1 brix. Brix. on holding annual full-format meetings of heads of foreign affairs agencies in each country in turn

Brix is ​​the most common calibration scale for refractometers. Brix expresses the concentration of a solution of chemically pure sucrose in distilled water as a percentage by weight (the number of grams of sucrose in 100 grams of solution) and is used to express the concentration of sugar solutions in general as a percentage by weight.

Refractive indices of aqueous solutions of sucrose at 20°C

Temperature corrections for refractometric analysis
aqueous solutions of sucrose

Origin of the word Brix

Professor A. Brix (Brix) – German chemist of the 19th century (1798 - 1890). He was the first to measure the density of juices obtained from plant fruits using a float density meter (hydrometer). Winemakers in Europe were concerned that they could not predict which grapes would make the best wine. The ability to predict the quality of future wine was extremely important for them, since the best wines cost many times more than ordinary ones. Contemporaries highly appreciated the discovery of Professor Brix and named a new unit of measurement after him.
Brix is the mass percentage of dry matter in fruit juice.
Brix is now defined as the percentage of sucrose in a solution. Instruments that determine concentration in Brix units are calibrated specifically using solutions of sucrose in water. In fact, when measuring the concentration of fruit juices in Brix units, we get a certain total number of grams of sucrose, fructose, acids, salts, vitamins, amino acids, proteins and other substances contained in 100 grams of juice and equivalent to the corresponding amount of sucrose. Therefore, juices taste less sweet than sucrose solutions of similar Brix value.
Brix is ​​directly related to fruit quality. For example, grapes with an inexpressive sour taste grown on depleted soil have a Brix value of no more than 8, and grapes with a rich taste grown on fertile soil have a Brix value of up to 24 or more.
Thus, sugar is only one component of Brix. It should be remembered that some substances can distort the Brix value, for example alcohol, vinegar. Monitoring vegetable oil, syrup, molasses and other dense liquids requires a refractometer calibrated in the range of 30 – 90 Brix. Honey is tested with a refractometer with a scale marked in units of water content, and not in units of dry matter content in water, as usual.

Determining the quality of some fruits
according to the Brix value of the juice contained in them

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ALL-RUSSIAN ACADEMY OF FOREIGN TRADE

Faculty of International Economists

Day department

Department of World National Economics

COURSE WORK

In the discipline "World Economy"

On the topic: “Features of development and the place of the BRICS countries in the world economy”

I've done the work:

2nd year student, 1st group

Galyapin Pavel Valerievich

Moscow 2014

• introduction
• 1. BRICS
• 1.1 History of creation
• 1.2 Goals and objectives
• 2. BRICS countries: features of development and their place in the world economy
• 2.1 Federative Republic of Brazil
• 2.2 Russian Federation
• 2.3 Republic of India
• 2.4 People's Republic of China
• 2.5 South Africa
• conclusion
• bibliography
• Introduction
• The globalization of the world economy determines new trends in cross-border capital movements. One of the main players in the international arena is the BRICS alliance. Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa are countries participating in the bloc and, perhaps, one of the most active and energetic members of the globalization process. Despite the dynamically developing alliance, the activities carried out by the participants require special attention and theoretical understanding.
• What is BRICS anyway? We always hear that BRICS is a group of five dynamic developing economies modern world. From the media we receive information about the strength and authority of this alliance, as well as about the growing influence of the alliance countries not only in politics, but also in the economy. But is it? What goals and objectives does this union actually pursue? What is the place of each country in it? And why exactly these countries were destined to create an alliance that progresses from year to year, forcing leading economic and political powers to take into account their position on world issues. In my work, I examined the economic and political aspects of this bloc, the development features of each of the countries that make up it, as well as their place in the world.
• The relevance of the topic of this course work lies in the fact that at the beginning of the 21st century. The sharp strengthening of the role of a group of states with dynamically developing economies (primarily the BRICS countries) has become one of the phenomena of the world economy. However, there are still many theoretical questions and practical problems associated with the genesis and evolution of these processes, to which there are no clear answers yet.
• The purpose of this work is to study the main factors in the development of the BRICS countries and their influence on world politics and economics at the present stage.
• To achieve this goal, the following tasks are solved:
• - studying the history of the creation of the BRICS organization;
• - studying the goals of BRICS;
• - studying the formation of the BRICS alliance and the place of each country in it;
• - studying the history of development of the BRICS countries;
• - analysis of the implementation of economically oriented policies in the BRICS countries;
• - identifying the main problems in the economies of the BRICS countries;
• - studying the prospects for the development of economic policy in the future in the group of BRICS countries.
• The object of the study is the development features of the BRICS countries and their place in the world economy.
• The subject of the course work is the external and internal economically oriented policies implemented throughout current history in the BRICS countries, structure and dynamics economic development.
• When writing the course work, the following scientific research methods were used:
• - comparative method;
• - study of the regulatory framework;
• - study of monographic publications and articles;
• - analytical method.
• The course work consists of an introduction, conclusion, two chapters and a list of references.

1. BRICS

BRICS is a group of five of the world's most promising countries: the Federative Republic of Brazil, the Russian Federation, the Republic of India, the People's Republic of China and the Republic of South Africa. Its members are characterized as the most rapidly developing large countries, possessing large reserves of resources important for the world economy, on which the economies of the BRICS countries are guided.

Brazil is one of the world's largest agricultural producers and is also blessed with rich mineral deposits such as iron ore, manganese ores, nickel, bauxite, tungsten, uranium ore, thorium, zirconium and gold.

Russia is the world's largest exporter mineral resources, the main ones being oil and gas, as well as coal, iron, cobalt, silver and gold.

India is the owner of cheap intellectual resources.

