Significant impact on development. Factors affecting the development of abilities. As well as other works that may interest you
As is commonly believed in psychology, a person's abilities develop from his natural inclinations. Abilities are also mainly determined by biological factors - they reflect the functional readiness of the body to perform a particular activity. But this readiness should manifest itself from the inclinations - the body (including the central nervous system, psyche) is undergoing a kind of adjustment. Inclinations and abilities affect education, and together they affect the success of a particular activity.It should be borne in mind that natural inclinations can manifest themselves, transform into abilities at different periods of life. Usually, of course, this happens in childhood, adolescence and youth, but the same musical abilities can manifest themselves at the age of three, and at eighteen.
The development of the makings of abilities is greatly influenced by social environment: family, friends, school and other social institutions. The social environment is a source of both one's own behavior and information for a person at different ages. The social environment immerses the child in a new activity for him, supports him in certain undertakings or hinders this. It is important that there are people around the child with whom he is interested in communicating, from whom you can ask for an answer to any question, from whom you can expect creative initiatives.
In addition to the social environment, it is also important material environment: tools, various kinds of technical capabilities, sources of information, etc. It is known that Mozart already showed musical abilities at the age of three. However, if there were not a single musical instrument in his environment, this would not have happened.
When developing abilities, it is necessary to take into account sensitive periods of development various functions. It is important to encourage curiosity and feed the child with all the information requested. There is, for example, such a sensitive period of perception of small objects (child 1.5 - 2.5 years). During this period, the child is especially interested small items. If he is interested, he should be given such an opportunity (subject to reasonable security measures).
It is desirable that at any time the child's activity is in the zone optimal difficulty. A very simple activity leads to a decrease in interests, a loss of meaning in predictability. A very complex activity can delay the achievement of results and satisfaction for a long time, which greatly reduces motivation.
If a child has pronounced natural inclinations (real, not invented by parents), then it is quite important to state this fact. as soon as possible and, if possible, help the child to disclose these inclinations as a priority.
In this regard, it is immediately worth mentioning the importance comprehensive development of interests and abilities. A common mistake is to lock onto one activity. Parents and the child himself believe that there is no need to waste time on extraneous things. In fact, this can lead to the extinction of the main interest, and to the formation of a too narrow specialist. Enough typical example- a musician who has been honing his musical skills and skills all his life. The narrowness of interests and horizons at the same time leads to the inability to develop into a composer, songwriter or music producer, even if there is such a desire. Abilities tend to spread to related activities, in this expansion there is a general development, which then "returns" to the original ability.
Therefore, one should not forget about support of any interest. Interest is not an inclination (at least it is still far from it). Even if some slippery, unpleasant topics are touched upon, the parent just needs to do some explanatory work. For the development of abilities, it is very important to rely on truth, on knowledge. In no case should you instill in a child that knowing something can be identical to a bad deed.
Most capable people are very jealous of the success of other people, especially classmates and close colleagues, rivalry for them is an eternal source of energy). That's why reliance on rivalry- should be in the arsenal of both parents and teachers.
Rivalry often breeds collaboration, and collaboration breeds rivalry. In communication, joint work, projects, discussions, the formation of many talented people takes place - a kind of "firing". Building on cooperation- this is also the thing that you should have in your pedagogical piggy bank.
If appropriate conditions for the development of abilities are not created, appropriate activities are not provided to children, sensitive periods for the development of certain abilities are missed, other equally important factors are not taken into account - abilities will not develop, and an irreversible loss of abilities may occur. For the development of abilities, a combination of various factors is important, here are some of them:
I. Psychological:
sensitive periods of formation of functions: each child in his development goes through periods of increased sensitivity to certain influences, to the development of a particular type of activity; for example, it is known that a child from 0 to 3 years old develops oral speech and thinking intensively, and at 5-7 years old he is most ready to master reading, music, mathematics, sports, etc.;
appropriate activity with the help of an adult (zone of proximal development, according to L. S. Vygotsky),
increased motivation, interest.
II. Material:
balanced nutrition (eggs, meat, milk, cottage cheese, cheese, vegetables, fruits);
the presence of complex toys, instruments (including musical ones), paints, albums, a computer, etc.
III. Social:
teaching methods.
parents (mother);
educators;
3. On the physiological basis of abilities. What is the physiological basis of abilities? There are many conflicting points of view, many hypotheses.
I will introduce you to the discoveries of Professor, Doctor of Biological Sciences Vladimir Pavlovich Efroimson (1908 - 1989), who belonged to the detachment of the oldest Soviet "geneticists-first conscripts" of the famous Moscow school of N.K. Koltsov. His great work (doctoral dissertation) is called "Biosocial Factors of Increased Mental Activity".
It is dedicated to genius - one of the most amazing phenomena inherent in the human race. This is an attempt by a great natural scientist, biologist, geneticist to find an approach to the natural science explanation of the mystery of genius.
