They have eight tentacles, one of which in males is converted into a sexual tentacle. Most octopuses live in the bottom layer of water. Among octopuses there are representatives that have a brood chamber (argonaut).

Phylogeny of cephalopods

The most ancient representatives of cephalopods are nautilids, whose shells are found in Cambrian deposits. Cephalopods are believed to have evolved from ancient crawling shellfish. In the process of evolution, a group of cephalopods was formed, devoid of a shell, with a new reactive type of movement, with a complex nervous system and complex sense organs.

From primitive shelled bentho-pelagic forms, several paths of ecological specialization were determined. There is a transition to bento-nektonic forms, in which the shell becomes internal and its function as a swimming apparatus weakens, but a new model of propulsion develops - the funnel. They gave rise to shellless mollusks, which form benthic-nektonic (cuttlefish, octopuses), nektonic (squid, octopuses and cuttlefish), benthic and planktonic (umbrella-shaped octopuses, rod-shaped squids) forms of fossils.

Cuttlefish. Class - cephalopods. Trituration of the dried liquid contents of the ink sac. It turned out that the drug prepared from a fresh ink sac, which Dr. Swallow gave me, is superior in all respects to the official drug, which I rarely use. However, in the trials and reported cases, a dry preparation was used.

Clinic Impact of alcohol. Amenorrhea. Pressure in the anus. Apoplexy. Poor appetite. Ascariasis. Baldness. Bladder irritation. Cancer. Changes in life. Chloasma. Chorea. Condylomas. Cystitis. Dandruff. Dysmenorrhea. Dyspepsia. Eczema. Nosebleeds. Eye diseases. Yellowness of the face. Freckles. Chronic urethritis of gonorrheal origin. Gonorrhea. Sand in urine. Ring herpes. Hysteria. Irritation. Jaundice. Beli. Liver spots. Sluggish liver. Menstrual irregularities. Mental disorders. Pain under the nails.

Neuralgia. Inflammation and swelling of the nasal mucosa. Fetid runny nose. Phimosis. Pitiriasis. Pleurisy. Disturbances during pregnancy, vomiting. Itching. Psoriasis. Ptosis. Consolidation of the pylorus. Peritonsillar abscess. Rectal cancer and fissures. Dermatomycosis. Pain in the sacrum. Sciatica. Seborrhea. Increased sense of smell or its disturbances. Spermatorrhoea. Barley. Toothache. Urinary incontinence. Pushing in the uterus. Phlebeurysm. Warts. Whooping cough.

Characteristic We owe the current use of sepia in medicine to Hahnemann. Ancient doctors used the meat, eggs, or bones of the skeleton of this animal for “leucorrhoea, gonorrhea, cystitis, sand in the urine, bladder spasms, baldness, freckles and certain types of eczema,” which seems surprising in light of the tests carried out. Sep. is one of the remedies described in Chronic Diseases, and has been tried by Goullon, von Gersdorff, Gross, Hartlaub and Wahle. Sep. It is predominantly (but not exclusively) a feminine remedy. It affects the reproductive system of both men and women and a range of symptoms in other organs.

Teste describes the type to which Sep. is suitable as follows: young people of both sexes, or rather people of reproductive age (from puberty to the critical period), fragile in constitution, with clear, white or pink-tinged skin, fair or red hair, with a nervous temperament, extremely excitable, anxious and emotional, especially susceptible to strong sexual arousal or exhausted by sexual excesses. Hering describes the following types:

People with dark hair, rigid muscles and a soft, easy-going character. Women during pregnancy, childbirth and breastfeeding. Children who catch cold easily when the weather changes. Scrofulous patients. Men prone to alcohol abuse and sexual excesses. Irritable women with a large belly, a yellow “saddle” on the nose, a leuko-phlegmatic constitution and weakness arising from the slightest exertion.

According to Bahr, these are: “Easy, excitable, full-blooded people, prone to congestion.” Farrington adds that patients Sep. very sensitive to any impressions and that dark hair is by no means an obligatory sign.

He gives a more complete description: swollen, lethargic people (much less often, emaciated) with yellow or dirty yellow or brown skin covered with spots; with increased sweating, especially in the genital area, armpits and back; hot flushes; headache in the morning; they wake up with muscle stiffness and a feeling of fatigue; susceptible to diseases of the genital organs; In general, patients are weak and painful, with weak connective tissue, flaccid, and paresis occurs easily.

Sep. affects vitality no less than the tissues of the body. The sphincters and all smooth muscles are weakened. Sep. causes circulatory disturbances, hot flashes and other disturbances, such as pulsation of blood throughout the body, heat in the hands and coldness in the feet, or vice versa.

Hot flashes spread from bottom to top and end with sweat, fainting and a feeling of weakness. Nosebleeds may occur from a bruise, from being in a warm room, or from suppressed menses. Spread of symptoms Sep. from bottom to top is one of its key symptoms. The headache shoots upward, as does pain in the anus, rectum and vagina. The feeling of cold and hot flashes also rise from bottom to top. On the other hand, night sweats descend from top to bottom.

Headache extends from inside to outside. It is characterized by dizziness with a feeling as if “something is rolling around in the head.” Sep. - this is one of the remedies that is characterized by a feeling of a “lump” in the internal organs, most pronounced in the rectum. It has been described as looking like an apple or potato "stuck" in the rectum; this sensation does not decrease after defecation. When this symptom was present, I cured both diarrhea and constipation with Sep.

Stitching pain in the rectum and vagina radiates upward, which is also an indication of Sep. in cases of hemorrhoids, rectal prolapse, prolapse or hardening of the uterus and cervix. Like Murex, the main scope of Sep. are the female genital organs, although in general it reduces the amount of menstrual flow, while Murex, on the contrary, increases it. Sep. causes a rush of blood to the uterus, leading to its compaction. It is characterized by prolapse or retroversion. Yellowish-green leucorrhoea has an unpleasant odor.

It causes severe pain that occurs in the stomach and back, and sometimes even makes breathing difficult. These attempts intensify when standing and walking; cover the hips.

The patient experiences a feeling of constant pressure in the vagina, which forces her to cross her legs to avoid prolapse. Associated with uterine symptoms are: hysteria, erethism, palpitations, flushing and fainting. The feeling of weakness and emptiness, which is one of the main characteristics of Sep., is sometimes associated with pushing in the pelvic region. Feeling of emptiness in the epigastrium and throughout the abdomen. It is an analogue of the strongest relaxing effect of Sep. on connective tissue.

This sinking sensation is common during pregnancy; besides him Sep. helps with many other disorders associated with pregnancy, such as: “morning nausea, vomiting of food and bile in the morning; vomiting milky white fluid and increased blood pressure from exertion.” “Nausea even at the thought of food and a feeling of extreme heaviness in the anus.”

Sep. indicated for a tendency to miscarriages; It is said that Hering recommended that “all women prone to miscarriage” take Sep. and Zinc. In addition, she cured many cases of dyspepsia not associated with uterine disorders. She cured dyspepsia due to an overuse injury. Portal stasis is also included in its scope of action. Among its symptoms are a feeling of fullness, soreness and stabbing pain in the liver region, as well as stabbing pain in the left hypochondrium.

The entire urinary tract is in a state of irritation, and cystitis and urethritis may begin. Frequent and strong urge to urinate. Stitching pain in urethra. The relaxation of the sphincters, characteristic of Sep., predisposes to urinary incontinence; especially when "the child urinates as soon as he goes to bed, always soon after falling asleep." It cures enuresis in boys with light color persons prone to masturbation. In case of bladder irritation, even with urgency, urination may be difficult and the patient has to wait quite a long time for urine to appear. Cures gonorrhea after the acute symptoms disappear.

With its help, chronic urethritis and warts of gonorrheal origin were cured. Hering adds "condylomas, ringed around the head of the penis." I myself cured a scattering of small soft warts surrounding the opening of the foreskin. Thuja did not help in this case. As for warts, by trituration Sep. 3x I cured a large keratinized wart on a woman’s stomach. It was about 3 cm in size, bean-shaped and protruded 6 mm above the skin level.

But one of the most characteristic of Sep. are skin symptoms. Patients Sep. They have delicate skin, so the slightest damage leads to the formation of ulcers. Itching, in place of which a burning sensation appears after scratching. Sore skin, wet areas on the bends of the knees. Chloasma. Painful rash on the tip of the nose. Herpetic rash on the lips and around the mouth. A rash resembling dermatophytosis, which appears every spring on one or other parts of the body.

Facial dermatophytosis. Ring herpes. Round and yellow spots. When going out into the fresh air, urticaria appears, but it decreases in a warm room. Itching can be frustrating, especially when it affects the genitals and anus. In the example of the joints of the fingers, where ulcers form, we observe another manifestation of the action of Sep. on connective tissue.

Sweat: has a pungent odor, fetid in the armpits and feet, and causes irritation. The eyes and eyelids are closely related to the skin, so Sep. causes all kinds of inflammation of the eyes, eyelids, as well as visual disturbances, such as black spots, a green halo and fiery redness before the eyes. The eye symptoms are aggravated by rubbing and pressing on the eyelids, morning and evening, and ameliorated by washing the eyes with cold water. Sep. is a “cold” remedy and is used when there is a lack of internal heat, especially in the case of chronic diseases.

It is often required for chronic runny nose. Nash once treated a patient with thick, profuse, and “soft” discharge. Puls, reduced inflammation, but increased menstrual flow too much. Sep. cured both. It is also useful in inflammation of the tonsils with a tendency to suppurate during a cold.

Characteristic sensations from the throat are: dryness and pressure, as if a scarf is tied too tightly; feeling of a traffic jam; burning; stitching pain when swallowing; constriction of the throat between swallows; sensation of a plug when swallowing, with a sensation of constriction. There are some features mental state Sep., which must be remembered.

Anxiety: with flushes of heat to the face and head, fear of misfortune, real or imagined; stronger in the evening. Intense sadness and tears, fear of loneliness, afraid of men, of meeting friends (in combination with diseases of the uterus). Indifference, even to one’s own family, work, the most dear and close people. Greed and stinginess. Lethargy. Patients Sep. cry when asked to describe symptoms.

Patients are very sensitive and do not tolerate having shortcomings pointed out to them. Another characteristic feature of Sep. are “frequent fainting”, weakness after getting wet; due to extreme heat or cold; when riding in a carriage; when kneeling in church. Lorbacher describes three important indications of Sep., which are little known: pre-stroke condition; whooping cough that lasts forever; congestive pleurisy.

Symptoms of Sep., corresponding to the first indication, are: stiffness in the back and neck; dizziness and unsteady gait (worsened by physical exercise) fresh air), anxiety and fear of getting a serious illness, interruptions in heart function; lethargy and drowsiness.

Lorbacher cites the following case: a farmer of heavy build, 50 years old, prone to hypochondria, who was bothered from time to time by hemorrhoids and who had no tendency to alcoholism, suddenly developed the habit of “sipping a drink” from time to time. Gradually, his stomach increased, stiffness in his neck, dizziness, at times pulsation in the head, short, transient attacks of loss of consciousness, anxiety, fear of a stroke; at the same time, the hemorrhoids shrank and almost stopped bothering him. He was given venesection several times, but it gave only partial relief.

Quitting alcohol had no significant effect. He was assigned Sep. 12x, first four drops twice a day, then every other day and so on with increasing intervals between doses. After two months, the symptoms decreased and gradually disappeared completely. After this, the man lived for eight years without developing a stroke, although he did not get rid of the habit of “skipping a drink.” Sep. is indicated for prolonged whooping cough, if it lasts eight weeks or more, and although the number and severity of the attacks decrease, they do not disappear completely and most often develop before midnight.

Patients lose strength, their digestion is impaired, irritability and tearfulness appear, they easily become angry or, conversely, become apathetic. Kunkel reports the following case of lung disease: a 14-year-old boy was treated for five weeks for cough and hoarseness. Hoarseness intensified in the evening, and during the day he was bothered by a cough with purulent sputum.