China is the largest country in terms of population, which means it has cheap labor resources.

South Africa is rich in a variety of natural resources such as manganese, platinum group metals, coal, diamonds, asbestos, nickel, lead, uranium, gold, chromites, vanadium, aluminoglucates and zirconium.

The BRICS group is not registered international organization, has no official status, but periodically holds various meetings, and every year since 2009, the heads and ministers of these countries gather for summits (until 2011 - BRIC, after - BRICS).

1.1 History of creation

The abbreviation “BRIC” was first proposed in 2001 in a bank research note by business analyst and global economist at Goldman Sachs Jim O'Neill, who, after long observation, discovered the rapidly growing influence of member countries on the global economy. The term itself -the acronym “BRICS” was created with a statement by the Indian Minister of Finance after South Africa joined BRIC in 2011. The sequence of letters in the word is determined not so much by the euphony, but by the fact that the word itself is in English transcription similar to the English word “bricks”, which translated into Russian means “bricks”, that is, this abbreviation is used to designate a union of such countries, due to the growth of whose economies will largely ensure the future development of the world economy, as well as stock markets.

A total of four meetings of the Foreign Ministers of the BRIC countries took place.

Traditionally, at sessions of the UN General Assembly, a large number of meetings are held outside the formal meetings. Thus, on September 20, 2006, on the sidelines of the 61st session of the UN General Assembly in New York, on the initiative of the President of the Russian Federation V.V. Putin, a meeting was held between the Foreign Ministers of Brazil, Russia and China and the Minister of Defense of India, which gave rise to practical interaction of data four countries within the BRIC group. The result of this meeting was confirmation by the participants of Brazil, Russia, India and China of their interest in developing multifaceted quadrilateral cooperation.

On September 24, 2007, the second meeting took place at the level of the foreign ministries of the BRIC countries, also during the session, but already the 62nd, of the UN General Assembly in New York. As a result, the following decisions were made that were important for the future of this union:

on holding annual full-format meetings of the heads of foreign affairs agencies in each country in turn;

on the launch of a consultation mechanism at the level of deputy foreign ministers;

on the establishment of embassies and permanent missions Brazil, Russia, India and China have regular contacts in key capitals for multilateral diplomacy, such as New York, Vienna, Geneva, Nairobi.

The first consultations of the Deputy Ministers of Foreign Affairs took place on March 10-11, 2008 in Rio de Janeiro. Thus, a start was made to establish interaction between the four countries through the Ministry of Foreign Affairs on a permanent basis.

At the initiative of the Russian side, on May 16, 2008, a full-format ministerial meeting within the BRIC group was held in Yekaterinburg. In a joint message based on its results, the parties’ common positions on issues of modern world development were formulated.

At the G8 summit in Japan on the island of Hokkaido in Toyako on July 9, 2008, on Russia’s initiative, a brief meeting was held between the leaders of four countries: Brazilian President L. Lula, Russian President D.A. Medvedev, Indian Prime Minister M. Singh and Chinese President Hu Jintao. The result of the meeting was an agreement to prepare a full-scale BRIC summit.

The fourth meeting of representatives of the Ministries of Foreign Affairs of the BRIC countries was held on September 25, 2008 by the UN in New York on the sidelines of the 63rd session of the General Assembly. The main topics were the problem of the global financial crisis and issues of interaction within the UN.

Contact was also established between the ministries of finance. Thus, on November 7, 2008, in Sao Paulo (Brazil), on the eve of the G20 events to overcome the global financial crisis (where, by the way, the G-20 finance ministers and heads of central banks decided that developing economies should take on a larger role in the new global financial architecture), on the initiative of the President of Brazil, the first meeting of the finance ministers of the BRIC countries was held. And on March 13, 2009, the second meeting of finance ministers took place in Horsham (UK) with the participation of the heads of the central banks of the BRIC countries. As a result of these events, a joint agreed message was made, which outlined common approaches to global economic issues, including ways to overcome the financial crisis, as well as an agreement to hold regular meetings between the finance ministers of the BRIC countries and their deputies.

In the quadrilateral format, official contacts were also supported by interactions between regional authorities and public organizations.

The pinnacle of the dialogue between the four countries was the first full-scale summit of the BRIC countries, held in Yekaterinburg (Russia) on June 16, 2009, in which the leaders of the four countries took part: President of the Russian Federation Dmitry Medvedev, President of the Federative Republic of Brazil Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva, Prime Minister Republic of India Manmohan Singh and Chairman of the People's Republic of China Hu Jintao. During the summit, two meetings were organized: in a narrow and wide format. Later, Dmitry Medvedev made a statement to the press on behalf of the heads of the BRIC countries. In a statement, the President of the Russian Federation wrote: “...our first, our launch summit met expectations. The conversation turned out to be not just serious and detailed - it was absolutely substantive, focused on practical ways, on finding ways to solve the most current problems modernity. ...First of all, we talked about the financial and economic situation in the world. “...” We discussed this from the practical angle of the prospects for our work and the effectiveness of cooperation between the BRIC four in the fight against the global crisis, including, of course, our work on other platforms.” Among other things, the following were adopted: the Joint Statement of the Leaders of the BRIC Countries and the Joint Statement of the BRIC Countries on Global Food Security. In the final documents of the starting summit, the parties expressed interest in further coordination of interaction in the process of building a multipolar world, in strengthening and greater coordination of cooperation in the energy sector with the participation of energy resource transfer countries, producers and consumers, in supporting ideas regarding new system sustainable growth.