Who is a genius?
Genius does what it must; talent does what it can.
Goethe wrote: "And if you do not have this -" Die, but become! "- then you are only a mournful guest on a gloomy earth."
The frequency of the emergence of potential geniuses and remarkable talents is practically the same at all times, among all nationalities and peoples: one genius for 2-3 thousand, maybe for 10 thousand people. But this is the frequency of the birth of potential geniuses. There are much fewer people who have developed and realized themselves enough to get at least a high rating. O'Henry, for example, has a story about how God was asked to point to the most brilliant commander of all times and peoples. And he pointed to a poor English shoemaker who was poring over old shoes. In this shoemaker, the greatest military genius died without showing himself.
In life, the frequency of those realized to the level of recognition of their creations and deeds as brilliant is 1 person in 5-10 million people.
This is the topic of a separate lecture, because here it is necessary to answer many questions: are geniuses needed? What prevents brilliant people from realizing their natural inclinations?
Diderot wrote: "Genius falls from the sky, and for one time when he meets the gates of the palace, there are 100 thousand cases when he falls past."
The very first proposition is that geniuses are born, first of all, innate talents and abilities are needed to become a genius, that is, inclinations (their combinations are endless).
Efroimson identifies 5 "stigmas" of genius, but precedes their listing with the following thesis: "A good mother is a masterpiece of nature."
It is the mother and maternal love that is the decisive factor in the development of a genius (for example, the fate of George Washington).
The childhood and youth of geniuses is a story of restraint, discipline and organization, shaped by maternal attention.
The role of the mother is also great in the formation of value attitudes.
Efroimson considers flexibility, resilience and energy to be innate properties.
Curiosity, curiosity, the exploratory instinct disappear by themselves as phenomena of the highest degree of age, so how much flexibility, perseverance must be shown, how much energy must be expended by the child in order to preserve those features that are associated with creative curiosity.
Efroimson "selected" world-renowned geniuses. There were 400 of them. Among them, too, there is a "table of ranks". He noticed that among the greats of this world quite often (more often than among other people) there are some hereditary diseases.
1. Geniuses are ten times more likely than the normal population to have a hereditarily fixed elevated level of uric acid in the blood. Elevated levels of urates (salts of uric acid) lead to gout. Gout is markedly different from all arthritis and rheumatism: the accumulation of crystals of uric acid salts in the tissues is determined by touch, inflammation occurs around these deposits and the earliest and most frequent occurrence of acute pain in thumb legs, which is almost absent when other salts are deposited.
E. Orovan established in 1956 that uric acid, the excess of which in the blood leads to gout, is very close in its chemical nature (structural formula) to such well-known mental stimulants as caffeine and theobromine (contained in coffee and tea) . The accumulation of uric acid in the blood serves to stimulate brain activity.
The body normally contains about 1 gram of uric acid. In the body of gout it contains 20 - 30 grams.
If an elevated level of urate in the blood is not accompanied by gout, then this condition is commonly called hyperuricemia. Efroimson's list includes several genius gouty people: Giovanni Medici, Cosimo the Elder, Lorenzo the Magnificent, Thomas More, Erasmus of Rotterdam, Mazarin, Churchill, Benjamin Franklin, Ivan III, Ivan the Terrible, Boris Godunov, I.S. Turgenev, Beethoven - a typical gouty trait appeared throughout his life - a complete disregard for everything that was not relevant to the case, to music, to creativity, even sublimation of love by creativity; Michelangello, Bernard Baruch, Rubens, Rembrandt, Renoir, Fielding, Stendhal, Maupassant, Pushkin and others. Of course, gout alone is not enough. Giftedness is required.
2. Hereditary form of disproportionate gigantism - Marfan's syndrome. This syndrome is characterized by very long, thin limbs with a short lean body, large hands and feet, subluxation of the lens, aortic aneurysm and an increased release of catecholamines - natural substances, some of which are adrenal hormones (adrenaline, norepinephrine and some others). A particularly powerful release of catecholamines occurs during stress (strong mental and physical stress, which allows the body to overcome a huge level of physical and mental stress).
But under stress, there is a simultaneous release of adrenaline into the blood, while with Marfan's syndrome, the amount of catecholamines in the blood is constantly increased. Talented, gifted owners of the Marfan syndrome are distinguished by great energy and the ability for intense and prolonged intellectual work.
Marfan's syndrome is the rarest. It occurs 1 time per 100,000 births. Among 400 geniuses with this syndrome, 9 people: ichthyologist Nikolsky, Chukovsky, de Gaulle, Liddel Hart, Andersen, Lincoln, Tesla, Abbe, Kuchelbecker.