He slept well; in the position on his left side, his sleep was accompanied by dreams. Exhaustion. Phos. 10x caused only minor changes. He had great tension in the chest when breathing, with a desire to take a deep breath, better in the open air, when moving and during work; worse indoors and at rest. Although the weather was bad, he constantly wanted to be outdoors.

Sep. 10x cured him quickly. Boenninghausen recommended Sep. in cases of cough with or without sputum, in cases of sputum streaked with blood, bloody, purulent (yellow, greenish or foul-smelling) and especially in tuberculosis. Nash described a case of infantile cholera, which he cured with Sep., relying on the indication "worse every time after drinking milk." For Sep. leakage of fluid from the anus is characteristic. In this regard, it can only be compared with Ant. s, which comes first.

Sep., writes Bahr, “provides significant assistance in certain conditions female body, which until now we could only celebrate. After an exacerbation of chronic gastritis, which lasted several days and was accompanied by burning pain, the kidney area, mainly on the left, became painful; severe burning pain appeared, saturated urine yellow color with much urate precipitated, or clear urine with much sandy sediment coated with uric acid. After passing urine, the pain generally decreased and resumed only when the pain in the stomach recurred.”

Unusual sensations Sep.. as if all objects were moving. It's like she's floating in the air. Dizziness, as if drunk. As if brain were crushed. As if my head was about to explode. As if waves of pain were rolling through the head and hitting the frontal bone. Sensation as if something were rolling around in the head, with dizziness. Stitching, needle-like pain in the head. Soreness of the hair roots; as if the hair was cut very short. As if the eyeballs were about to fall out of their sockets.

Feeling of heaviness above the eyes. As if the eyes had disappeared, and cold air was escaping from the sockets. Sensation of bruising in the eyes. As if a grain of sand had gotten into my eye. As if eyelids were too heavy and would not open. As if the eyes were burning with fire. As if the eyelids were shortened and did not completely cover the eyeballs. Sensation of hollowness in the molar, as if it had swollen and become longer. The gums seem to be burned, as if they are starting to fester. Feeling of a burn on the tongue and oral cavity. Feeling of a plug in the throat. Sore feeling in the throat. As if something were swirling in the stomach and rising to the throat. As if internal organs were being turned inside out. Feeling of pain in the stomach cavity. As if there were a foreign body in the stomach. A scratching sensation in the stomach.

As if a belt the width of a palm was tightly tied around the waist. Feels as if the liver is about to explode. As if all the insides in the stomach were turning over. Feeling of heaviness in the stomach. As if loops of intestines were drawn into a lump. Feeling of something sticky in the stomach. Feeling of something alive in the stomach. Feeling of heaviness or lump in the anus.

As if the bladder were so full that its bottom rose above the pubis. As if urine were leaking drop by drop from the bladder. As if the bladder and other urinary organs were being pressed with force. As if everything was about to leak out through the vulva. As if contents of uterus were about to fall out. Sensation as if the uterus were being squeezed by claws. As if the external genitalia had increased in size. As if something heavy were being pushed out of the vagina. Feeling of heaviness in the sides. As if the ribs were broken and the sharp ends were digging into the soft tissue. As if cough rising from abdomen and stomach.

Feeling as if the chest were empty, with a sensation of pain. As if throat were filled with mucus. As if mammary glands were enlarged. As if my heart had stopped. The back becomes numb, as if the patient had been sitting in an uncomfortable position for a long time and could neither turn nor rise. Sudden pain in the back, as if it had been hit with a hammer. Back pain as from subcutaneous ulcerations.

As if something in my back was about to break. As if my limbs were about to give out. Sensation of dislocation in the shoulder joint. My feet are numb. Sensation of bruise in the right hip joint. The patient felt as if she had been beaten on the legs. It's like a mouse is running up your leg. As if the bones of the legs were rotting. It's like she can feel every muscle, every nerve on the right side of her body, from her shoulder to her foot. Sensation of a lump in the internal organs. Sensation of an icy hand between the shoulder blades. Feeling of suffocation. It's like she's standing ankle-deep in cold water. As if hot water was being poured over her. "Stiffness" is distinctive feature Sep.: stiffness in the limbs worsens after sleep; stiffness in the uterine area.

Unusual symptoms Sep.: "Involuntary jerking of the head back and forth, especially in the morning, while sitting." This can be observed with hysteria. Indicating Sep. are open fontanelles in children. Symptoms are aggravated by touch (except for back pain, which is relieved by palpation).

Pressure worsens symptoms. (Pressing the eyelids increases the symptoms.) Tying the head tightly with a bandage reduces the pain. It's better when he unbuttons his clothes. Worse from rubbing and scratching. Worse from tremors, when the patient stumbles, from the slightest blow, or overload. Many symptoms may increase or decrease with rest and movement. Worse when moving the arms, lying on the left side and on the back. It is better when lying on the right side.

Many symptoms are worse when sitting. Fainting when sitting with straight back or kneeling. (Aggravation when kneeling is a very characteristic symptom.) Sitting cross-legged improves the condition; Heavy physical activity reduces headaches. Worse when bending over, standing, or climbing stairs. A short walk causes fatigue.

Dancing and running do not cause shortness of breath. Worse: from mental work; after sexual excesses. Worsening in the afternoon and evening (characteristic “shortness of breath in the evening”); from cold air or east wind; in stuffy and humid weather; before the storm; from washing (Sep. is called “the washerwoman’s medicine” - Allen.). Stormy weather causes a feeling of suffocation. Worse after sleep (stiffness in legs). Worse on going to sleep or immediately after going to sleep. Better in open air. (And also in warmth, the temperature coinciding with body temperature; increased sensitivity to cold air.)

Cold water reduces eye and dental symptoms. Better by warmth of bed and hot applications. The cough gets worse in church. Worse during and immediately after eating. Milk, fatty and acidic foods worsen the condition. Pulsation in the epigastric region while eating: the more she eats, the stronger the pulsation. The feeling of emptiness disappears during dinner. Worse after sexual intercourse.

I agree with Dr. Swallow, who found the fresh preparations Sep. have a wider spectrum of action than a conventional drug, and act as an “organ-specific agent” for a large number of disorders of the uterus, even those that may not have clear indications in pathogenesis. I used Sep. in dilutions from 5 to 30.

Relationships

The antidotes for Sepia are: Smell - Nit. sp. d.; organic acids of plant origin - Aso., Ant. s, Ant. t., Rhus. Sepia is an antidote for: Calc., Chi., Merc., Nat. m., Nat. ph., Pho., Sars., Sul. Incompatible with: Lach. (but in one case where Lach. in very high potency caused severe, painful tenesmus in the rectum, accompanied by alternate retraction and protrusion of the anus, Sep. proved a good antidote). Additional: Nat. m. (cuttlefish lives in salt water), Nat. With. and other sodium salts; Sul. It is followed well by Nit. ac.

Should be compared

Vesicular eruptions and ulcers around joints - Brx., Mez. Psoriasis - Ars., Ars. i. Chloasma - Lyc, Nux, Sul., Curar. Athlete's foot - Vas, Calc, Tell. Sadness - Caust., Puls. Soft, flexible character - Puls. The patient cries when asked about symptoms (Puls. - cries when describing symptoms). Diseases with sudden prostration, weakness and fainting - Murex, Nux m. Medicine for laundresses - Pho. (Pho. - headache after washing). Pain from other parts of the body spreads to the back (Sabi. - vice versa). Pain with trembling (Puls. - with chills). Lack of internal heat, especially in chronic diseases (Led. - in acute diseases). Coldness in the top of the head with headache - Ver. (heat in vertex - Calc., Graph., Sul.). Indifference to work -Fl.ac, Ph. ac. Greed, stinginess - Lyc.

Forced to unbutton shirt collar - Lach. Sensation of a lump in the internal organs - Lach. Ring-shaped herpes in separate areas (Tell. - rings intersect). Feeling of emptiness is better after eating - Chel, Pho. Constipation during pregnancy -Aim. Pain in rectum for a long time after stool - Nit. ac, Sul. The urine is so offensive that it has to be taken out of the room immediately (Indium - urine becomes extremely offensive after standing).

The child wets the bed as soon as he goes to bed - Kge. Old gonorrheal urethritis - K. iod. Attempts as if all the internal organs were about to be squeezed out through the pelvis - Agar., Bell., Lil. t., Murex, Sank. The sight or thought of food causes nausea - Nux. The smell of cooking food causes nausea, Ars., Colch. Itching which turns to burning after scratching, Sul. Pain in the spine, worse sitting or walking - Cob., Zn., Puls., Can. i. Induration of the uterus, vaginismus - Plat. Attempts - Bell. (Bell. - worsens in a lying position, Sep. - weakens; Bell. - weakens in a standing position, Sep. - strengthens). Cannot cough up mucus - Caust., Dros., K. sa., Am. Involuntary loss of urine when coughing, Caust., Nat. m., Fer.

Eczema on dorsum of hand - Nat. With. Prolapse of the uterus - Nux. (Sep. follows Nux when the latter ceases to act). Ptosis - Gels. (Gels. - dullness of mind; redness of the face). Urticaria worse in open air - Rx. With. Urticaria -Ast. fl., Nat. m., Apis, Chloral., Urtica. Eye diseases among tea drinkers - Thuj. Dyspepsia with intensely colored urine - Lyc. Induration of the uterus, melancholy -Aur. Attempts, sadness - K. fey. Tensions, congestion, dull pain, prolapse - Ust., Sec, Vib. o., Vib. t., Inula., Hedeo, Ziz.

Attacks of uncontrollable laughter - Croc, Ign. Deep sadness during menses - Lyc, Nat. m., Nit. ac. (Nat. m. - worse or better at 10 am). Irritation during menstruation (Nux, Cham., Mg. m. - before and during; Lyc. - before). Worse when kneeling, Coccul., Mg. With. Anxiety about your health - Calc, Pho. Fetid coryza, crusts -Pul., Syph., Psor. Offensive urine, Calc. (Benz. ac. and Nit. ac. - with a strong odor). Burning, shooting and stitching pain in cervix - Murex. Hot, burning belching - Pet., K. sa.. Hep. Retention when urinating - Ars. (ineffective urging - Nux). Fear of ghosts - Pho., Pul. Phimosis - Can. s., Merc, Sul., Nit. ac, Thuj. Feeling as if everything had been “pumped out” from the intestines after defecation - Plat.

Head movements - Lyc. Worse after sexual intercourse; medicine for women, relaxation of tissues - Arnica. Sensation as if the patient had been hit on the back with a hammer (Naj. - on the back of the neck). Burnt sensation on tongue and mouth - Sang. Sensation as if something were turning in the stomach - Nit. ac. (as if a machine was working in the stomach). Pain as from subcutaneous ulcerations, Puls., Ran. b. Skin lesions heal slowly - Hep. Improved by washing eyes with cold water - Asar. Hypersensitivity - Asar. Apoplexy - Ast. r. (sea animal). Worse from milk - Homar. (sea animal). Chest - Pho.

Etiology

Anger or irritation. Bruises. Falls. Concussions. Injuries. Overload (dyspepsia). Snowfall. Tobacco (neuralgia). Wash. Getting wet. Alcohol. Boiled milk (diarrhea). Pork fat.

Symptoms

Psyche- Sadness and depression with tears. Melancholy and gloominess. Melancholy and restlessness, sometimes with hot flashes, mainly in the evenings (while walking in the fresh air) and sometimes in bed. Anxiety, fussiness. Fear of being alone. Increased nervousness, sensitivity to the slightest sound. Severe anxiety about one's health and household chores. Thoughtfulness. Timidity. Loss of spirit, even to the point of disgust for life. Indifference to everything around you, even to relationships with other people.