The second summit of the heads of state of Brazil, Russia, India and China was held on April 15-16, 2010 in Brasilia (Brazil), at which key issues of international policy and concrete actions to promote coordination and cooperation of activities within the BRIC were discussed. An interesting fact is that later the First Business Forum of the BRIC and IBAS countries (India, Brazil, South Africa), which took place on the eve (April 13-14) of the summit in Rio de Janeiro, was timed to coincide with this meeting. The forum included meetings of representatives of development banks of countries, a seminar “BRIC and IBAS: opportunities for joint business development”, negotiations of entrepreneurs from different countries, plenary sessions:

1 - “The role of Development Banks in stimulating foreign economic relations and investments of the largest developing countries”, moderated by the Minister foreign trade South Africa or a representative of the Development Bank of South Africa;

2 - “Opportunities for doing business in the field of energy” from the Minister of Economic Development of Russia;

3 - The Minister of Foreign Trade of India prepared “Business Opportunities in the Field of Information Technology”;

4 - The Minister of Foreign Trade of the People's Republic of China presented “Business Opportunities in Infrastructure Projects”;

5 - “Opportunities for doing business in the region Agriculture and food production" from the moderator - Executive Secretary of the Ministry of Development, Industry and Foreign Trade of Brazil.

After the Second Summit, the heads of state and government of the participating countries stated that they “welcome the fact that the G20 has been recognized as the main forum for international economic coordination and cooperation of all its member states...”. Issues of international economics and finance, international trade, millennium development, agriculture, poverty alleviation, energy, climate change, terrorism, and the Alliance of Civilizations were discussed. Also on the agenda were tasks, goals and ways of cooperation between Brazil, Russia, India and China, not only at the level of the foreign economy, but also technological progress, science, culture and sports.

Until December 2010, the term "BRIC" was used to refer to the organization. BRICS itself was formed in 2010-2011. In November 2010, at the G8 summit in Seoul, South Africa expressed its desire to join BRIC. After short dialogues between the countries of the group, the Chairman of the People's Republic of China sent an invitation to the President of the Republic of South Africa to take part in the III BRICS summit, held in April 2011 in the Chinese city of Sanya on Hainan Island. The unification of the states of Brazil, Russia, India, China and, subsequently, the Republic of South Africa, which joined in 2011, became one of the most significant geopolitical events of the 11th century.

On April 13, on the eve of the BRICS summit, a meeting was held between representatives of the ministries of economics and foreign trade of five countries. From the Russian side, Deputy Minister of Economic Development O.V. took part. Fomichev. On the agenda were such problems as regulation of macroeconomic policy in the BRICS countries after the global financial and economic crisis, deepening trade economic cooperation within the framework of five countries, coordination of the actions of the BRICS countries in international formats, and in the reform of international financial institutions.

At the Third Summit of the countries of the BRICS alliance, held from April 13 to 14, 2011, the leaders of Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa adopted a declaration, which was based on an assessment of the main aspects of cooperation between the countries of the association. In addition, at the summit an agreement was signed on financial cooperation within the framework of the interbank mechanism. Following the meeting, the leaders of the countries decided to form a contact group, which in the future will be responsible for preparing proposals for the development of the institutional framework and for expanding economic cooperation between the five countries. Also, representatives of the participating countries unanimously expressed their support to the President of the Russian Federation on the issue of Russia’s accession to the World Trade Organization. After the summit, the leaders of the participating countries made a statement to the media: “...An important event of the meeting was the adoption of a long-term action plan.

It focuses on the development of economic ties, on interaction within the G20, as well as on the more active inclusion of civil society structures in our cooperation...” The events in Libya, the death of the civilian population there were discussed, and it was noted that “the solution to the problem must be achieved exclusively by political and diplomatic means, and not by force.” The mediation efforts of the African Union led by South African President Jacob Gedleyihlekisa Zuma were highly appreciated. The topic of tragic events in Japan and Minsk was also raised at the summit.

On March 28-29, 2012, the Fourth BRICS Summit was held in the capital of India - New Delhi. Problems were put on the agenda global economy, anti-crisis measures, as well as the problem of resolving the situation around Syria and Iran, which are disintegrating and devoured by an internal war. In addition, the country leaders discussed the possibility of creating their own Development Bank, the funds of which will be used in the development of infrastructure projects in the five countries. The Bank's main task is to support the expansion of trade between the BRICS countries and other developing economies. The idea of ​​creating something new world bank development first of all means a reduction in the role of the dollar and the euro in payments between countries, which could, in theory, help end crises, as well as the strengthening of national currencies. The heads of the BRICS countries ordered their representatives from the ministries of finance to analyze the possibilities of implementing this idea. As a result of the summit, the so-called Delhi Declaration was adopted, which outlined the importance of development and cooperation in the fields of healthcare, scientific and technological development, agricultural development, and culture. In addition, it was decided to organize country forums on security, legal framework, urbanization, competition and science and technology.

The fifth BRICS summit, the theme of which was “BRICS and Africa: partnership for development, integration and industrialization,” was held from March 26 to 27, 2013 in Durban (South Africa). As a result, two documents adopted at the summit were made public: the Ethekwini Declaration and the Ethekwini Action Plan. With the end of the Fifth Summit, the first cycle of BRICS summits ended. In accordance with the declaration, the leaders of the participating countries discussed ways of strengthening between the BRICS states and the African continent, and decided, within the framework of NEPAD (New Partnership for African Development), to support African countries through not only direct investment, but also knowledge exchange, assistance in infrastructure development process of industrialization. The leaders noted that reform of the IMF's governance system is needed to increase the weight of developing countries, including Africa's poorest countries.

The declaration also states that, as necessary, a consultative meeting of senior officials of the five countries should be held at forums on issues sustainable development, climate and environment. Cooperation in the fight against corruption, drug trafficking control, youth policy issues, tourism, sports and energy were named as new areas of cooperation.