3. Androgenic (also hormonal) mechanism of stimulation of mental activity - Morris syndrome. This is "testicular feminization" - a very rare hereditary syndrome (one case in 20 - 50 thousand births). It is caused by the presence of a male set of chromosomes, which causes the formation of the testes, usually well palpable in the form of a slight inguinal hernia in women. But with a male set of chromosomes, there is a hereditary immunity of somatic tissues to male sex hormones, which normally should affect these tissues. As a result, a slender, strong, beautiful woman develops, but with no monthly ailments and is barren. The owners of Morris syndrome have mental energy, physical endurance and strength (for example, Joan of Arc - by the end of the 19th century, 2117 major works were dedicated to her, in particular, 600 great poems, 200 dramas, 16 operas).
Therefore, an increased amount of androgens in the blood can have a tonic, doping effect. In men, this phenomenon is called hyperandrogenism. Hyperandrogenism was noted in Peter I, Byron, Pushkin, Lermontov, Alfred de Musset, Balzac, Heine, Leo Tolstoy. In many of them, increased sexual tone persisted until old age (Goethe). And if the biographies of many remarkable figures testify to their complete rejection of sex, then in these cases it is most often necessary to speak of a clear sublimation of sexual desire and its translation into creative energy (Kant, Beethoven).
Abstinence at high sexual strength is associated with creative inspiration. There is a well-known saying: “God does not speak from a prophet who knows a woman for 77 days.”
4. On the basis of manic-depressive psychosis, cyclothymic character accentuation. Cyclothymics (unlike schizotimics) are characterized by a more or less regular alternation of different phases of mood, physical and mental tone. Phases of recovery, energetic activity, optimism and self-confidence are replaced by phases of a decrease in general tone, decreased activity, relaxation, deterioration in mood, pessimism, up to suicide: Van Gogh, Diesel, Roosevelt, Churchill, Goethe, Linnaeus, Coldridge, Pushkin, Gogol , L. Tolstoy (a descendant of Pushkin), Schumann, Saint-Simon, Auguste Comte, Garshin, Dickens, Hemingway, Luther. It is known that the hypomanic form and depression usually occurs in 4 people per 1,000. In Efroimson's list of geniuses, this figure is at least 10 times higher - 4 people out of 100. Melancholy, periods of despair, and suicide attempts are noted in their biographies.
A. S. Pushkin immediately notes the presence of 3 "stigmas" of genius: gout, hyperandrogenism, cyclothymic accentuation of character.
Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol was also a hypomanic cyclothymic. Everything he wrote is from 20 to 32 years old, and every spring and summer he was in a state of severe depression. Pushkin did not like spring and summer, because, unlike most people, cyclothymics have a sharp drop in mood and performance in spring and summer, clearly rising in autumn. This seasonality is very characteristic of Pushkin and Gogol. L. Tolstoy had depressions from 2 to 7 years.
5. The fifth "stigma" of genius is the size of the forehead, the height of the forehead.
Of course, a large forehead in itself does not guarantee the presence of high intelligence, but there is no doubt that the predominant development of the brain and especially its frontal regions fully legitimizes the problem of the existence of some connection between a disproportionately large forehead, a large head with the level of intelligence, with genius, talent (no need to be embarrassed by the existence of giant-headed hydrocephalus idiots). These are Marx, Lenin, Engels, Beethoven, Liszt, Napoleon, Shakespeare, Voltaire, Goethe, Anton Rubinstein, Kant, Darwin, Lomonosov, Mendel.
Thus, some conclusions can be drawn. At the moment, in science there is still no exact data on what abilities and inclinations are, what they consist of. Perhaps the makings, these are some properties nervous system- the degree of general activity, increased sensitivity of nervous structures, etc. Perhaps this is some kind of special predisposition, for example, to the perception of sounds, colors, spatial forms, etc. The extent to which the deposit manifests itself and takes shape depends on the conditions of the individual development. Based on the results of this development, i.e., on the basis of available capacity, it is impossible to say what the "contribution" of the deposit was. So far, there are no ways to determine the degree of participation of the genotypic factor in the development of abilities.
The formation and development of abilities is associated with the passage of the child through various sensitive periods with possible learning during these periods by the type of "imprinting". In gifted children, it is possible to synchronize several sensitive periods, usually replacing each other, then the possibilities for developing their abilities increase many times over.
An integral component of abilities is increased motivation. It provides intense yet naturally organized activities necessary for the development of abilities.
Review questions
What approaches to the study of abilities do you know?
Define abilities and inclinations. How do you think they differ?
What kinds of abilities do you know? Give them definitions.
Tell us about the biosocial factors of genius.
Name the factors influencing the development of abilities. Give examples.
What abilities do you have? What do you think contributed to the development of your abilities?
Rice. 36. Abilities (student G. Kasatkin, EiU-428)
Rice. 37. Abilities (student Yu. Goglidze, EiU-428)
OPTION 1.