Disgust for usual work. Severe disturbances caused by irritation. Increased excitability in the company. Patients are touchy and capricious, increased irritability, grumpiness, desire to make sarcastic remarks. Weak memory. Absent-mindedness. Tendency to make mistakes in speaking and writing. Inability to perform intellectual work. Slow perception. Difficulty perceiving, thoughts flow slowly. Speaks slowly.

Head- Confusion of thoughts, which does not allow you to engage in mental work. Attacks of dizziness, especially when walking in the fresh air, when writing something, or even with the slightest movement of the hands. Dizziness, with a feeling that everything around is moving or something is rolling around in the head. Dizziness in the morning when getting out of bed or in the afternoon. The feeling of coldness in the top of the head, which intensifies when moving the head and bending, is relieved by rest and in the fresh air. Attacks of headache with nausea, vomiting, shooting or boring pain that causes screaming.

Headache occurs every morning. Headache due to which the patient cannot open her eyes. Headache with increased sexual excitability. Headache when shaking or moving the head, and with every step, as if the brain were shaking. One-sided headache, sometimes in the evening after going to bed; pain is preceded by heaviness in the head. Migraine attacks, burning pain spreading from inside to outside in one side of the head (usually the left) with nausea (and vomiting) and a squeezing sensation in the eyes; worse indoors and when walking quickly; better in the fresh air and lying on the sore side.

Boring headache from inside to outside; begins in the morning and continues until the evening; worsens with movement and bending; decreases at rest, when closing the eyes, from external pressure, during sleep. Heaviness in the head. Pressing pain above the eyes in daylight, as if the head would explode and the eyes would fall out, with nausea. A strong feeling of pressure in the head, sometimes when bending over, as if any more and it would explode. Feeling like your head is shrinking. Drawing and tearing pain in the head, inside and outside, sometimes one-sided. Sharp, shooting headache, often one-sided or in the forehead. Shooting pain, especially over the left eye, causing the patient to cry out.

Headache at the beginning of menstruation with scanty discharge. Headache in the form of strong tremors. Involuntary jerking of the head back and forth, especially in the morning and while sitting. Long-term fontanelles that do not close, head twitching, pale and pasty face, stomach pain and discharge of green, liquid stool. The patient's head is sweating, the sweat has a sour smell; sweating is accompanied by weakness and faintness, intensifying in the evening, before going to bed. A rush of blood to the Head. Throbbing headache, especially in the back of the head (which begins in the morning and worsens in the evening, with the slightest movement, when turning the eyeballs, when lying on the back; relieves when closing the eyes and at rest).

Violent congestion of blood to the head with heat, especially when bending over. The surface of the head is cold. Tendency to catch a cold in the head, especially after exposure to a dry, cold wind or when the head gets wet. Involuntary trembling and tremors in the head. Mobility of the scalp. The scalp and hair roots are extremely sensitive to touch. Itching of the scalp (nose and eyes).

Rash on the top and back of the head; the skin is dry, fetid, with itching, tingling and cracks extending behind the ears, as well as pain when scratching them. A formation localized on one side of the head, above the temple, with itching, a feeling of cold and tearing pain; worse when touched, better when lying on it or after getting out of bed. Weeping crusts on the head. Areas of baldness on the skull, favus of the scalp. Hair loss. Small red pimples on the forehead, rough skin. Swelling of the scalp, especially in the forehead area.

Eyes- Heaviness and ptosis of the upper eyelids. Feeling of pressure on the eyeballs. Itching and burning in the eyes and eyelids. Tingling in the eyes by candlelight in the evening. Burning sensation in the eyes, especially in the morning when waking up. Inflammation of the eyes with redness of the sclera and shooting pain. Inflammation, redness and swelling of the eyelids with styes. Pustules on the cornea. Scabs on the eyebrows. Glassy, ​​watery eyes in the evening. Fungus haematodes on the cornea. Dry crusts on the eyelids, especially when waking up in the morning. Yellow sclera.

Pain in the eyelids in the morning on waking, as if the eyelids were too heavy, as if the patient did not have the strength to keep the eyes open. The eyelids are red, swollen; barley. Tearing, especially in the morning, or sticking together of the eyelids at night. Trembling and twitching of eyelids. Paralysis of eyelids with inability to lift them, especially at night (and evening). When reading and writing, everything merges in the eyes. Presbyopia. Poor vision, as in amaurosis, with constriction of the pupils.

The appearance of a veil, black spots, dots, flashes and streaks of light before the eyes. Does not tolerate light reflected from bright objects. Green halo around a candle in the evenings. Severe sensitivity of the eyes to daylight. During menstruation, vision deteriorates; improvement when lying down.

Ears- Ear pain. Shooting pain in ears. Stinging pain in left ear. Stinging pain in ears. Swelling and purulent discharge from the outer ear. Herpes on the earlobe, behind the ear and on the back of the neck. Discharge of liquid pus from the ear, with itching. Extremely acute hearing, the patient hears music especially well. Hearing impairment. Sudden deafness, as if caused by cerumen. Buzzing and roaring in the ears.

Nose- Swelling and inflammation of the nose, especially the tip. Crust on the tip of the nose. The inside of the nostrils are covered with ulcers and scabs. Thick mucus in the nose. Nosebleeds and discharge of blood, often when blowing the nose, at the slightest overheating, from a blow to the nose, even a weak one. Violent bleeding from the nose, especially during menses. Anosmia. Increased or dulled sense of smell; yellow “saddle” on the bridge of the nose.

Foul odor from the nose. Fetid runny nose; when blowing the nose, large pieces of yellow-green mucus or yellow-green pieces of mucous membrane with blood are released. Dry runny nose. Dry runny nose, especially in the left nostril. Dry mucus that causes nasal congestion. Copious liquid discharge with sneezing, pain in the back of the head and drawing pain in the limbs.

Face- Pale and pasty with blue circles under the eyes; the eyes turn red and become dull. The face is yellow (including the sclera). Gaunt face. Yellow spots on the nose and cheeks in the shape of a saddle. Violent heat in the face. The face is pale and swollen. Erysipelas and pastiness of one half of the face (due to a tooth affected by caries). Inflammation and swelling of the face with groups of yellow, scaly pimples.

Herpes with peeling of the facial skin. Warts on the face. Black pores on the face. Acne appears before menstruation. Itching and rash on the face and forehead, sometimes just hyperemic or rough skin. The skin on the forehead is pasty. Tumors on the forehead. Drawing pain in the face. Spasmodic and tearing pain in the bones of the facial skull. Neuralgic pain (in the left side of the face due to tobacco abuse). Dryness and peeling of lips. Tension in the lower lip. Swelling under the lip. Yellow herpetic eruptions around the mouth.

Weeping, crusty rashes on the vermilion border of the lips and chin. Painful ulcers on the inner surface of the lips. Flushing of blood and painful sensitivity of the submandibular glands.

Teeth— Toothache occurs when pressing, touching the teeth, from talking or the slightest breath of cold air. Toothache at night, accompanied by extreme agitation. Throbbing, drawing or shooting toothache, which sometimes spreads to the ear (especially after eating, drinking or when the patient puts something cold in the mouth), to the hands or fingers. Toothache during menstruation.

Burning and throbbing toothache, spreading to the ear during pregnancy, was accompanied by shallow breathing, swelling of the face and submandibular glands; worsens from a cold draft, when touching the teeth, from talking. Toothache with severe “boiling” of blood and pulsation throughout the body. Tearing pain, felt like jolts in the teeth. Teeth become dull, become loose, bleed easily, and develop caries. Gums are dark red. Swelling, abrasions, ulcers and frequent bleeding from the gums.

Mouth- Bad breath. Swelling of the inner surface of the mouth. Dry mouth, lips and tongue. Salty saliva. Taste: bitter, sour, mucous, fetid, mostly in the morning. Pain in the tongue and palate, as if they were burned. Sensation as if tip of tongue were burned. Abrasions on the tongue. Vesicles on the tongue. The tongue is covered with a white coating. Soreness of the tip of the tongue.

Throat- Sore throat with enlargement of the cervical glands. Pressure as if from a plug in the throat, raw or shooting pain when swallowing. Pressure in the throat in the region of the tonsils, as if a tie were too tight. Twitching sensation in the throat. Swelling and inflammation of the esophageal mucosa. Inflammation, swelling and suppuration of the tonsils. Dry throat, with tension and scratching. Sticky feeling in the throat. Accumulation of mucus in the throat and on the velum. Rawness and burning in the throat, worsens with a dry cough. Coughing up mucus, especially in the morning. Discharge of bloody mucus when coughing.

Appetite- Putrid or sour taste in the mouth. Food tastes too salty. Adipsia, or excessive thirst, especially in the morning and evening, sometimes with anorexia. Increased appetite. Bulimia with feeling of emptiness in the stomach. Passionate desire for wine, vinegar. Aversion to beer. Food aversions or simply reluctance to eat, especially meat and milk (which cause diarrhea). Can't stand the smell of tobacco smoke. Unpleasant belching with nausea after fatty foods. Poor digestion. After eating: sour feeling in the mouth, frequent belching, scratching and burning in the throat, pulsation in the heart socket, hiccups, bloating, sweat, feverish heat, palpitations, headache, nausea, vomiting, stomach pain.

Stomach- Feeling of emptiness in the epigastric region, under the xiphoid process; this is a very weak feeling of emptiness that is not filled by anything; this symptom can be a complication of any disease with menstrual irregularities. Frequent belching, mostly sour or bitter, with a rotten egg odor or food taste. Painful belching, which causes blood to enter the oral cavity. Increased acidity with aversion to life.

Nausea, sometimes with an empty stomach in the morning, is relieved by eating a small amount of food. Nausea with bitter taste and belching. Nausea on a moving train. Nausea and vomiting after eating. Vomiting of bile and food (in the morning, with headache). Vomiting of bile and food during pregnancy; gagging is so strong that blood pressure rises. Stomach pain after eating, sometimes in the evening. Severe pain in the cardiac region when food passes into the stomach. Pain in the epigastric region when walking. Pressure in the stomach as if there were a stone in it, especially while eating, after eating or at night. Cramps in the stomach.

Belching, especially after drinking or eating, or is preceded by a churning sensation in the stomach. Vomiting of milky white whey (in pregnant women). Vomiting at night with headache. Cramps in the stomach and chest. Tearing and boring pain in the cardiac region, extending to the lower back. Cutting and boring, directed from the stomach to the spine. Pressing and shooting in the cardiac pit and in the region of the stomach. Burning sensation in the epigastric region and cardiac pit. Pulsation in the epigastric region. Painful sensitivity and feeling of emptiness in the stomach.

Stomach- Pain in the liver when traveling in a carriage. Dull pain, throbbing and shooting pain in the liver area. Boring pain or tension and shooting pain in the hypochondrium, especially when moving. Shooting pain in left hypochondrium. Attacks of compressive pain in the right hypochondrium. Pain in the hypogastric region at night, when lying down, relieved after urination. Abdominal pain; in bed, in the morning. Pressure and heaviness in the abdomen, with a feeling of distension, as if the stomach would explode. Severe stretching of the anterior abdominal wall. Heaviness in the abdomen and compaction. Consolidation of the pyloric region. Abdominal pain in pregnant women. Enlarged abdomen (in women who have recently given birth). Swelling of the anterior abdominal wall. Cramps in the abdomen with a feeling as if claws were digging into it, as if the intestines were twisted. Acute colic, especially after exercise or at night, with urging to defecate.

Boring, cutting and dull pain in the abdomen. Pain in the intestines, as if bruised. Coldness in the stomach. Burning sensation and shooting pain in the abdomen, especially in the left side, which sometimes spreads to the thigh. Feeling of emptiness in the stomach. Sharp shooting pain in the groin. Brownish spots on the skin of the abdomen. Peristalsis and rumbling in the abdomen, especially after eating. Excessive gas formation and dynamic intestinal obstruction.