The sixth BRICS Summit is scheduled to be held in the Brazilian city of Fortaleza in July.

1.2 Goals and objectives

The reason for the creation of the BRIC alliance was the financial crisis that overwhelmed the economies of countries around the world, with the performance of developed countries especially deteriorating. The economies of the leading powers: the United States, the European Union and Japan were falling, but in developing countries, on the contrary, a rise was visible. Thus, in total, over the past decade in four countries: Brazil, Russia, India and China - recorded one third of global economic growth. As a result, the crisis showed that the modern monetary system is quite shaky, and the biocentric model in world politics is already outdated, and that the world economy needs “innovations.” One of the significant factors of change was the formation of an alliance of five countries - BRICS.

Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa have one thing in common - they are countries with rapidly developing economies. Each country is not only endowed, but rich in certain resources that are important for the world economy, which sets them apart from other countries, giving them not just a voice in decisions international issues, but also a fairly large influence on the solution thereof.

The BRICS countries represent 4 parts of the world: Europe (Russian Federation...as stated in Wikipedia, from 22 to 23%...), Asia (Republic of India and People's Republic of China), America (Federative Republic of Brazil) and Africa (South Africa) with 43% of the world's population, which means it is the world's largest market. This made it possible to attract more than one fifth of the global flow of foreign direct investment to the countries of the union, of which about $270 billion are investments from the West. In addition, the BRICS countries, according to 2013 figures, account for more than 21% of global GDP, and the total volume of foreign exchange reserves reached 4.4 trillion. dollars, which exceeds the figure of the United States and the eurozone countries combined by four times, which allowed them not only to stand on the same level with developed countries in terms of representation in economic issues, but also contributed significant influence them in politics, and also begin to develop their BRICS Development Bank.

The main goals of the organization are the desire to build a multicentric world, creating a counterbalance not so much to the economy as to the politics of the United States of America, as well as strengthening the group’s influence on global economic processes.

The goals of BRICS are:

· First of all, reforming the financial and economic system of the world, which does not take into account the increased weight of developing and newly industrialized countries, through reforms and amendments in the World Monetary Fund. As a result, the structure should be based on the principles of democracy and transparency in decision-making and implementation in international financial institutions, as well as a solid legal basis;

· Giving the world economy sustainable and balanced growth;

· Increasing employment;

· Creation of a stable and predictable system of international reserve currencies;

· Strengthening strategic interaction at the level of heads of countries, ministries of foreign affairs, economic development, finance and others through three main factors: macroeconomic stability; economic liberalization; increasing the level of education.

· Upholding the political interests of the “five” in the international arena, as well as strengthening the positions and interaction between countries in “ G20", which includes all BRICS countries;

· Strengthening coordination in cooperation between countries in the energy field, as well as the creation of new energy infrastructure;

· Improving international trade and investment climate; curbing trade protectionism maintaining a stable multilateral trading system;

· Strengthening efforts to provide international humanitarian aid and reducing the risk of natural disasters and developing cooperation between the BRIC countries in socially significant areas;

· Promotion of cooperation between the BRICS countries in the field of science and education, including for the purpose of conducting basic research and development of advanced technologies;

· Countering international terrorist, criminal and military threats;

· Development of consistent, active, pragmatic, open and transparent dialogue and cooperation between the BRICS countries

· Official creation business council BRICS, designed to support new multilateral business projects.

Today, the BRICS alliance is a significant player in the international arena due to the special economic and political positions of the member countries in current events taking place in the world.

It can be stated that since the beginning of the general five-way interaction, the alliance has achieved good results in the field of analyzing processes occurring in the world. However, the question arises regarding the implementation of the main task of BRICS - achieving economic growth, as well as increasing interconnection between the economies of Russia, China, India, Brazil, and South Africa. Let's consider the issue using an analysis of Rosstat statistics on Russian foreign trade.

I believe that it is worth noting a significant increase in both exports and imports in the period 1995-2011. If the volume of China's exports in value terms in 1995 was $3,371 million, then in 2011 it already reached $20,325 million. India is in second place, whose exports increased from $1,000 to $6,393 million. The situation with imports is similar.

When calculating the indicator of openness of the economies of the BRICS member countries in relation to the Russian Federation, you can pay attention to next feature. If we analyze the level of importance of trade with Brazil for the Russian economy, the obvious conclusion is about a general decrease in its influence over the last five-year period (the indicator of economic openness fell from 0.14 to 0.13) against the backdrop of an increase in this indicator for India and China.

Of course, the growing influence of the BRICS member countries cannot be assessed unambiguously, but in general, the accelerated development of trade volumes between Russia and the BRICS member countries in the period from 2005-2010 can be explained by positive effects from the activities of member states.

Thus, over the entire period of BRICS existence, the association has experienced qualitative changes not only at the level of political interconnectedness of countries, but also in the economic field, due to which the overall welfare of the member countries was increased. In the future, we can predict an increase in the role of BRICS, as well as the continuation of qualitatively sustainable development of relations between the member countries.

economics export politics

2. BRICS countries: features of development and their place in the world economy

2.1 Federative Republic of Brazil

Brazil has been one of the members of BRICS since the very founding of the union. Brazil is experiencing high economic growth and significant growth in global influence. This country stands out from other group members due to the presence of such a fundamental resource as agricultural products.

The Federative Republic of Brazil is the largest and most populous country in Latin America. In addition, about 90% of the literate population lives in Brazil. It ranks seventh in terms of GDP volume at purchasing power parity for 2012 (about two and a half trillion dollars).

Today Brazil is a federal presidential republic. Previously, this country was a Portuguese colony, discovered by a navigator Cabral Pedro Alvares in 1500 and gained independence from the metropolis on September 7, 1822. Colonization greatly influenced not only the development of the country, but also the culture of the people of Brazil. So, official language is precisely Portuguese, and most Brazilians are converted to the faith as Catholics.