1. Who owns the term "clinical psychology"? 3) Whitmer;
2. Who was the first to open an experimental psychological laboratory in Russia? 2) Bekhterev;
4. Name the founder of scientific psychology: 1) Wundt;
5. Specify the psychologist who contributed largest contribution in the development of pathopsychology in Russia: 3) Zeigarnik;
6. The founder of the neuropsychological school in Russia is: 4) Luria.
7. Who is the founder of behaviorism? 3) Watson;
8. Name the founder of depth psychology: 2) Freud;
9. Who developed relationship psychology? 3) Myasishchev;
10. Who owns the development of the psychology of activity? 3) Leontiev;
OPTION 2. ё
1. Clinical psychology provides significant influence for the development of the following branches of medicine, except for: 2) traumatology;
2. Theoretical and practical problems of which specialty cannot be developed without clinical psychology: 3) psychotherapy;
3. Who proposed the term "bioethics"? 3) Potter;
4. Clinical psychology has a significant impact on the development of the following general theoretical issues of psychology, except for:
3) development of philosophical and psychological problems;
5. What ethical model in clinical psychology has received the most development in last quarter 20th century? 2) bioethics;
6. What principle in clinical psychology can be specified as the etiology and pathogenesis of psychopathological disorders? 2) the principle of development;
7. Who coined the term "deontology"? 3) Bentham;
OPTION 3.
1. Among the first attempts to localize the HMF in the cerebral cortex are the works: 2) Gall;
2. The main subject of rehabilitation neuropsychology is:
3) restoration of higher mental functions lost due to injury or illness;
4. The zone of proximal development is: 2) what a child can do with the help of an adult;
5. The system-forming factor for all types of functional associations in accordance with Anokhin's concept is: 4) purpose.
6. The term "heterochrony" in neuropsychology means:
2) non-simultaneous development of functions;
7. The variability of the brain organization of functions is a reflection of:
2) the principle of dynamic localization of functions;
8. The rigidity of the organization of brain functions is due to:
4) the last two circumstances.
9. The main thesis of equipotentialism is:
4) the equivalence of the role of all areas of the brain in the implementation of mental activity.
10. Mediobasal parts of the brain according to Luria's classification include:
1) to the energy non-specific block;
11. The tool for identifying a neuropsychological factor is:
3) syndromic analysis;
12. The difference between asynchrony and heterochrony in the development of the child's psyche is: 1) that heterochrony is a natural factor in development;
13. Violation of control over the execution of one's own behavior is mainly associated with: 1) pathology of the frontal lobes;
14. Among the tasks solved with the help of methods of neuropsychological diagnostics, does not include: 4) choice of forms of neurosurgical intervention.
15. Disorders of various types of sensations are called:
3) sensory disorders;
16. common feature visual agnosia are:
4) loss of the ability to recognize.
17. The inability to recognize a flat object by touch with closed eyes is called: 2) tactile agnosia;
18. Autotopagnosia - a sign: 2) upper parietal lesion;
19. The principle of sensory corrections of complex movements was developed by:
4) Bernstein.
20. Replacing the necessary movements with template ones is a sign of:
4) regulatory apraxia.
21. Acquired speech disorder due to damage to the left hemisphere is called: 4) aphasia.
22. The defeat of the parieto-occipital zone of the left hemisphere often leads to:
3) semantic aphasia;
23. The main defect in verbal alexia is:
2) violations of simultaneous recognition;
24. Agraphia is: 4) violation of the ability to write correctly in form and meaning.
25. Acalculia is often combined with: 1) semantic aphasia;
26. Nonspecific memory disorders are mainly related to work:
1) the first block of the brain;
27. "Field behavior" is the result of defeat: 1) frontal lobes;
28. An experimental technique for detecting modal-specific attention disorders is:
2) simultaneous presentation of two stimuli to paired analyzers;
29. Defects in thinking associated with the mediation of speech connections are caused by: 2) left temporal lesions;
30. The "Circle of Peipes" basically describes the circulation of emotional processes: 3) inside the limbic system;
31. The defeat of the convexital parts of the frontal lobes of the brain is more likely to lead to such an emotional state as: 1) indifferent complacency;
32. The process of identification from general to particular is more represented:
1) in the left hemisphere;
33. Leftism is:
2) the joint predominance of left-located paired organs over the right ones;
34. A feature of focal lesions of the brain in children is:
1) mild severity of symptoms;
OPTION 4.
1. The main principles of pathopsychological research according to Zeigarnik include all of the following, except:
2) standardization of the procedure for conducting the experiment and data analysis;
2. The essential characteristics of attention are all of the following, except:
2) diversity;
3. A letter correction test for the study of attention was proposed by:
3) Bourdon;
4. The founder of the national school of pathopsychology is: 4) Zeigarnik.
5. Typical thought disorders in schizophrenia include all of the following except: 4) a tendency to detail.
6. For the study of thinking, all of these methods are used, except:
4) "10 words".
7. Memory can be characterized by all of the above types, except for:
2) cognitive;
8. Typical disorders of thinking in epilepsy are all of the following, except: 3) actualization of insignificant "latent" features;
OPTION 5.