Chair and anus- Constipation during pregnancy. Ineffective urge to defecate or passing only mucus and gas. Slow, ineffective bowel movement, feces resemble sheep's feces. Stool is scanty, accompanied by straining and tenesmus. Feces are too soft. Difficulty passing stool, even though it is soft. The stool comes out with great difficulty, it seems as if it is not passing, due to an obstruction in the anus or rectum (as if there was a lump or a potato there). Difficult stool with a feeling of heaviness in the abdomen. Jelly-like stool (small amount, defecation is accompanied by cramping pain and tenesmus). Debilitating diarrhea. Greenish diarrhea, often with a putrid or sour odor, especially in children. Diarrhea after drinking boiled milk. Whitish or brownish stools. Discharge of blood during bowel movements. Constricting pain and stretching, itching, tingling, burning and shooting pain in the anus and rectum.

Leakage of fluid from the anus. Mucus discharge from rectum with shooting and tearing pain. Affection of the anus and rectum with sharp and shooting pain, the pain shoots upward into the abdomen. Prolapse of the rectum, especially during bowel movements. Sensation of weakness in the rectum, occurring in bed. Congestion in the anal region. Intestinal sluggishness. Swelling of hemorrhoids (when walking; bleeding when walking). Bleeding from hemorrhoids. Abrasions between the buttocks. Constrictive pain in the perineum. A ring of condylomas around the anus.

Urinary organs- Frequent (and ineffective) urge to urinate (due to pressure on the bladder and tension in the epigastrium). Dull pain in bladder. Feeling as if the bladder was very distended. Urine leakage at night (the patient has to get up frequently). Involuntary loss of urine at night, especially soon after falling asleep. Urine is intensely colored, blood-red. Cloudy urine with red, sandy or brick-dust-like sediment. Urine with white sediment and a thin film on the surface. Copious fetid urine with white sediment. Urine with bloody sediment. The sediment in the urine resembles clay, as if clay was fired at the bottom of a vessel. Urine is very offensive and cannot be kept in the room. Spasms in the bladder, burning in the bladder and urethra. Burning in the urethra, especially when urinating. Sharp and shooting pain in the urethra. Discharge of mucus from the urethra, as in chronic gonorrhea.

Male genitals- Copious sweat on the genitals, especially on the scrotum. Itching of the skin in the genital area. Itchy rash on the glans and foreskin. (Abundance of small velvety gonorrheal warts along the edge of the foreskin.) Pseudo-gonorrhea with a sour-salty smell of discharge. Ulcers on the glans and foreskin. Pain in the testicles. Cutting pain in testicles. Scrotal swelling. Weakness in the genitals. Increased sexual desire with frequent erections (prolonged erections at night). Frequent wet dreams. Discharge of prostatic fluid after urination and during difficult bowel movements. Mental, mental and physical exhaustion after sexual intercourse and wet dreams. In both sexes, complaints arise after sexual intercourse.

Female genital organs— Abrasions on the external genitalia and between the thighs; sometimes before menstruation (pain and redness of the labia majora and perineum). Severe dryness and soreness of the external genitalia and vagina when touched, especially after menstruation. Internal and external heat in the genitals. Narrowing and pain in the vagina. Swelling, redness and weeping rash with itching on the labia minora. Pressing in the uterus, which makes breathing difficult.

Sensation of pressure, as if the internal organs were about to be squeezed out through the vagina (with difficulty breathing). Pain in the groin area on both sides and straining, with constipation, but without leucorrhoea; heavy sleep, coldness throughout the body, sluggish tongue (cured, in an overweight 35-year-old woman). Vaginal prolapse. Severe stabbing pain in the vagina, radiating upward. Prolapse of the uterus with congestion and yellow leucorrhea. Prolapse with deviation of the uterine fundus to the left, causing numbness of the left half of the body and pain; better lying down, especially on the right side; soreness of the cervix. Induration of the cervix with burning, shooting and stitching pain. Metrorrhagia during menopause or pregnancy. Very heavy menstruation.

Menstruation is suppressed, very weak or premature (appearing only in the morning). Cases where young mothers who are no longer breastfeeding do not have periods, combined with bloating. Colic before menstruation. During menstruation: irritability, melancholy, toothache, headache, nosebleeds, pain and fatigue in the limbs or spasms, colic and downward pressure. The patient is forced to cross her legs to avoid prolapse. Dull, severe pain in the ovaries, especially the left one. Sterility. Leucorrhoea is yellow, greenish, red, liquid, or purulent and foul-smelling, sometimes with bloating or shooting pain in the vagina. Leukorrhea instead of menstruation.

Milky white leucorrhoea with soreness of the external genitalia. Itching and corrosive leucorrhoea. Tendency to miscarriage. Spontaneous abortion after the fifth month of pregnancy. Tendency to spontaneous abortion between the fifth and seventh months. Shooting pain in the mammary glands. Soreness in nipples (which bleed and feel as if they are about to become ulcerated). Crack at the top of the nipple. Induration of the mammary glands, areas of fibrous induration, stabbing pain, soreness, burning pain. Stinging pain in children. Sudden hot flashes during menopause, the patient immediately becomes covered in sweat, this is accompanied by weakness and a tendency to faint. Retained placenta after miscarriage. Abdominal pain, the patient is overly sensitive to the baby's movements. Yellow-brown spots on the face during pregnancy. Severe itching in the genitals, causing miscarriage. Long lasting, offensive, corrosive lochia.

Respiratory system- Soreness and soreness in the larynx and throat. Sensation of dryness in the larynx. Hoarseness with runny nose. Feeling of dryness in the trachea. Cough caused by a tickling sensation in the larynx or chest. A dry cough that seems to rise from the stomach, especially in bed in the evening (before midnight), and is often accompanied by nausea and bitter vomiting. Cough with mucus after chill. The cough either only bothers you during the day, or it wakes the patient up at night. The sputum is white and copious. Cough: with copious expectoration of mucus, mostly putrid or salty in taste, often only in the morning or evening; often accompanied by noise, weakness and raw pain in the chest. Cough with sputum in the morning and without sputum in the evening; with sputum at night and no sputum during the day; very severe cough in the morning on waking, with expectoration of large quantities of foul-tasting mucus. Night cough with screams, suffocation and retching. Cough resembling whooping cough.

Attacks of spasmodic cough (similar to whooping cough), caused by a tickling sensation in the chest or a tickling sensation spreading from the larynx into the abdomen, and expectoration of mucus only in the morning, evening and night (greenish-gray pus or milky-white, viscous mucus, sometimes unpleasantly sweet) which you have to swallow. The cough worsens when lying on the left side; from sour. The cough is excited by a tickling sensation and is accompanied by constipation. Difficulty coughing (or she has to swallow raised mucus). Greenish-yellow purulent sputum. Expectoration of blood while lying down. Bloody sputum during cough morning and evening, with expectoration of mucus during the day. Sharp shooting pain in the chest or back when coughing.

Rib cage- Shortness of breath, tightness in the chest and shallow breathing when walking and climbing stairs, as well as when lying in bed, in the evening and at night. Pain in the sides of the chest when breathing or coughing. Stitching pain in the left side of the chest and in the shoulder blade when breathing and coughing. Tightness in the chest caused by the accumulation of phlegm or coughing up too much phlegm. Chest pain when moving. Pressure in the chest, especially in bed in the evening. Heaviness, feeling of fullness and tension in the chest. (Hepatization of the middle and lower lobes of the right lung)

Stinging pain in chest. Spasms in the chest. Itching and tickling sensation in the chest. Feeling of emptiness in the chest. Shooting pain and tingling in the chest, in the sides of the chest; sometimes during inhalation or coughing, but can also be due to mental stress. Brown spots on the skin of the chest. Chest symptoms disappear or are relieved by hand pressure on the chest.

Heart- “Boiling” (congestion) of blood in the chest and strong heartbeat. Intermittent heartbeat. Palpitations: in the evening in bed, with pulsation of all arteries; when digesting food; with stitching pain in left side of chest. From time to time the patient feels a strong shock in the heart. Wakes up with a strong heartbeat. Nervous palpitation is reduced by fast walking.

Neck and back- Eczematous eruptions on the neck and behind the ears. Burgundy spots on the neck and under the chin. Boils on the neck. Sweat on the back and under the arms. Enlargement and suppuration of the axillary lymph nodes. Weeping rashes on the skin of the armpits. Sensation of pressure and stabbing pain in the right shoulder blade. Stiffness in the lower back and neck. Pain in the back and lower back with burning and tearing pain. Pulsation in the lower back.

Weakness in the lower back when walking. Stitching, pressing, boring, tearing and spasmodic pain in the back. Stiffness in the muscles of the back and back of the neck. Back and lower back pain combined with stiffness; weakens when walking. Tearing pain in the back during menses, accompanied by chills, heat, thirst and cramps in the chest. Dull monotonous pain in the lumbar and sacral regions, spreading to the hips and legs. Pain, as if sprained, localized over the hip joints, appearing in the evening in bed and in the afternoon.

Trembling in the back. Brownish spots on the back. Reddish herpes spots over the hip joints and on both sides of the neck. Stitching pain behind and slightly above the right hip joint; the patient cannot lie on her right side, the joint is painful on palpation. Stitching pain in back when coughing. Itchy rash on the back.

Limbs- Drawing pain in the limbs. Drawing and tearing (paralytic pain) in limbs and joints (with weakness). Heaviness in the limbs. Joint pain, like arthritis. Tension in the limbs, as if they were too short.

Limbs easily become numb, especially after physical labor. Stiffness and lack of joint mobility. Dislocations and fractures occur easily. Trembling and twitching in the limbs day and night. There is a feeling of restlessness and throbbing in all extremities, the patient does not feel comfortable in any position. Often there is a desire to stretch. Lack of stability in the limbs. Hands and feet are cold and damp.

Upper limbs- Torsional pain (as if dislocated) in the shoulder joint, especially when lifting or holding anything. Lethargy in the hands. Feeling of stiffness and coldness in the hands, as if they were paralyzed. Drawing paralytic pain in the arms and shoulder joints, involving the fingers. Swelling and suppuration of the axillary lymph nodes. Shooting pain in the arms, wrists and fingers when tired or moving them. Painful tension in the arms, elbows and fingers, as if caused by spasms. Dense swelling of inflammatory origin, the skin in the area of ​​which is intensely red, with a marble pattern, is localized in the middle of the arm. Pustules on the skin of the hands, causing severe itching.

Stiffness in the joints of the elbows and hands. Brown spots, herpes on the skin, itchy crusts on the elbows (with peeling). Itchy vesicles on the back of the hands and tips of the fingers. Itching and crusts on the hands (soldiers' itching). Herpes on the back of the hands. Swelling of the hands with a vesicular rash resembling pemphigus. Shooting pain in wrists when moving arms.

Burning heat in the palms. Cold sweat on hands. Malignant scabies and crusts on the hands. Drawing and shooting pain in the joints of the fingers, as if from arthritis. Dislocations in the joints. Painless ulcers over joints and fingertips. (Tingling in the tips of the fingers, which wakes the patient when she falls asleep, after which she sleeps well all night) Warts on the hands and fingers, on the sides of the fingers, calluses. Cracks on fingers. Deformation of nails. Panaritium with throbbing and shooting pain.

Lower limbs- Pain, as if from a bruise, in the right hip joint. Pain in thighs, tearing and shooting. Pain in buttocks and thighs after sitting for a while. Spasms in buttocks at night in bed, when stretching out limbs. Paralytic weakness in the legs, especially after great emotional disturbances. Stiffness in legs reaching to hip joints after sitting for a short time.

Coldness in legs and feet (especially in the evening in bed). Swelling of the legs and feet (worse sitting or standing; better walking). Cramps in thighs when walking. Tearing and sharp shooting pains or shocks in the femur and tibia, causing the patient to scream. Boils on thighs. Drawing, tearing and shooting pains in knees, thighs and heels. Pain and swelling of the knees. Synovitis of the knee joint in maids. Stiffness in the knee and ankle joints.