With the advent of Brazil's independence, Pedro the First (1822 - 1831) became the first emperor, on whose instructions the first constitution of the Latin country was developed. Under his son, Pedro II (1831 - 1889), Brazil was proclaimed as the Republic of the United States of Brazil. The second emperor was known as a tough monarch, the result of whose reign was the development of a single country with modern politics and culture for the nineteenth century. But everything was not so wonderful... During his reign, Brazil plunged into three wars, the results of which, in addition to distinguishing Brazil among Latin American countries and establishing hegemony on the continent, resulted in a financial hole, which the country was forced to cover with loans from the Bank of London, which created a significant public debt, for which the republic paid only in the middle of the twentieth century; but also the strengthening of the army, which has become a powerful political force in the country. By the end of the nineteenth century, approximately 6 million immigrants had moved from Europe and Japan to Brazil. During the second half of the nineteenth century, important programs for increasing welfare and health were adopted.

Before 1822, the main exports were sugar and timber, but after that coffee became a potential export product. In the mid-nineteenth century, Brazil exported about 40% of coffee, in 1880 - 50%, in 1902 - 65% (480 thousand tons). In the 30s of the twentieth century, the financial crisis with the terrifying name “Great Depression” that shook the world affected coffee prices, thereby fundamentally shaking the country’s economy.

Since the beginning of the twenty-first century, Brazil has experienced moderate growth rates and decreased income inequality, determined by several factors, the first of which is economic stability. Period 1980 - early 1990s. in Brazil is marked by low and unstable growth rates, disorder of public finances, and instability of the banking system. Brazil was consumed by prolonged inflation, which stopped after the monetary reform of 1994. The reform was carried out within the framework of the Real Plan, which became the first and main step towards economic stability. The plan implies a program of financial and economic stabilization through the implementation of large-scale privatization of state property in various sectors of the economy. As measures to balance the state budget, it was planned to tighten control over state banks and improve the health of federal banks, including by privatizing some of them, but at the same time reduce the total number of financial institutions, change the structure and functions, improve the banking supervision system, and also create a guarantee system return of deposits.

The second driver of economic growth in the country is the expansion of social protection programs. Getúlio Dornelis Vargas - President of Brazil (1930 - 1945 and 1951 - 1954), one of whose first decisions was the adoption of a new constitution, which contained a number of improvements in political, economic and social life, such as granting voting rights to women, independence judiciary, proclamation of freedom of speech, religion, movement and rallies and the creation of branches of the judiciary to control elections and labor relations. Vargas' policies pursued improving the lives of the working class and stimulating industrial growth. Social insurance contributions covering retirement benefits, survivors' pensions, sick leave, maternity leave, and family or child benefits were main feature social protection mechanism. Later, a unified health care system was introduced, guaranteeing health insurance for all citizens.

In addition to social protection programs, Vargas made a great contribution to the development of the country at the end of the decade; in addition to the economy (in the 1930s, the Great Depression swept across the world), the country was consumed by a political crisis, which was characterized by a split of the people between two ideologies: fascist and communist.. Despite the crisis. , the interim president, having declared a state of emergency in the country, dissolved Congress, and then adopted some important political decisions, outlined reform of the education system; took measures that later led to significant changes in the industrialization of the country. Through the active participation of the country's people in World War II, the country began to stand out among other industries, which contributed to rapid development due to the influx of foreign investment into the economy. The additional capital helped Vargas, during his second administration, expand the oil and metals industries, develop a national electricity system, and found the National Bank for Economic Development.

In the second half of the 1960s. a favorable climate for the influx of foreign investment was established, during which, with government intervention, economic growth in GDP of up to 10% came, which was later nicknamed the “Brazilian miracle”. It was then that he was taken on to transform the state into a great industrial power by the beginning of this century.

But let’s return to the mechanisms for increasing social protection and services in the country. In 1966, the rights of formal sector workers were supplemented with severance pay, and in 1986 and 1998, the right to unemployment insurance for workers was also approved in the Constitution. Another addition was the “13th salary” - for workers receiving less than two times the minimum wage. As for social assistance, from 40 to 60 of the last century, social benefits were mostly based on “in-kind” charitable contributions, rather than mandatory contributions. Later, in 1971 and 1974, two important programs were introduced: "Funrural" - for elderly heads of households in rural areas, and "RMV" (Lifetime Monthly Income) - for elderly living in extreme poverty and the disabled.

Replaced the last one in 1988. came the “Permanent Allowance”, paid in the amount of the minimum wage. As a result, the poverty rate among the elderly population has dropped significantly. In the mid-1990s. Social insurance and protection policies placed emphasis not on the rights of workers, but of families. Some innovations were introduced into the Bolsa Família social program: the presence of obligations aimed at the well-being of children; as well as the possibility of providing social assistance to “able-bodied” citizens. Innovations increased citizens' incomes, which led to a reduction in poverty and inequality, the main factor of which was labor income, which in 2009 amounted to about 75% of family income. It was thanks to the growth in labor income that income inequality fell by more than half, which in turn contributed to the increase in the minimum wage, which increased between 1995 and 2009. twice; reducing spending on education while its level has increased; and, as a consequence, a decrease in unemployment.

A decisive role in the development of the Brazilian economy was played by institutional reforms of the late twentieth century, many of which were enshrined in the Constitution adopted in 1988. The fundamental program strategy was “Brazil without Poverty,” for the implementation of which municipalities were assigned the most important place.