1. In classical psychosomatics, three groups of disorders are distinguished, except for:
4) vegetoses.
2. The representative of the anthropological direction in psychosomatics is:
4) Weissacker.
3. The term "psychosomatics" was introduced into medicine by: 3) Heinroth;
4. The creator of cortico-visceral pathology, as one of the areas of psychosomatics, is: 3) Bulls;
5. The modern biopsychosocial model of the disease was developed by: 3) Engel;
7. Behavioral type A "is a risk factor":
4) cardiovascular disease.
8. Conversion disorders, which laid the foundation for the psychoanalytic direction in psychosomatics, were described by: 3) Freud;
9. The term "alexithymia" was introduced by: 3) Sifneos;
10. The concept of "organ neuroses" was developed by: 4) Deutsch.
OPTION 6.
1. Type of mental dysontogenesis, in which there is a return of function to an earlier age level, both temporary and persistent:
2) regression;
2. Type of mental dysontogenesis, in which gross disorganization or loss of function is observed: 1) decay;
3. Type of mental dysontogenesis, in which there is a delay or suspension mental development: 3) retardation;
4. A form of mental dysontogenesis, in which there is a pronounced advance in the development of some mental functions and properties of an emerging personality and a significant lag in the pace and timing of the maturation of other functions and properties: 1) asynchrony;
5. Socially conditioned type of non-pathological deviations in mental development: 3) pedagogical neglect;
6. Socially conditioned types of pathological disorders of ontogenesis include: 2) pathocharacterological formation of personality;
7. General mental underdevelopment is: 2) oligophrenia;
8. Distinctive feature thinking of the mentally retarded: 2) uncriticality;
9. Emotions of the mentally retarded: 1) undifferentiated;
10. The totality of the defeat of mental functions is typical for: 1) oligophrenia;
11. Syndromes of temporary lag in the development of the psyche as a whole or its individual functions are denoted by the term: 3) mental retardation;
12. Anomaly of character, incorrect, pathological development, characterized by disharmony in the emotional and volitional spheres, is:
3) psychopathy;
OPTION 7.
1. Reactive states, which are manifested mainly by a violation of behavior and lead to socio-psychological maladaptation, are called:
1) pathocharacterological reactions;
2. Non-pathological behavioral disorders that appear only in certain situations, do not lead to personality maladjustment and are not accompanied by somatovegetative disorders, are called: 2) characterological reactions;
3. The formation of an immature personality in children and adolescents in a pathological, abnormal direction under the influence of chronic pathogenic influences negative socio-psychological factors are:
3) psychogenic pathological personality formation;
4. Pathological conditions characterized by disharmony of the mental make-up of the personality, totality and severity of disorders that prevent the full social adaptation of the subject, these are: 2) psychopathy;
5. Conduct violations that qualify on the basis of legal regulations, are denoted as: 3) criminal behavior;
6. Violations of conduct, which are qualified on the basis of moral and ethical standards, are designated as: 1) delinquent behavior;
7. A form of deviant behavior, characterized by the desire to escape from reality by artificially changing one's mental state by taking certain substances or fixing on certain types of activity, these are: 2) addictive behavior;
OPTION 8.
1. Communicative competence doctor increases with the development of such qualities as: 3) the ability to empathize;
2. Affiliation is: 2) the desire of a person to be in the company of other people;
3. Empathy is: 1) the ability to sympathize, empathy, compassion;
4. The communicative competence of a doctor is reduced under the influence of the following properties: 2) increased anxiety;
5. A communication barrier in relationships can be associated with a high level of: 4) depression.
6. Anxiety is an emotion:
7. Syndrome of emotional burnout - a consequence of:
1) self-doubt and increased responsibility;
8. Professional adaptation consists in:
4) improving professionalism, establishing an adequate emotional distance from patients, forming an individual medical "image".
9. Reducing the psychological distance with the patient is permissible:
3) in situations where there is a threat to the life of the patient;
10. The first impression of the patient about the doctor:
1) develops in the first 18 seconds of acquaintance;
11. The feeling of psychological contact gives an element of non-verbal communication:
1) look into the eyes;
12. In professional communication doctor with patients preferred postures:
4) natural asymmetrical open.
13. Active gestures of the patient are most often associated with:
2) high level of anxiety;
14. A depressed patient is characterized by: 4) facial expressions of grief.
15. Accelerated speech often characterizes: 3) anxious patient;
16. Loud speech is more often observed in: 4) patients in a hypomanic state.
17. During the orientation phase, the doctor:
3) formulates a number of hypotheses (defines the search area);
18. During the argumentation phase, the doctor has grounds for:
2) making a preliminary diagnosis;
19. Projection is: 3) transfer by the patient to the doctor of past experience of relationships with significant people;
20. As a result of the combination of positive transference and positive countertransference in the doctor-patient relationship:
1) the likelihood of informal relationships between them increases;
21. The main task of the doctor in the adjustment phase:
2) providing emotional support to the patient;
22. Adaptation of the patient to the conditions of the hospital lasts approximately:
1) about 5 days;
23. Medicines prescribed by a doctor remain unused:
1) at least 20%;
24. The placebo effect is:
1) the effectiveness of pharmacologically neutral " dosage forms»;
25. Aggravation behavior is characterized by: 3) exaggeration of the symptoms of the disease;
26. In the structure of the internal picture of the disease, the following main components are distinguished: 4) sensitive, emotional, rational and motivational.