Cramps in calves, sometimes at night. Feeling of restlessness in the legs every evening (with pins and needles). Itchy pimples on the legs and instep. Drawing pain in legs and big toes. Shooting pain in tibia and instep. Feels like a mouse is running up your legs. Jerking in the feet during sleep. Ulcers on the instep of the foot. Stiffness in the heels and joints of the feet, as if from spasms. Burning and tingling in the feet. Tingling and numbness in the soles. Copious or, on the contrary, suppressed (fetid) sweat on the feet (provoking pain between the toes). Burning pain in heels. Tension in the Achilles tendons. Ulcers on the heels that develop from vesicles with caustic contents. Painless ulcers over the joints and on the tips of the toes. Calluses on the feet, causing shooting pain. Deformation of nails.

General- In general, the left half of the body is more affected; right hand and leg; eyelids; inner ear; heightened hearing. Pain: in the liver area; in the center of the lower abdomen; in the left shoulder blade; in the back and lower back, in the armpits; in the axillary lymph nodes (especially stabbing pain), in the upper and lower extremities and their joints, in the right lumbar region with severe pressure or pushing; nails turn yellow. Dark hair, pale face, rash on the face (forehead, nose and lips). Bleeding from internal organs.

Clonic and tonic convulsions, catalepsy, feeling of restlessness throughout the body, aversion to washing. Weakness in general or in separate parts bodies. Sensations: lump in internal organs; pain as if the affected part were about to burst, as if it were being squeezed or crushed. Cramping or pressing pain in internal or external parts; a feeling of emptiness in any part of the body, especially when it is accompanied by fainting; twitching in the muscles of any part of the body, for example, it can be felt in the head when talking; shock, beating or pulsation in internal organs; pressure as if from a heavy load; vibration in the form of a dull tingling or sensation as if the body is “humming.”

Worsening early in the morning, in the morning, in the evening, especially before falling asleep; when waking up, bending over, when inhaling, in company; during cough, after sexual intercourse; after meal; from mental stress; during fever; for common female complaints; due to loss of fluids; masturbation; music; consumption of milk, fatty pork; during and after sweating; during pregnancy; when traveling in a car; on horseback; swinging on a swing; after sexual excesses; in the first hours after falling asleep; in snowfall; when stretching the affected part; when breastfeeding; from water and washing; after getting wet; with leucorrhoea in women, especially during childbirth.

Better when stretching the limbs, during movement, physical exertion, drinking cold water, alone; while walking fast. Shooting and stitching pains in the limbs and other parts of the body. Burning pain in various parts of the body. Pain that is relieved by external heat. Paroxysmal pain accompanied by trembling.

Twisting pain, especially when straining the affected limb, and also at night, in the warmth of the bed. Rheumatic pain with swelling of the injured part; this is accompanied by sweating, chills or trembling, alternating with fever. Irritation causes significant disruption. The limbs (both arms and legs) become numb easily, especially after physical labor. Stiffness and lack of joint mobility. Dislocations and sprains easily occur in the limbs.

Tendency to stretch the back. Trembling and twitching in the limbs day and night. Muscle twitching. Anxiety attacks and hysterical spasms. Enlargement and suppuration of lymph nodes. Recurrence or worsening of some symptoms during and immediately after eating. Symptoms disappear during intense physical exercise, with the exception of riding, and are worse at rest, as well as in the evening and at night, in the warmth of the bed (and in the morning). Soreness and tenderness of the whole body.

Violent “boiling” of the blood, even at night, with pulsation covering the entire body. Considerable swelling of the whole body with shallow breathing, but without thirst. Feeling of heaviness and lethargy in the body. Attacks of weakness and hysterical or other forms of fainting. Fainting. Fatigue with trembling. Lack of energy, sometimes only upon waking. The patient gets tired quickly when walking in the fresh air. The patient catches cold easily, and there is increased sensitivity to cold air, especially to the north wind. Feverish trembling, fainting, and later runny nose (after getting wet).

Leather- Yellow, as with jaundice; abrasions or cracks in the skin penetrating deep into the tissue, worsening after washing; often recurrent rash, especially when the patient has a predisposition to the appearance of cracks. Ulcerations at the site of the rash, bedsores, necrosis. Eczema. The ulcers fester, pus is released profusely; the edges of the ulcer are swollen, and there are excessive granulations at the bottom. The discharge has a salty taste.

Increased skin sensitivity. Soreness and weeping of the skin at the bends of the joints. Itching in various parts of the body (face, arms, hands, back, hip joints, stomach, genitals), which is replaced by a burning sensation. Itching and papular rash in the joint area. Excoriation, especially on the skin in the joint area. A dry, itchy rash resembling scabies.

Dry skin, itching and discomfort in places where the itching has been suppressed with Merc, or Sul. Brown or wine-colored or reddish spots of herpetic eruptions on the skin. Ring-shaped peeling (ring-shaped herpes). Weeping, crusty herpetic eruptions with itching and burning. Boils and abscesses with bloody contents. A rush of blood to the lymph nodes. Fibrous seals.

Swollen skin with deep cracks. Vesicular rash resembling pemphigus. Itching, burning and sharp shooting pain and burning or sometimes painless sores (over the joints and on the tips of the fingers and toes). Calluses causing shooting pain. Deformation of nails. Liver spots. Warts: on the neck, with keratinization in the center; small; itchy; flat on the hands and face; large, dense warts with a granular surface; dark and painless (large keratinized wart on the abdomen).

Dream- Feeling very sleepy during the day or wanting to go to bed early in the evening. Comatose sleep occurring every third day. The patient falls asleep late; complains that he cannot sleep; sleeps long in the morning; often wakes up at night; sleepy in the morning; insomnia until midnight; drowsiness without sleep. Wake up at 3 am and can't go back to sleep. Insomnia due to overstimulation. Wakes up early and lies awake for long periods of time. Frequent awakenings for no apparent reason. Superficial sleep with strong “boiling” of the blood, constant tossing, fantastic, disturbing, frightening dreams.

Often shudders and screams in fear in his sleep. The sleeper feels as if he is being called by name. Unrefreshing sleep; in the morning there is a feeling as if the patient did not get enough sleep. Voluptuous dreams. Talking, crying and twitching of limbs during sleep. Delirium at night. Wandering pain, melancholy and feverish heat with excitement throughout the whole body, toothache, colic, cough and many other complaints that occur at night.

Fever- At night the pulse is well filled and fast, then intermittent; Slow during the day. The heart rate increases with movement and with anger. Pulsation of all blood vessels. Trembling (chillness) with pain. Feeling of coldness in certain parts. Lack of vital warmth. Frequent trembling, especially when outside in the evening; with any movement. Hot flashes occur at regular intervals, especially in the afternoon and evening, while sitting or in the open air, and are usually accompanied by thirst or flushing of the face. (Transient) hot flashes, especially when sitting or walking in the open air, also when angry or having an important conversation.

Attacks of heat with thirst (and trembling). Thirst is greater during chills than during fever. Continued fever with redness of the face and intense thirst. Fever with thirst, trembling, pain in the limbs, icy coldness in the hands and feet, and numbness in the fingers. Increased sweating; the patient sweats easily; individual parts of the body may sweat; sweating is accompanied by anxiety and restlessness; sweat with a sour or foul odor. Internal chill with external heat. Sweats when sitting. Profuse sweat is released with the slightest movement (more after than during exercise). Only the upper body sweats. Night sweats, sometimes cold (on chest, back and thighs). Sweats in the morning, sometimes the sweat has a sour smell. Intermittent fever followed by intense heat and semi-consciousness, followed by profuse sweating.

from cold lotions. Diseases of the cornea. Redness, blepharospasm, ptosis. Sepia is more sensitive, blepharospasm and pain increase sharply in the light.

Muscular asthenopia; black dots in the field of vision; asthenic inflammation in uterine disorders. Venous congestion in the fundus.

Worsening of eye symptoms in the evening and in the morning.

EARS
Pain in the right ear. Herpes behind the ears and on the back of the neck. Pain like skin ulcers. Swelling of the ear with rashes.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
Neuralgia worsening on waking, evening pain, increased pain during menstruation. Paresthesia.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Very good for colds. Pneumonia with a prolonged course, a rush of blood to the lungs with suffocation and strong palpitations. Shortness of breath, worse after sleep;

relief when moving. Congestive pleurisy. Persistent whooping cough.

NOSE
Thick green discharge, thick plugs and crusts. Early polynoses. Dryness, crusts in the nose. Soreness in the nasopharynx. Yellowish saddle-shaped spot on the back

nose Atrophic catarrh with greenish crusts in the anterior part of the nose and pain in the root of the nose. Chronic rhinitis, especially nasopharyngitis, when the discharge in

in the form of thick lumps flows down the back wall of the throat and the patient is forced to cough it up through the mouth. Herpetic eruptions around the nose.

COUGH
Dry, exhausting cough, apparently coming from the stomach. Taste of rotten eggs when coughing. Morning cough with copious sputum of a salty taste.

Cough caused by a tickling sensation in the larynx or chest.

THROAT
Often hoarseness with complete loss of voice in the morning.

RIB CAGE
Constriction in the chest morning and evening.

HEART AND CIRCULATION
The stress has passed, but the blood pressure is low. Then another stress can improve the condition - a paradox. At blood pressure does exercises.

Palpitations. Pulsation in all arteries of the body. Trembling sensation with flushing of blood. Congestion in the portal vein system. Varicose veins Often the feeling

that the heart does not fit in the chest. Fainting occurs easily.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Lack of female sex hormones.

Pathology of the adrenal cortex: insufficiency of the cortex or predisposition to this pathology.

GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT
Hahnemann described 360 symptoms of the gastrointestinal tract. Gastrointestinal symptoms worsen by 11 a.m. For gastrointestinal symptoms

Sepia will complain of weakness, malaise, and say that if she doesn’t eat, she will die. Dyspepsia with bloating and sour belching. Burning in the epigastric region.

MOUTH
Bitterness in the mouth. The tongue is white. The tongue is coated, but clears during menses. Swelling and cracks of the lower lip. Herpetic eruptions on the lips, around the mouth.

. taste. Salty, putrid.

TEETH
Pain in teeth from 18 hours to midnight; worse lying down.

STOMACH
Feeling of sudden weakness, not relieved by eating. Tobacco dyspepsia. Various (sour, rotten, etc.). Nausea in the morning before eating.

Nausea from the smell or sight of food. Nausea worsens when lying on your side. Tendency to vomit after eating.

APPETITE

Wolf hunger + quick satiety.
. addictions. Sour. Food is often undersalted. Food seems too salty. Often cravings for flour and alcohol. Desire for vinegar, sour, marinades.
. disgust. They do not tolerate fish in any form. Aversion to fat.

STOMACH
Flatulence with headache. The liver is inflamed and painful; relief lying on the right side. Many brown spots on the belly. Feeling of relaxation and

a pulling sensation in the stomach. Overflow, stagnation in the liver system. Heaviness in the liver. A painful strip about 10 cm wide in the form of a belt goes around the hypochondrium.

ANUS AND RECTUM
Bleeding during stool, with a feeling of fullness in the rectum. Hemorrhoids with bleeding; feeling of fullness in the rectum, as if distended

foreign body. This foreign body is the cause of false urges to go down. Almost constant leakage from the anus. Pain shooting through the rectum

and vagina. Most often constipation. Constipation: copious hard stools; sensation of a ball in the rectum, cannot push; severe tenesmus and pain shooting upward.

Stool in the form of dark brown, round balls glued together with mucus. Even soft stools are difficult to pass. Constipation with prolapse of the rectum and/or uterus.

Diarrhea is a reaction of the intestines to an acute inflammatory process in the uterus. However, constipation is the main complaint. Constipation with frequent sterile vomiting.

pregnancy. Diarrhea in children, worse from boiled milk, with rapid exhaustion.