Brazil reached its apogee in the pace of development during the heyday of import-substitution industrialization, when the annual growth rate was approximately 7.5%. Currently, in terms of growth rates, the Latin American country is in last place among the five BRICS countries. Average growth rate from 2004 to 2010 was 4.4%, which is about twice as high as from 1981 to 2003, when it was about 2%, but still not enough. Over the past half century, Brazil's growth policies have been pro-poor. This is evidenced by the growth of household income per capita, which in the period from 1945 to 1980. was already 2% higher than overall GDP growth. The income of the poorest households increased many times faster than the richest.

Today, the country's economy attracts significant amounts of foreign investors due to steady growth and high interest rates. By building foreign exchange reserves and reducing debt, Brazil has improved its macroeconomic stability. Brazil's economy is based on a high level of development in the mining and manufacturing industries, agriculture and services sectors.

Brazil is one of the key countries in the developing world. In terms of industrial production, this state ranks among the top ten. largest countries peace. The share of industry in GDP is 26.4%, and agriculture - 6.1%. Leading industries: oil and gas, electric power, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, chemical, food, leather and footwear, mining, etc. Brazil has large reserves of minerals such as iron ore, rutile, niobium, beryllium, apatite, bauxite, gold, manganese ore, asbestos, titanium.

Agriculture in the Federative Republic of Brazil employs approximately 20% of the workforce. Brazil ranks third in the world in agricultural exports. The share in world exports is 6.1%, and in the country's exports - almost one third. The leading industry is crop production, characterized by a pronounced export orientation. Potential export products are coffee, cocoa beans, sugar cane, cotton, corn, bananas, and soybeans. Livestock farming, mainly meat, is also an integral part of the country's economy. Thus, it provides about 40% of agricultural production in value. Brazil is rich in reserves of valuable wood species and rubber. It ranks 1st in the world in the production of sugar cane, from which ethanol is produced, used as biofuel. Dynamics of foreign trade for last years shown in Diagram 1.1.

Diagram 1.1 Dynamics of Brazil's foreign trade in 2008-2012, in billion dollars.

Source: Brazilian Ministry of Development, Industry and Foreign Trade (MDIC)

In the current century, the unemployment rate in the country has been decreasing at a fairly rapid pace, and this is against the backdrop of a crisis, as shown in Table and Chart 1.2.

Table 1.2 Brazil's unemployment rate, %

Chart 1.2 Source - CIA World Factbook

The size of GDP at purchasing power parity is growing every year (Table and Graph 1.3).

Table 1.3 GDP size according to PPP of Brazil, billion US dollars

Chart 1.3 Source - CIA World Factbook

2.2 Russian Federation

Since the collapse of the USSR, Russia has undergone significant economic changes and over the past 20 years has evolved from a globally isolated, centrally planned economy to a market-based, globally integrated economic system. Economic reforms in the 1990s privatized most industrial enterprises, but property rights protection in Russia is still weak and the private sector is subject to significant government interference.

The changes of the early 1990s could not but affect the country's economy, as a result of which Russia's GDP has been constantly declining for more than 5 years. After the collapse of the USSR, the first slight economic growth in Russia occurred only in 1997. In 1997, however, the Asian financial crisis began, which had a negative impact on Russian economy. This led to the fact that in 1998 the Russian Government was unable to fully pay off its debts, and the subsequent sharp depreciation of the ruble significantly reduced the already low standard of living of ordinary citizens. Thus, 1998 remained in history as a year of crisis and a large outflow of capital from the country. However, despite such a large-scale decline, already in 1999 the Russian economy began its recovery. At that time, the ruble exchange rate was very low in relation to leading world currencies, which became the main stimulus for the country’s economic growth and had a positive impact on domestic production and exports. After 1999, Russia experienced a period of stable economic growth, which, first of all, became possible thanks to high oil prices and reforms carried out by the Russian Government in 2000-2001.

In this regard, the confidence of business circles and ordinary consumers in the favorable economic future of the country began to grow, as well as the influx of foreign investment significantly increased and the outflow of capital from the country decreased.

On this moment Russian industry is, as it were, divided into two parts: production in the most competitive sectors, such as the oil and gas industry and the mining of steel and aluminum, and less competitive sectors of heavy industry, which are directly dependent on the country's domestic market. The dependence of heavy industry on the export of raw materials makes Russia more dependent on world prices for raw materials and economic crises. In this regard, since 2007, the Government of the Russian Federation has adopted an economic program aimed at reducing this dependence and creating a high-tech industrial sector, but no noticeable results have yet been achieved.

Since 1998, the Russian economy has grown at an average of 7% per year, which ultimately led to the emergence of a middle class and a doubling of the population's real total disposable income. However, in 2008-2009. The global economic crisis significantly shook the then stable Russian economy, which was a consequence of a sharp decline in oil prices and a significant reduction in the influx of foreign investment. Trying to resolve the prevailing economic instability and slow down the devaluation of the ruble, the Central Bank of Russia spent about $600 billion. In addition, the Russian Government spent $200 billion to implement an economic rescue plan to increase liquidity in the banking sector and support Russian companies unable to repay large external debts. However, by mid-2009 the decline in economic activity had been overcome and in the first quarter of 2010, noticeable growth of the Russian economy began. However, the problem of drought and fires in central Russia has significantly reduced agricultural production, leading to a ban on grain exports and a slowdown in production and retail growth.

Although high oil prices helped reduce the fiscal deficit following the economic crisis and supported the country's economic growth in the first quarter of 2011, increased government spending and inflation limited the positive impact of oil revenues.

As for the long-term problems of the Russian economy, the first place is high level corruption, workforce reduction, insufficient funding for small businesses and non-energy companies, and lack of developed infrastructure. GDP growth at purchasing power parity is shown in Table and Chart 2.1.