27. Adaptive mechanisms aimed at reducing pathogenic emotional stress, protecting from painful feelings and memories, as well as from further development psychological and physiological disorders are called: 2) mechanisms psychological protection;
28. Return for more early stage development or to more primitive forms of behavior, thinking are called: 4) regression.
29. Protection from a threatening object by identification with it is called:
3) identification;
30. The most productive coping strategies for patients are:
1) cooperation and active search for support;
31. Dissimulation is: 2) deliberate concealment of the symptoms of the disease;
32. Anosognosia is: 2) unconscious reaction: unawareness of the disease;
33. Hypochondria is: 1) painfully exaggerated concern for one's health;
34. Simulation is:
1) conscious image of the symptoms of a non-existent disease;
35. “Difficult” includes patients who have:
2) depressive traits with suicidal tendencies;
36. A doctor as a patient is: 3) the most "difficult" and "atypical" patient;
1) manuals;
38. The partnership model of the doctor-patient relationship is widely used in: 4) psychotherapy.
OPTION 9.
1. Psychological assistance in general somatic medical institutions is provided by a clinical psychologist:
4) together with a psychiatrist and a psychotherapist.
2. The standard for providing a stationary psychotherapeutic department is the position of a clinical psychologist: 1) for 20 beds;
3. The staffing standard for positions of clinical psychologists in a psychotherapeutic office is:
4) the position of a clinical psychologist for one psychotherapeutic office.
4. When conducting psychotherapy of a patient with a neurotic state, a psychotherapist and a clinical psychologist interact as follows:
4) a psychotherapist and a clinical psychologist jointly conduct psychotherapy, taking into account its different focus and goals.
5. The main content of postgraduate training for clinical psychologists in clinical psychology is:
3) psychodiagnostics, psychocorrection in various clinical groups, trainings, supervision;
OPTION 10.
Question 1. Research methods in clinical psychology include all but one: e) amytal-caffeine disinhibition
Question 2. The principles of clinical interviewing include all but one: d) stereotype
Question 3. Clinical interviewing consists of: d) 4 stages
Question 4. The duration of the first interview should be: d) 50 minutes
Question 5. The confidentiality guarantee is provided to the client for:
a) I stage of the interview
Question 6. Anticipatory training is carried out on: d) Stage 4 interview
Question 1. According to Zhlakan, the concept of the historical and cultural base includes everything except one: c) profession
Question 8. The pictogram method is used to study: a) memory
Question 9. The Munsterberg technique is used to study: b) attention
Question 10 cognitive features mental activity of patients expressed in psychological terms is called: c) pathopsychological syndrome
Question 11
c) psychopathic symptom complex
Question 12
a) schizophrenic symptom complex
Question 13. The Luscher test is used to assess: d) emotional experiences
Question 14. A study aimed at assessing the state of higher mental functions, features of the functioning of the asymmetry of the hemispheres is called:
Question 15. The ability to recognize presented objects by touch is called: b) stereognosis
Question 16: The Minnesota Multidisciplinary Personality Inventory reveals: c) personality profile
Question 17. Evaluation of affective rigidity according to the MMPI test is based on: d) 6 scale
Question 18. Methods for studying attention include all methods except for one: d) Raven test
Question 19. Evaluation of the effectiveness of psychological methods of influencing a person includes all of the following criteria except for one:
d) criterion for the degree of improvement in partner (sexual) relations
Question 20. The analysis of eye contact during the clinical interview allows you to assess:
b) individual psychological characteristics
OPTION 11.