URINARY SYSTEM
Involuntary urination during the first sleep. Chronic cystitis, slow urination with a pulling sensation above the pubis.

The urine is foul-smelling, contains mucus and urates. Red sand in the urine, sticking to the walls of the vessel.

WOMEN'S
Lack of female sex hormones. Frigidity (Sepia often finds marital duties unpleasant). Decrease in sex. desires, aversion to sex.

Gonorrhea (the best remedy during the subsidence period is the opinion of old doctors).

Primary infertility (often the cause of primary infertility is not pathology of the ovaries, but pathology of the adrenal cortex). Tendency to miscarriage.

Prolapse of the pelvic organs. One of the most important means with damage to the uterus. Feelings of pressure on the lower pelvic organs with a desire to press the area

perineum from the outside; To do this, he crosses his legs. Fullness, congestion in the uterus. Shooting pain in the uterus; tension, feeling of fullness, heaviness in the uterus.

The patient has difficulty standing. Sepia has burning in the uterus, itching of the external genitalia. Sepia - pulling pain downward, radiating to the sacrum. There may simply be complaints of pain

in the sacrum. Upon careful analysis, it turns out that this is not pain, but irradiation of pain from the uterus. The pain is very strong and takes your breath away. A pulling sensation, for sure.

The internal organs are about to fall out through the vagina. There is a feeling of bulging through the genital opening, so it is difficult to stand, you need to either walk (likes to dance) or lie down.

If Sepia is sitting, she crosses her legs. Sepia - when examined, the uterus is dense, painful, enlarged, often infantile, especially in girls.

As a rule, it is displaced posteriorly, with a very dense neck. Prolapse, prolapse of the uterus. Leucorrhoea is foul-smelling, often yellow-green, irritating, with severe itching.
Severe stitching pain going up into the vagina, from the uterus to the navel. Soreness of the vagina, especially after sexual intercourse.

MENSTRUATION
Menstruation is not the same, i.e. they can be scarce and abundant, and the duration of the cycles may vary. Menstruation or delayed and scanty,

irregular, or early and profuse, with acute compressive pain. Hot flashes during menopause with a feeling of weakness and increased sweating.

Worsening of all symptoms during menopause.

MAMMARY GLAND
Breast cancer. Small, very hard nodules. The pain may radiate to the back and armpits. Decreased milk production, prescribed to enhance

lactation. The most appropriate prescription regimen: 5 days in a row, if there is a result, then a 1-day break, then 2 times a week.

Often women have foul-smelling diaper rash under the mammary glands.

PREGNANCY.CHILDREN
Varicose veins during pregnancy. Kent has Sepia number 1 in the “constipation in pregnant women” section. The cause of constipation is the uterus pressing on the rectum. Nausea during pregnancy.

BACK
Weakness in the lumbar region. Pain extending to the back. Feeling of cold between the shoulder blades. Hirsutism. Lumbar pain radiating to the uterus and

ends with cramps in the uterus. Flushes of heat from back to head.

LIMBS
Weakness and stiffness. Restlessness in the limbs, twitching and sudden contractions day and night.
. Legs. Stiffness in the lower extremities, a feeling of tension, as if they were shortened. Varicose veins Heel pain. The legs and feet become cold.

Sweaty feet, worse on the toes, with unbearable odor.

MODALITIES
. Worse. In the morning, as stagnation intensifies during the night. Heat. Stifling humid weather. Peace. Night. By 11 a.m. In the early afternoon and in the evenings. From washing.

When washing. From dampness and cold. After sweating. Before the storm. From severe physical activity. From various types of sweet flour, alcohol, although

often gravitates towards this. Worse from milk, especially boiled milk.
. Better. Loads. Movement. Physical exercise. Pressure. In the fresh air. When full and new moon. After bleeding, i.e. you need to unload the system,

“open the tap.” The warmth of the bed. Hot applications. When stretching the limbs. up. From swimming in cold water. After sleep.

Species: Sepia apama = Giant Australian cuttlefish

The giant Australian cuttlefish can reach 50 centimeters in length and is considered the largest cuttlefish in the world. Its weight can reach from 3 to 10 kilograms. Sexual dimorphism in size is noted - males are always larger than females.

The Giant Australian Cuttlefish is an endemic Australian species. It lives exclusively in coastal waters in the south, southwest and southeast coasts of Australia, ranging from the coast of Queensland down to Shark Bay in Western Australia. And the giant Australian cuttlefish is found at depths of up to about 100 meters, but even more often prefers shallow waters.

The giant Australian cuttlefish has a body slightly flattened in the dorso-ventral direction, which is decorated on the sides with a wide leathery fold. Here, on the sides of the body, there are fins - the main organ of their movement in the water. The head end of the urvkatica is decorated with 10 tentacles. Of these, 2 tentacles are grasping, they are the longest, although they can be completely retracted into special bag-like pits under the eyes. The remaining 8 tentacles are short, and all are located around the mouth, framing it. All tentacles are equipped with suction cups, which are very necessary for the animal. There is a difference in the structure of the tentacles of cuttlefish of both sexes. Thus, in males, unlike females, the 4th tentacle serves to fertilize females.

The respiratory organ of cuttlefish is the gills. On the dorsal side of the body, under the mantle, there is a porous calcareous shell, shaped like a plate, which gives the animal a fixed body shape. The structure and visual acuity of the eyes are in many ways similar to those of humans. Cuttlefish can change the shape of their lens if necessary. Their mouth, like that of other cephalopods, consists of a strong beak, which is shaped like the beak of birds, especially a parrot, there are also jaws and a tongue.

Speaking about the peculiarities of the internal structure of cuttlefish, the reason why nature endowed these creatures with 3 hearts remains unclear. In this case, one is responsible for the blood supply to the nervous system, and the other two are responsible for the coordinated functioning of the gills. And cuttlefish's blood is not red, but blue. Blue color blood is caused by the presence of a special pigment hemocyanin. Hemocyanin, like hemoglobin in vertebrates, is responsible for oxygen transport.

The giant Australian cuttlefish is known for its unique ability to instantly change its color, which can depend both on the animal’s mood and characteristics environment. The color of males changes greatly during the mating season. This becomes possible due to the presence of a special pigment in the cells of the body, which is responsible for their stretching or contraction depending on signals coming from the nervous system. During the mating season or during an attack on prey, their color acquires a metallic sheen and is covered with bright luminous dots.

An interesting feature of this species is that during the mating season, males can sometimes pretend to be females in order to try to outwit a stronger rival and try to get closer to the female. If they succeed in this maneuver, they very quickly mate with her and retreat until the dominant male figures out what's what...

Giant squids use their ink reserves as protection against predators. When in danger, the squid releases an ink cloud either directly into the “face” of the enemy, after which, under its cover, it quickly hides away, or slightly to the side. In this case, the spot often takes on such a shape that it becomes somewhat similar in shape to the cuttlefish itself, and this, albeit for a short time, distracts the predator’s attention from the cuttlefish’s own person.

The giant Australian cuttlefish is predominantly nocturnal. They most They spend time in shelters among algae thickets, rocky reefs, or simply burrowing into the seabed. Cuttlefish are homebodies; they spend almost all of their active time in a small area, not exceeding 500 m2. Therefore, they spend most of the food energy they absorb not on physical activity, but on their own growth.

The giant cuttlefish is very curious and is not averse to playing, which is often used by divers. Despite their relatively peaceful nature and cute appearance, cuttlefish are dexterous predators, obtaining various small mollusks and crustaceans, fish, sea worms and even small cuttlefish for food. Cuttlefish come out to hunt in dark time days, attacking prey from ambush, grabbing it with two long tentacled arms.

By their nature, cuttlefish are solitary, and only during the breeding season, which occurs in June-August, do they often gather in large groups. One of these favorite places for wedding dates is False Bay, located in the northern part of Spencer Gulf. At this time, it is simply teeming with giant cuttlefish, and at this time there is almost 1 individual per 1 m2. This is where the fun begins. The largest and strongest males begin to court females. They “dress” themselves in bright wedding dress and begin to wave their long “arms” in front of their chosen one. At the same time, they drive away smaller and younger males. Then they are forced to make a deceptive maneuver, changing their bright gentleman’s outfit to a “ladies’ one” and, under the guise of a “female,” they try to make their way through the “vigilant guard” to the females. And if the dominant male is distracted for a few moments, the werewolf immediately quickly acquires his bright male coloring in front of the female and mates with her, transferring his spermatophores to her using the 4th “arm”, and quickly swims away from troubles.

After some time, the females lay eggs under stones or in other hard-to-reach places, enclosed in a thick shell. After this they die. And the cubs are born, depending on the water temperature, after 3-5 months, having a body length of about 2.5 centimeters. Outwardly, they are very similar to adult individuals, and at this age they feed only on plankton.

The meat of the giant cuttlefish is edible and is widely used in cooking as food. Cuttlefish ink is still used in painting today. Therefore, large-scale catches of this species for export are currently being carried out, due to which the giant cuttlefish is already at risk of declining numbers. Currently, catching the giant Australian cuttlefish in False Bay in Australia is prohibited.

Class Cephalopoda

Cephalopods are the most highly organized mollusks. They are rightly called the “primates” of the sea among invertebrate animals for the perfection of their adaptations to life in the marine environment and the complexity of their behavior. These are mainly large predatory marine animals capable of actively swimming in the water column. These include squids, octopuses, cuttlefish, and nautiluses (Fig. 234). Their body consists of a torso and a head, and the leg is transformed into tentacles located on the head around the mouth, and a special motor funnel on the ventral side of the body (Fig. 234, A). This is where the name comes from - cephalopods. It has been proven that some of the tentacles of cephalopods are formed due to the cephalic appendages.

Most modern cephalopods have no or vestigial shells. Only the genus Nautilus has a spirally twisted shell, divided into chambers (Fig. 235).

Modern cephalopods include only 650 species, while fossil species number about 11 thousand. This is an ancient group of mollusks known since the Cambrian. Extinct species of cephalopods were predominantly testate and had an external or internal shell (Fig. 236).

Cephalopods are characterized by many progressive organizational features due to the active lifestyle of marine predators. At the same time, they retain some primitive features that indicate their ancient origin.

External structure. The features of the external structure of cephalopods are varied due to different lifestyles. Their sizes range from a few centimeters to 18 m in some squids. Nektonic cephalopods are usually torpedo-shaped (most squids), benthic ones have a sac-shaped body (many octopuses), and nektobenthic ones are flattened (cuttlefish). Planktonic species are small in size and have a gelatinous buoyant body. The body shape of planktonic cephalopods can be narrow or jellyfish-like, and sometimes spherical (squid, octopus). Benthopelagic cephalopods have a shell divided into chambers.

The body of cephalopods consists of a head and a trunk. The leg is modified into tentacles and a funnel. On the head there is a mouth surrounded by tentacles and large eyes. The tentacles are formed by the head appendages and the leg. These are food capture organs. The primitive cephalopod (Nautilus) has an indefinite number of tentacles (about 90); they are smooth, worm-shaped. In higher cephalopods, the tentacles are long, with powerful muscles and bear large suckers on the inner surface. The number of tentacles is 8-10. Cephalopods with 10 tentacles have two tentacles - hunting ones, longer, with suckers at the expanded ends,

Rice. 234. Cephalopods: A - nautilus Nautilus, B - octopus Benthoctopus; 1 - tentacles, 2 - funnel, 3 - hood, 4 - eye

Rice. 235. Nautilus Nautilus pompilius with a sawn shell (according to Owen): 1 - head hood, 2 - tentacles, 3 - funnel, 4 - eye, 5 - mantle, 6 - internal sac, 7 - chambers, 8 - partition between shell chambers, 9 - siphon

Rice. 236. Scheme of the structure of cephalopod shells in a sagittal section (from Gescheler): A - Sepia, B - Belosepia, C - Belemnites, D - Spirulirostra, E - Spirula, F - Ostracoteuthis, G - Ommastrephes, H - Loligopsis (C, D, E - fossils); 1 - proostracum, 2 - dorsal edge of the siphonal tube, 3 - ventral edge of the siphonal tube, 4 - set of phragmocone chambers, 5 - rostrum, 6 - siphon cavity

Rice. 237. Mantle cavity of cuttlefish - Sepia (according to Pfurscheller): 1 - short tentacles, 2 - hunting tentacles, 3 - mouth, 4 - opening of the funnel, 5 - funnel, 6 - cartilaginous pits of cufflinks, 7 - anus, 8 - renal papillae, 9 - genital papilla, 10 - gills, 11 - fin, 72 - cut line of the mantle, 13 - mantle, 14 - cartilaginous tubercles of cufflinks, 15 - pallial ganglion

and the remaining eight tentacles are shorter (squid, cuttlefish). Octopuses that live on seabed, eight tentacles of equal length. They serve the octopus not only to capture food, but also to move along the bottom. In male octopuses, one tentacle is modified into a sexual one (hectocotyl) and serves to transfer reproductive products into the mantle cavity of the female.