Table 2.1 GDP size according to Russian PPP, billion US dollars

Chart 2.1 Source - CIA World Factbook

The Russian economy is the sixth largest economy in the world in terms of GDP in PPP terms. In 2013, the nominal volume of GDP amounted to 66.7 trillion. rubles, the physical volume of GDP increased by 1.3% compared to the previous year, and the GDP deflator index amounted to 106.5% compared to 2012 prices. In the first quarter of 2014, according to estimates from the Russian Ministry of Economic Development, GDP growth compared to the first three months of 2013 amounted to 0.9%.

Thus, the volumes of exports and imports in the country depend directly on the level of GDP, as shown in Tables and Graphs 2.2 and 2.3:

Table 2.2 Volume of Russian exports, billion US dollars

Chart 2.3 Source - CIA World Factbook

In the Russian economy, the state plays a significant role and Lately its share has increased markedly. If several years ago the share of the public sector in the country’s GDP was 34%, now this figure has increased to 50%, while, according to experts, in the near future the presence of the state in the Russian economy will only increase.

To date, the number of people employed in state-owned enterprises is about 32% of the country's total employed population, and the number of state-owned enterprises is 8.6% of all enterprises. Thus, the volume of products sold by the 10 largest state-owned corporations amounts to more than 20% of Russian GDP, while six of the top 10 largest Russian companies in terms of sales are state-owned. The energy company Gazprom, which forms about 8% of the budget of the Russian Federation, is one of the three world leaders, which once again demonstrates the leading role of the state in the Russian economy.

There are several groups of largest state-owned enterprises that have monopoly control over certain sectors of the country's economy.

According to official data from the Organization for Cooperation and Development, Russian state-owned companies control up to 33% of oil production and 80% of gas production in the country.

During the global financial crisis, the state began to actively provide support to certain sectors of the economy. First, the estimated time frame for completion of more than 40% of investment projects in the industrial sector was increased, with a total investment amounting to $52 billion. In addition, huge funds were allocated to support enterprises, primarily in the financial sector, where the state allocated about $50 billion to Vnesheconombank to refinance Western debts. Profit tax rates were also reduced and mineral extraction tax benefits were provided.

In connection with the introduction of a new concept for the development of Russia until 2020, the state is allocating large sums not only for the development of industry and the military-industrial complex, but also for advancement in the field of high technology. In addition, by 2020, Russia is planning a transition from a resource-based economy to an innovative one, which includes the creation of several research centers and support for the formation of research universities.

The fact that there are many large companies in the public sector of the Russian economy allows the state to regulate the economy not only through the application of general macroeconomic measures, but also through direct administration measures, which increases the controllability of the national economy.

Thus, the public sector occupies a special place in the Russian economy; it makes it possible to control the development of the country’s economy as a whole by creating a state monopoly of foreign economic activity and occupying management positions in the economy, managing financial flows, redistributing the profits of enterprises and firms.

However, despite the prevailing state control of economic activity, the country faces many problems. One of them is the incompleteness of important reforms, such as administrative reform and housing and communal services reform, which potentially hinders the development of the public and private sectors in the country’s economy.

There is also a problem related to antimonopoly legislation, which rather exists formally than develops competition in markets under state monopolies. In addition, the fact that state corporations have the right to invest multibillion-dollar funds in the stock market threatens to “overheat” it and reduce the attractiveness of venture capital financing, which plays one of the critical roles for the development of the high technology market.

In the last decade, there has been a sharp decline in the unemployment rate in the country due to economic growth (Table and Graph 2.4), increased employment of the population, and the implementation of government policies stimulating employment, however, to the level of 1991, when only 0.1% of the economically active population were unemployed , still very far away:

Table 2.4 Unemployment rate in Russia, %

Chart 2.4 Source - CIA World Factbook

Russia is an attractive country for foreign investors due to its dynamically developing economy, unique geographical location and huge natural resources. In addition, Russia has one of the largest consumer markets and a stable political system. The country has a predominance of qualified and educated human capital, an attractive tax system and government support for enterprises.

In 2013, the influx of foreign investment into Russia amounted to $94 billion, which shows a significant increase compared to 2012 and is explained by the acquisition of an 18.5% stake in Rosneft by the British oil and gas concern BP. In 2013, Russia for the first time took third place in the world in terms of foreign investment inflows, behind only the United States and China. Diagram 2.5 shows the shares of investments from countries around the world in the Russian economy.

Diagram 2.5 Main investor countries in total FDI inflows to Russia, %

Degree Brix(symbol °Bx) is a measure of the mass ratio of dissolved sucrose to water in a liquid. It is measured by a saccharimeter, which determines the specific gravity of a liquid, or more simply, a refractometer. A solution at 25 °Bx - 25% (w/w), means 25 grams of sugar in 100 grams of liquid. Or, to put it differently, 100 grams of solution contains 25 grams of sucrose and 75 grams of water.

Brix, Bolling, Plateau

The Bolling scale was developed by German chemist Karl Bolling. It is based on the concentration of the sucrose solution as the mass fraction of sucrose at 17.5 °C

The Brix scale was originally developed when Adolph Brix recalculated the Bolling scale in relation to a temperature of 15.5 °C. The Brix scale was subsequently recalculated again and now refers to a temperature of 20 °C. Brix can be calculated using the following formula: 261.3*(1 - 1/р), where р is the density of the solution at a temperature of 20 °C.

Bolling is still found in older saccharimeters and is still used in the South African wine industry.

Application

The Brix scale is used in Food Industry for measuring the average amount of sugar in fruits, vegetables, juices, wine, soft drinks and the sugar industry. Various countries The scale is used in various industries.

For fruit juices, one degree brix is ​​approximately equal to 1-2% sugar by weight, which usually compares well with perceived sweetness.