Question 1. An individual holistic mental experience in the process of diagnosing mental disorders is called: c) a phenomenon
Vonros 2. “In connection with the possibility of a complete phenomenological similarity to a mental illness (psychopathological symptoms), only that which can be proven as such is recognized” - the principle says: a) Kurt Schneider
Question 3. Along with the criterion of proof, the Kurt Schneider principle also includes the criterion: e) probabilities
Question 4. The diagnostic principle, which requires "refraining from premature judgments" is indicated by the principle:
Question 5. Assessment of the state of an individual of the type: “The patient has a mournful expression on his face” does not take into account one of the following diagnostic principles:
a) contextuality
Question 6. For a convincing diagnosis of psychopathological symptoms, the following laws are fundamentally important: e) logical
Question 7. The phenomenological approach to the diagnostic process uses the principles: b) understanding psychology
Question 8. The concept of "nosos", in contrast to "pathos", includes all but one: a) stable psychopathological states
Question 9. To diagnose a mental reaction, it should be borne in mind that its duration should not exceed: d) 6 months
Question 10. A mental state characterized by a severe impairment of mental functions, contact with reality, disorganization of activity, usually to antisocial behavior and a gross violation of criticism, is called: b) psychosis
Question 11. One of the most significant diagnostic criteria for distinguishing psychotic from non-psychotic mental disorders is the criterion; c) uncritical to disorders
Question 12
Question 13. Hysterical and hypochondriacal non-psychotic symptoms are signs of one of the following types of mental response:
d) personal
Question 14. The phenomenon of "already seen" is a sign of one of the following types of mental response a) exogenous
Question 15
Question 16. Abulia refers to one of following groups mental disorders; b) negative disorders
Question 17
Question 18
Question 19. Fruitless, aimless thinking based on a violation of thinking is called: d) reasoning
Question 20. With introversion, in contrast to autism, as a rule, it is noted:
a) criticality to one's own isolation
OPTION 12
Question 1. The Zeigarnik effect refers to the psychological process:
b) memory
Question 2. The minimum value of the stimulus that causes a barely noticeable sensation is called:
b) the absolute lower threshold of sensations (threshold of sensitivity)
Question 3. Sensations associated with signals arising from irritation of receptors located in muscles, tendons or joints are called: c) proprioceptive
Question 4. The Weber-Fechner psychophysical law describes:
e) the dependence of the strength of sensation on the magnitude of the acting stimulus.
Question 5. As a result of perception, all the following properties of the image are formed with the exception of: d) uniqueness
Question b. The process of perception, in which elements that appear as parts of familiar figures, contours and forms, are more likely to be combined into these figures, shape, contours is called the principle: d) "natural continuation"
Question 7. A perceptual disorder in which the formation and perception of bizarre visual images based on the fusion of the elementary features of an object is called: b) pareidolic illusions
Question 8. The disorder of recognition of parts of one's own body is called:
a) somatognosia
Question 9. Attention has all of the following properties except: d) duration
Question 10. The average amount of human attention is:
c) 5-7 units of information
Question 11. The process of better remembering incomplete actions compared to completed ones is called: b) the Zeigarnik effect
Question 12, A memory disorder characterized by impaired imprinting of information received by a person and a sharply accelerated process of forgetting is called: c) fixation amnesia
Question 13. Violation of the chronology in memory, in which individual events that took place in the past are transferred to the present, is called:
c) pseudo-reminiscence
Question 14. Thinking operations include all of the following except: a) judgments
Question 15. Inference refers to: b) thought processes
Question 16 b) violations of the operational side of thinking
Question 17
Question 18
Question 19. Anticipation is:
b) the ability of a person to anticipate the course of events, to predict the likely outcomes of various actions
Question 20. Particularly pronounced emotional states of a person, accompanied by significant changes in behavior, are called:
d) affects
Question 21. The most significant differential diagnostic criterion for pathological affect is: b) the presence of disorders of consciousness
Question 22. Alexithymia is called:
e) inability to accurately describe one's own emotional condition
Question 23. Cancerophobia is: a) an obsessive fear of getting cancer
Question 24. Parabulia includes all of the following disorders except: b) autism
Question 25. Pathological irresistible attraction to vagrancy is called: b) dromomania
Question 26. The following types of automatisms are distinguished with the exception of:
e) hallucinatory
Question 27
Question 28. Among patients with neurosis, there is a tendency to increase in persons with:
d) low and high intelligence
Question 29
b) personality (psychopathic) disorders
Question 30
OPTION 13
Question I. All the following scientific platforms are distinguished, evaluating the etiopathogenesis of neurotic disorders, with the exception of: e) astrological
Question 2. Life event affecting significant parties existence of a person and leading to deep psychological experiences, is called: b) psychotrauma
Question 3. The most important characteristic of a life event that can cause neurotic disorders is its: e) significance
Question 4. The quantitative assessment of the pathological nature of life events is called the scale: a) Holmes Ray
Question 5. Neurotic conflict, which is characterized by overestimated claims of the individual, combined with an underestimation or complete disregard for objective real conditions or the requirements of others, is indicated by: a) hysterical
Question 6. Conditionally pathogenic mental traumas are associated, first of all, with: c) a system of personality relations
Question 7. The anticipatory concept of neurogenesis notes the fundamental importance: e) unpredictability of mental trauma
Question 8. The following properties play the greatest role in the appearance and formation of neurotic disorders: d) personality
Question 9. Post-traumatic stress disorder is primarily associated with: b) events that go beyond ordinary life experience
Question 10
a) social stress mental disorders
Question 11. Identity crisis options include all of the following except: b) mystical
Question 12. Disorders characterized by a partial or complete loss of normal integration between memory of the past, impaired awareness of identity and direct sensations, and impaired control of one's own body movements are called:
e) conversion (dissociative).