The funnel is a derivative of the leg in cephalopods and serves for a “reactive” method of movement. Through the funnel, water is forcefully pushed out of the mollusk's mantle cavity, and its body moves reactively in the opposite direction. In the boat, the funnel is not fused on the ventral side and resembles the sole of the foot of crawling mollusks rolled into a tube. Evidence that the tentacles and funnel of cephalopods are derived legs is their innervation from the pedal ganglia and the embryonic anlage of these organs on the ventral side of the embryo. But, as already noted, some of the tentacles of cephalopods are derivatives of the cephalic appendages.

The mantle on the ventral side forms a kind of pocket - a mantle cavity that opens outwards with a transverse slit (Fig. 237). A funnel protrudes from this gap. On the inner surface of the mantle there are cartilaginous protrusions - cufflinks, which fit tightly into the cartilaginous grooves on the body of the mollusk, and the mantle is, as it were, fastened to the body.

The mantle cavity and the funnel together provide jet propulsion. When the muscles of the mantle relax, water enters through the gap into the mantle cavity, and when it contracts, the cavity is closed with cufflinks and the water is pushed out through the funnel. The funnel can bend to the right, left and even backward, which provides different directions of movement. The role of the steering wheel is additionally performed by the tentacles and fins - skin folds of the body. The types of movement in cephalopods are varied. Octopuses often move on tentacles and swim less often. In cuttlefish, in addition to the funnel, a circular fin serves for movement. Some umbrella-shaped deep-sea octopuses have a membrane between the tentacles - the umbrella - and can move due to its contractions, like jellyfish.

The shell of modern cephalopods is vestigial or absent. The ancient extinct cephalopods had a well-developed shell. Only one modern genus, Nautilus, has retained a developed shell. The shell of Nautilus, even in fossil forms, has significant morphofunctional features, in contrast to the shells of other mollusks. This is not only a protective device, but also a hydrostatic device. The nautilus has a spirally twisted shell divided into chambers by partitions. The body of the mollusk is placed only in the last chamber, which opens with its mouth outward. The remaining chambers are filled with gas and chamber liquid, which ensures the buoyancy of the mollusk’s body. Through

The siphon, the posterior process of the body, passes through the holes in the partitions between the chambers of the shell. Siphon cells are capable of releasing gases. When floating, the mollusk releases gases, displacing the chamber liquid from the chambers; when sinking to the bottom, the mollusk fills the chambers of the shell with chamber liquid. The propeller of the nautilus is a funnel, and the shell keeps its body suspended in the water. Fossil nautilids had a shell similar to that of the modern nautilus. The completely extinct cephalopods - ammonites also had an external, spirally twisted shell with chambers, but their partitions between the chambers had a wavy structure, which increased the strength of the shell. That is why ammonites could reach very large sizes, up to 2 m in diameter. Another group of extinct cephalopods, the belemnites (Belemnoidea), had an internal shell, overgrown with skin. Belemnites in appearance resembled shellless squids, but their body contained a conical shell divided into chambers. The top of the shell ended with a point - the rostrum. Belemnite shell rostrums are often found in Cretaceous deposits and are called "devil's fingers". Some modern shellless cephalopods have rudiments of an internal shell. Thus, on the cuttlefish’s back, under the skin, a calcareous plate is preserved, which has a chamber structure when cut (238, B). Only the Spirula has a fully developed spirally twisted shell under its skin (Fig. 238, A), and the squid has only a horny plate under its skin. Females of modern cephalopods, Argonauta, have a developed brood chamber resembling a spiral shell in shape. But this is only a superficial resemblance. The brood chamber is secreted by the epithelium of the tentacles, is very thin and is designed to protect the developing eggs.

Veils. The skin is composed of a single layer of epithelium and a layer of connective tissue. The skin contains pigment cells - chromatophores. Cephalopods are characterized by the ability to quickly change color. This mechanism is controlled by the nervous system and is carried out by changing the shape

Rice. 238. Shell rudiments in cephalopods (according to Natalie and Dogel): A - spirula; 1 - funnel, 2 - mantle cavity, 3 - anus, 4 - excretory opening, 5 - luminescent organ, 6 - fin, 7 - shell, 8 - siphon; B - Sepia shell; 1 - septa, 2 - lateral edge, 3 - siphonal fossa, 4 - rostrum, 5 - siphon rudiment, 6 - posterior edge of the proostracum

pigment cells. So, for example, a cuttlefish, swimming over sandy soil, takes on a light color, and over rocky soil - dark. .At the same time, in her skin, pigment cells with dark and light pigment alternately shrink and expand. If you cut the optic nerves of a mollusk, it loses the ability to change color. Due to the connective tissue of the skin, cartilage is formed: in cufflinks, the bases of the tentacles, around the brain.

Protective devices. Cephalopods, having lost their shells during the process of evolution, acquired other protective devices. Firstly, fast movement saves many of them from predators. In addition, they can defend themselves with tentacles and a “beak”, which is modified jaws. Large squids and octopuses can fight with large marine animals, such as sperm whales. Sedentary and small forms have developed protective coloration and the ability to quickly change color. Finally, some cephalopods, such as the cuttlefish, have an ink sac, the duct of which opens into the hindgut. Spraying the ink liquid into the water creates a kind of smoke screen, allowing the mollusk to hide from predators to a safe place. Cuttlefish ink gland pigment is used to make high-quality artist's ink.

Internal structure of cephalopods

Digestive system cephalopods bear the features of specialization in feeding on animal food (Fig. 239). Their food consists mainly of fish, crabs and bivalves. They grab prey with their tentacles and kill them with their jaws and poison. Despite their large size, cephalopods can only feed on liquid food, since they have a very narrow esophagus, which passes through the brain, enclosed in a cartilaginous capsule. Cephalopods have devices for grinding food. To chew prey, they use hard horny jaws, similar to the beak of a parrot. In the pharynx, food is ground by the radula and abundantly moistened with saliva. The ducts of 1-2 pairs of salivary glands flow into the pharynx, which secrete enzymes that break down proteins and polysaccharides. The second posterior pair of salivary glands secretes poison. Liquid food from the pharynx passes through the narrow esophagus into the endodermal stomach, into which the ducts of the paired liver flow, which produces a variety of digestive enzymes. The hepatic ducts are lined with small accessory glands, the collection of which is called the pancreas. The enzymes of this gland act on polysaccharides,

and therefore this gland is functionally different from the mammalian pancreas. The stomach of cephalopods usually has a blind sac-like process, which increases its volume, which allows them to absorb a large portion of food. Like other carnivorous animals, they eat a lot and relatively rarely. The small midgut departs from the stomach, which then passes into the posterior intestine, which opens through the anus into the mantle cavity. The duct of the ink gland flows into the hindgut of many cephalopods, the secretion of which has a protective significance.

Nervous system Cephalopods are the most highly developed among mollusks. The nerve ganglia form a large peripharyngeal cluster - the brain (Fig. 240), enclosed in a cartilaginous capsule. There are additional ganglia. The brain primarily consists of: a pair of large cerebral ganglia that innervate the head, and a pair of visceral ganglia that send nerve cords to the internal organs. On the sides of the cerebral ganglia there are additional large optic ganglia that innervate the eyes. From the visceral ganglia, long nerves extend to two star-shaped pallial ganglia, which develop in cephalopods in connection with the function of the mantle in their reactive mode of movement. The brain of cephalopods includes, in addition to the cerebral and visceral, pedal ganglia, which are divided into paired ganglia of the tentacles (brachial) and the funnel (infidibular). A primitive nervous system, similar to the scalene system of bokonervna and monoplacophorans, is preserved only in Nautilus. It is represented by nerve cords forming the peripharyngeal ring without ganglia and the pedal arch. Nerve cords are covered with nerve cells. This structure of the nervous system indicates the ancient origin of cephalopods from primitive shell mollusks.

Sense organs cephalopods are well developed. Their eyes, which are most important for orientation in space and hunting for prey, reach a particularly complex development. In Nautilus, the eyes have a simple structure in the form of a deep optic fossa (Fig. 241, A), while in other cephalopods the eyes are complex - in the shape of an optic vesicle and reminiscent of the structure of the eye in mammals. This is an interesting example of convergence between invertebrates and vertebrates. Figure 241, B shows the eye of a cuttlefish. The top of the eyeball is covered with the cornea, which has an opening into the anterior chamber of the eye. The connection of the anterior cavity of the eye with the external environment protects the eyes of cephalopods from the effects of high pressure at great depths. The iris forms an opening - the pupil. Light through the pupil hits the spherical lens formed by the epithelial body - the upper layer of the eye bladder. Accommodation of the eye in cephalopods occurs differently,

Rice. 239. Digestive system of the cuttlefish Sepia officinalis (according to Reseler and Lamprecht): 1 - pharynx, 2 - common salivary duct, 3 - salivary ducts, 4 - posterior salivary gland, 5 - esophagus, 6 - cephalic aorta, 7 - liver, 8 - pancreas, 9 - stomach, 10 - blind sac of the stomach, 11 - small intestine, 12 - hepatic duct, 13 - rectum, 14 - ink sac duct, 15 - anus, 16 - head cartilaginous capsule (cut), 17 - statocyst , 18 - nerve ring (cut)

Rice. 240. Nervous system of cephalopods: 1 - brain, 2 - optic ganglia, 3 - pallial ganglia, 4 - intestinal ganglion, 5 - nerve cords in the tentacles

Rice. 241. Eyes of cephalopods: A - Nautilus, B - Sepia (according to Hensen); 1 - cavity of the eye fossa, 2 - retina, 3 - optic nerves, 4 - cornea, 5 - lens, 6 - anterior chamber of the eye, 7 - iris, 8 - ciliary muscle, 9 - vitreous body, 10 - ocular processes of the cartilaginous capsule, 11 - optic ganglion, 12 - sclera, 13 - openings of the eye chamber, 14 - epithelial body

than in mammals: not by changing the curvature of the lens, but by bringing it closer to or moving away from the retina (similar to focusing a camera). Special ciliary muscles come to the lens, causing it to move. The cavity of the eyeball is filled with a vitreous body that has a light-refracting function. The bottom of the eye is lined with visual - retinal and pigment - cells. This is the retina of the eye. A short optic nerve departs from it to the optic ganglion. The eyes, together with the optic ganglia, are surrounded by a cartilaginous capsule. Deep-sea cephalopods have luminous organs on their bodies, built like eyes.

Organs of balance- statocysts are located in the cartilaginous capsule of the brain. The olfactory organs are represented by olfactory pits under the eyes or osphradia typical of mollusks at the base of the gills - in the nautilus. The taste organs are concentrated on the inner side of the ends of the tentacles. Octopuses, for example, use their tentacles to distinguish edible from inedible objects. The skin of cephalopods contains many tactile and light-sensitive cells. In search of prey, they are guided by a combination of visual, tactile and gustatory sensations.