Since Brix is ​​related to the concentration of dissolved solids(mainly sucrose) in a liquid, it is also related to the specific gravity (density) of liquids. And since the specific gravity (density) of a sucrose solution is widely known, Brix can also be determined with a refractometer.

Modern Brix meters are digital refractometers that determine the Brix value based on the refractometer value. These devices are usually compact, splash-proof and easy to use, and can be used by anyone on site. More and more often, Brix is ​​measured to determine the ideal time to harvest fruits and vegetables so that the product reaches the consumer at the ideal stage or in perfect quality for subsequent processing in winemaking.

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See what "Brix" is in other dictionaries:

Brix- bezeichnet eine Maßeinheit der spezifischen Flüssigkeitsdichte, siehe Grad Brix Sankt Brix, ein früherer Name der Schweizer Gemeinde Saint Brais eine Gemeinde in Frankreich, siehe Brix (Manche) der Familienname mehrerer Personen Adolf Brix... ... Deutsch Wikipedia

Brix- Saltar a navegación, búsqueda El término puede estar referido a: Grados Brix, una medida alimentaría que mide el cociente total de sacarosa disuelta en un líquido. BRiX, un tipo de sistema operativo. Brix (Mancha), población de Francia. Obtenido... ... Wikipedia Español

Brix- (Westendorf, Austria) Hotel category: Address: 6363 Westendorf, Austria Described ... Hotel catalog

brix- ● brix nom masculin (de A. Brix, nom propre) Aréomètre à flotteur étalonné à 15 °C indiquant directement la concentration d une solution de sucre pur, en grammes pour cent … Encyclopédie Universelle

Brix- Brix, Stadt, so v.w. Brüx … Pierer's Universal-Lexikon

Brix- Brix, böhm. Stadt, s.v.w. Brüx … Kleines Konversations-Lexikon

Brix- es un sistema operativo sin kernel, sin filesystem, y sin programas, ya que esta diseñado en base a ideas bastante nuevas y relativamente poco utilizadas (por no decir desconocidas) … Enciclopedia Universal

Brix- For other uses, see Brix (disambiguation). Degrees Brix (symbol °Bx) is the sugar content of an aqueous solution. One degree Brix is ​​1 gram of sucrose in 100 grams of solution and represents the strength of the solution as percentage by weight (% ... Wikipedia

Brix- Pour les articles homonymes, voir Brix (homonymie). 49° 32′ 45″ N 1° 34′ 40″ W … Wikipédia en Français

BRIX- GERMANY (see also List of Individuals) 27.6.1859 Rosenheim/D 10.1.1943 Berlin/D Joseph Brix graduated as a civil engineer from the Technical University of Munich in 1881. He was then involved in the execution of the water supply system of the... ... Hydraulicians in Europe 1800-2000

brix- I. ˈbriks adjective Usage: usually capitalized Etymology: Brix (scale) : according to a Brix scale addition of sugar to the juice to about 50° Brix: calibrated in accordance with a Brix scale II. noun (...Useful english dictionary

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There are already a couple of reviews of similar devices on Muska, but I decided to add my own, perhaps this will stop someone from wasting money, or maybe, on the contrary, will help them choose exactly what they need. So, almost in a nutshell, a refractometer is a device for determining the amount of a particular substance in a solution, using for this purpose the refractive index of light in the medium.
When you are engaged in distilling, you periodically use raw materials, the sugar content of which is not constant and depends on many parameters. And to obtain a product with the desired properties, it is useful to know the sugar content. And so, on the eve of the harvest of apples, from which wonderful Calvados is made (Applejack, eau-de-vie (au de vie, water of life) applesem), the drink has many names, but the essence is the same - a drink obtained by fermenting apple must with subsequent distillation, I finally decided to buy myself a refractometer.
To know how sweet the apples are and whether it is necessary to adjust the wort by adding sugar or glucose.
The refractometer I bought has three scales: a Brix scale for sugar, a Baume scale for salt, and a scale for measuring the percentage of alcohol. These are both the advantages of the device and its disadvantage. The advantage is that, in principle, the device is universal, but the disadvantage is that in each of the dimensions it is an “under-device”. When I was choosing what to buy from the many options on Ali, I thought “the sugar content in apple wort should be about 20 brix, so the “up to 40” scale suits me perfectly.” but the alcohol scale is only up to 25% vol, therefore, wine (or mash) can be measured, but strong alcohol cannot be measured.
And now I’m already thinking about purchasing a refractometer with a scale of 0-80% vol.
Although there is a set of hydrometers for measuring alcohol, to use them you need to pour about 100 ml of liquid into a measuring glass, and just drop 2-3 drops into a refractometer.
Let's return to the device under review.
The parcel arrived in a record 8 days. The cardboard box with the device was packed in a yellow bubble wrap bag. The box contained the device itself, a pasteur pipette, a screwdriver for adjustment and instructions (in English). All this is placed in a cute fabric “bag” with drawstrings.


Device length 15 cm, diameter about 2.5 cm
Device with ATC - automatic temperature correction
In order to carry out measurements, you need to draw liquid into a pipette, flip the lid, drop 2-3 drops onto the “slide glass,” close the lid and press it against the glass of the device to level and squeeze out air bubbles.
Then look into the eyepiece of the device and see what happens.
This is what the device shows when measuring beer


And these are the indications for the “test” solution - a spoonful of sugar in a glass of water


As it turned out during the discussion of the review, the alcohol scale in this device is not indicative and shows the approximate (possible) alcohol content for a given wort sugar content.
In order to understand what alcohol strength is based on the Brix scale, you can use the table:

It's up to you to buy a similar refractometer or choose a device with one scale.
Thank you for your attention.