Respiratory system represented by ctenidia. Most modern cephalopods have two, but Nautilus has four. They are located in the mantle cavity on the sides of the body. The flow of water in the mantle cavity, which ensures gas exchange, is determined by the rhythmic contraction of the muscles of the mantle and the function of the funnel through which water is pushed out. During the reactive mode of movement, the flow of water in the mantle cavity accelerates, and the intensity of respiration increases.

Circulatory system cephalopods are almost closed (Fig. 242). Due to active movement, their coelom and blood vessels are well developed and, accordingly, parenchymality is poorly expressed. Unlike other mollusks, they do not suffer from hypokenia - weak mobility. The speed of blood movement in them is ensured by the work of a well-developed heart, consisting of a ventricle and two (or four - in Nautilus) atria, as well as pulsating sections of blood vessels. The heart is surrounded by a large pericardial cavity,

Rice. 242. Circulatory system of cephalopods (from Abrikosov): 1 - heart, 2 - aorta, 3, 4 - veins, 5 - gill vessels, 6 - gill hearts, 7, 8 - renal portal system, 9 - gill veins

which performs many of the functions of the coelom. The cephalic aorta extends forward from the ventricle of the heart and the splanchnic aorta extends backward. The cephalic aorta branches into arteries that supply blood to the head and tentacles. Vessels extend from the splanchnic aorta to the internal organs. Blood from the head and internal organs is collected in the vena cava, located longitudinally in the lower part of the body. The vena cava is divided into two (or four in Nautilus) afferent gill vessels, which form contractile extensions - gill “hearts”, facilitating gill circulation. The afferent gill vessels lie close to the kidneys, forming small blind invaginations into the kidney tissue, which helps to free venous blood from metabolic products. In the gill capillaries, blood is oxidized, which then enters the efferent gill vessels, which flow into the atria. Some of the blood from the capillaries of the veins and arteries flows into small lacunae, and therefore the circulatory system of cephalopods should be considered almost closed. The blood of cephalopods contains a respiratory pigment - hemocyanin, which includes copper, so when oxidized, the blood turns blue.

Excretory system represented by two or four (in Nautilus) kidneys. With their inner ends they open into the pericardial sac (pericardium), and with their outer ends into the mantle cavity. Excretion products enter the kidneys from the branchial veins and from the extensive pericardial cavity. Additionally, the excretory function is performed by the pericardial glands formed by the wall of the pericardium.

Reproductive system, reproduction and development. Cephalopods are dioecious animals. In some species, sexual dimorphism is well expressed, for example in the Argonauta. The female Argonaut is larger than the male (Fig. 243) and during the breeding season, with the help of special glands on the tentacles, she secretes around her body a thin-walled parchment-like brood chamber for gestating eggs, similar to a spiral shell. The male argonaut is several times smaller than the female and has a special elongated sexual tentacle, which is filled with reproductive products during the breeding season.

Gonads and reproductive ducts are unpaired. The exception is the nautilus, which has preserved paired ducts extending from the unpaired gonad. In males, the vas deferens passes into the spermatophore sac, where spermatozoa are glued together into special packages - spermatophores. In cuttlefish, the spermatophore is checker-shaped; its cavity is filled with sperm, and the outlet is closed with a complex plug. During the breeding season, the male cuttlefish uses a genital tentacle with a spoon-shaped end to transfer the spermatophore into the mantle cavity of the female.

Rice. 243. Argonauta mollusk: A - female, B - male; 1 - funnel, 2 - eye, 3 - shell, 4 - hectocotylus, 5 - funnel, 6 - eye (according to Dogel)

Cephalopods usually lay eggs at the bottom. Some species exhibit care for their offspring. Thus, the female Argonaut bears eggs in the brood chamber, and octopuses guard the clutch of eggs, which are placed in shelters made of stones or in caves. Development is direct, without metamorphosis. The eggs hatch into small, fully formed cephalopods.

Modern cephalopods belong to two subclasses: the subclass Nautiloidea and the subclass Coleoidea. The extinct subclasses include: subclass Ammonoidea, subclass Bactritoidea and subclass Belemnoidea.

Subclass Nautilidae

Modern nautilids include one order Nautilida. It is represented by only one genus, Nautilus, which includes only a few species. The distribution range of Nautilus is limited to the tropical regions of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. There are more than 2,500 species of nautilid fossils. This is an ancient group of cephalopods, known since the Cambrian.

Nautilids have many primitive features: the presence of an external multi-chambered shell, an unfused funnel, numerous tentacles without suckers, and the manifestation of metamerism (four ctenidia, four kidneys, four atria). The similarity of nautilids with lower shelled mollusks is manifested in the structure of the nervous system from cords without separate ganglia, as well as in the structure of coelomoducts.

Nautilus is a benthopelagic cephalopod. It floats in the water column in a “reactive” way, pushing water out of the funnel. The multi-chamber shell ensures the buoyancy of its body and sinking to the bottom. The Nautilus has long been an object of fishing for its beautiful mother-of-pearl shell. Many exquisite pieces of jewelry are made from nautilus shells.

Subclass Coleoidea

Coleoidea means "hard" in Latin. These are hard-skinned mollusks without a shell. Coleoids are a thriving group of modern cephalopods, comprising four orders, which include about 650 species.

Common features of the subclass are: lack of a developed shell, fused funnel, tentacles with suction cups.

Unlike nautilids, they have only two ctenidia, two kidneys and two atria. Coleoidea have a highly developed nervous system and sensory organs. The following three orders are characterized by the largest number of species.

Order Cuttlefish (Sepiida). The most characteristic representatives of the order are cuttlefish (Sepia) and Spirula (Spirula) with rudiments of an internal shell. They have 10 tentacles, two of which are hunting tentacles. These are nektobenthic animals, stay near the bottom and are able to actively swim.

Order Squids (Teuthida). This includes many commercial squids: Todarodes, Loligo, etc. Squids sometimes retain a rudiment

shells in the form of a horny plate under the skin on the back. They have 10 tentacles, like the previous squad. These are mainly nektonic animals that actively swim in the water column and have a torpedo-shaped body (Fig. 244).

Order Octopoda (Octopoda). They are an evolutionarily advanced group of cephalopods without traces of a shell. They have eight tentacles. Sexual dimorphism is pronounced. Males develop a sexual tentacle - a hectocotylus. This includes a variety of octopuses (Fig. 245). Most octopuses lead a bottom-dwelling lifestyle. But among them there are nektonic and even planktonic forms. The order Octopoda includes the genus Argonauta - the argonaut, in which the female secretes a special brood chamber.

Rice. 244. Squid Loligo (from Dogel)

Rice. 245. Octopus (male) Ocythoe (according to Pelzner): 1 - tentacles, 2 - funnel, 3 - hectocotylus, 4 - sac, 5 - terminal filament

Practical significance of cephalopods

Cephalopods are game animals. The meat of cuttlefish, squid and octopus is used as food. The global catch of cephalopods currently reaches more than 1,600 thousand tons. in year. Cuttlefish and some octopuses are also harvested for the purpose of obtaining ink liquid, from which natural ink and ink of the highest quality are made.

Paleontology and phylogeny of cephalopods

The most ancient group of cephalopods is considered to be nautilids, whose fossil shells are already known from Cambrian deposits. Primitive nautilids had a low conical shell with only a few chambers and a wide siphon. Cephalopods are thought to have evolved from ancient crawling testate mollusks with simple conical shells and flat soles, like some fossil monoplacophorans. Apparently, a significant aromorphosis in the emergence of cephalopods was the appearance of the first partitions and chambers in the shell, which marked the beginning of the development of their hydrostatic apparatus and determined the ability to float up, breaking away from the bottom. Apparently, the formation of the funnel and tentacles occurred in parallel. The shells of ancient nautilids were varied in shape: long conical and flat, spirally twisted with a different number of chambers. Among them there were also giants up to 4-5 m (Endoceras), which led a benthic lifestyle. Nautilids underwent several periods of prosperity and decline in the process of historical development and have existed to this day, although they are now represented by only one genus, Nautilus.

In the Devonian, in parallel with the nautilids, a special group of cephalopods began to be found - bactrites (Bactritoidea), smaller in size and less specialized than the nautilids. It is assumed that this group of cephalopods descended from common as yet unknown ancestors with nautilids. Bactrites turned out to be an evolutionarily promising group. They gave rise to two branches of cephalopod development: ammonites and belemnites.

The subclass of ammonites (Ammonoidea) appeared in the Devonian and died out at the end of the Cretaceous. During their heyday, ammonites successfully competed with nautilids, whose numbers were noticeably declining at that time. It is difficult for us to judge the advantages of the internal organization of ammonites only from fossil shells. But the ammonite shell was more perfect,

Rice. 246. Fossil cephalopods: A - ammonite, B - belemnite

than that of nautilids: lighter and stronger. The partitions between the chambers of ammonites were not smooth, but wavy, and the lines of the partitions on the shell were zigzag, which increased the strength of the shell. Ammonite shells were spirally twisted. More often, the spiral whorls of ammonite shells were located in one plane, and less often they had the shape of a turbo-spiral (Fig. 246, A). Based on some body imprints of the fossil remains of ammonites, it can be assumed that they had up to 10 tentacles, possibly two ctenidia, beak-shaped jaws, and an ink sac. This indicates that ammonites apparently underwent oligomerization of metameric organs. According to paleontology, ammonites were more ecologically diverse than nautilids, and included nektonic, benthic and planktonic forms. Most ammonites were small in size, but there were also giants with a shell diameter of up to 2 m. Ammonites were among the most numerous marine animals in the Mesozoic, and their fossil shells serve as guiding forms in geology for determining the age of strata.

Another branch of cephalopod evolution, hypothetically derived from bactrites, was represented by the subclass of belemnites (Belemnoidea). Belemnites appeared in the Triassic, flourished in the Cretaceous, and died out at the beginning of the Cenozoic era. In their appearance they are already closer to the modern subclass Coleoidea. In body shape they resemble modern squids (Fig. 246, B). However, belemnites differed significantly from them in the presence of a heavy shell, which was overgrown with a mantle. The belemnites shell was conical, multi-chambered, covered with skin. In geological deposits, remains of shells and especially their terminal finger-like rostrums, which are figuratively called “devil’s fingers,” have been preserved. Belemnites were often very large: their length reached several meters. The extinction of ammonites and belemnites was probably due to increased competition with bony fish. And in the Cenozoic, a new group of cephalopods entered the arena of life - coleoids (subclass Coleoidea), devoid of shells, with fast reactive movement, with a complexly developed nervous system and sensory organs. They became the “primates” of the sea and could compete on equal terms as predators with fish. This group of cephalopods appeared

in the Cretaceous, but reached its peak in the Cenozoic era. There is reason to believe that Coleoidea have common origins with belemnites.

Environmental radiation of cephalopods. The ecological radiation of cephalopods is presented in Figure 247. From primitive shelled benthopelagic forms capable of floating due to the hydrostatic apparatus, several paths of ecological specialization have emerged. The most ancient ecological directions were associated with the radiation of nautilids and ammonites, which swam at different depths and formed specialized shell forms of benthopelagic cephalopods. From benthopelagic forms there is a transition to bentonectonic ones (such as belemnites). Their shell becomes internal, and its function as a swimming apparatus weakens. In return, they develop a main mover - a funnel. Later they gave rise to shellless forms. The latter undergo rapid environmental radiation, forming nektobenthic, nektonic, benthic and planktonic forms.

The main representatives of nekton are squid, but there are also fast-swimming octopuses and cuttlefish with a narrow torpedo-shaped body. The composition of nektobenthos mainly includes cuttlefish, often swimming

Rice. 247. Ecological radiation of cephalopods

or lying on the bottom, to bentonecton - octopuses that crawl along the bottom more than swim. Plankton include umbrella-shaped, or gelatinous, octopuses and rod-shaped squids.