Question 13. Dissociative stupor is characterized by:
b) a state of immobility
Question 14 d) puerile syndrome
Question 15. K. Jaspers described the principle behind the diagnosis of neurotic disorders: a) a triad
Question 16. Obsessions are included in the structure: d) anankastic syndrome
Question 17. Agoraphobia is d) an obsessive fear of open spaces
Question 18. All the following stages of the formation of neurotic disorders are distinguished with the exception of: d) psycho-corrective
Question 19. As a rule, patients with neurotic disorders have: c) monovariant type of probabilistic forecasting
Question 20. The unwillingness of patients during the period of unresolved conflict to take any action leading to its clarification or disappearance of symptoms, as well as to use methods of psychological compensation, is indicated by: e) attitude psychocorrection
Question 21. Neurotic conflict receives a secondary somatic response and processing when: b) conversion symptoms
Question 22. Psychosomatic diseases are formed, as a rule, due to: d) intrapersonal conflict
Question 23. To the classic psychosomatic diseases included in the so-called. The "holy seven" include all of the following except:
a) myocardial infarction
Question 24. The main, intrapersonal conflict in hypertension is the conflict:
b) between aggressive impulses and feelings of dependency
Question 25. Coronary personality type A predisposes to:
e) myocardial infarction
Question 26. Personality type B does not predispose to: e) myocardial infarction
Question 27
Question 28
c) dyspareunia
Question 29 Agripnic syndrome is
c) neurotic disorder in the form of insomnia
Question 30. Pale and dry skin, cold extremities, gleaming eyes and slight exophthalmos, temperature instability, tendency to tachycardia, tachypnea, a tendency to increase blood pressure, muscle tremors, paresthesia, chilliness, discomfort in the heart area occurs with:
b) sympathicotonic form of vegetovascular dystonia
OPTION 14.
Question 1. The concept of "zone of proximal development" implies that:
a) learning must come before development
Question 2. The process of formation in the structure of the old new types of activity characteristic of the next age period, accompanied by the maturation or restructuring of private processes and the main "psychological changes in the personality, is called: d) leading activity
Question 3. Mental and social changes that first occur at a given age stage and determine the child's consciousness, his attitude to the environment, inner and outer life are called: e) neoplasms
Voshchin. 4. Age-related psychological crises are called:
b) periods of ontogeny characterized by sharp psychological changes
Question 5. The period of maturity occurs at the age of: d) 35-60 years old
Question 6. "Revitalization complex" is typical for: a) neonatal period
Question 7. The absence of a "revitalization complex" is considered a characteristic feature: a) early childhood autism syndrome
Question 8. The crisis of the first year of life is characterized by:
e) the formation of walking and speech
Question 9. Hyperdynamic syndrome is typical for:
c) children aged 3-5 years
Question 10. The leading activity of children of preschool and primary school age is: e) game
Question 11 inanimate object, is called: b) pathological fantasy
Question 12. The reaction, expressed by the adolescent's persistent desire to succeed in the area in which he is weak, is called:
b) hypercompensation reaction
Question 13
c) pre-moral level of morality
Question 14. "Midlife crisis" occurs, as a rule, at the age of:
b) 30±2 years
Question 15. Typical psychological characteristics of older people are all of the following except: b) altruism
Question 16
Question 17. The development of schizophrenia in a child is due to family education type: d) none of the answers are correct
Question 18
Question 19. The family develops sanogenic thinking in its members in order to:
b) decrease internal conflict, tension, and disease prevention
Question 20. The reaction of emancipation is typical for: e) teenagers
The Communist Party and the Soviet state paid great attention to protecting the health of the younger generation, considering this as the most important task of the state. Created in the USSR government systems health protection of children and adolescents, protection of motherhood and childhood. It is characteristic that in pre-revolutionary Russia there were only 600 children's doctors, and in 1976 there were more than 96 thousand. The Constitution of the USSR guarantees the implementation of special measures for labor protection and women's health; creation of conditions allowing women to combine work with motherhood; legal protection, material and moral support for motherhood and childhood.
In the pediatric service, the leading principle of the organization of Soviet health care, as a preventive orientation, is especially vividly realized. In the organization of child protection, clinical examination is especially mandatory, which embodies the synthesis of preventive and curative medicine.
A constant and continuous process of introducing scientific achievements into the practice of children's healthcare is carried out simultaneously with the improvement of the entire healthcare organization system childhood. In the early stages of the organization of medical care for children, children's consultations were created, which in 1948 were merged with children's outpatient clinics into a single children's clinic. Specialized assistance is being developed, specialized departments are being organized, in which diagnostics, treatment, nursing of sick children are firmly established at a high level, departments are being created intensive care and resuscitation, this is combined with the strengthening of the main link in all medical and preventive work - the children's polyclinic.
The tendency of the staged treatment of sick children with chronic diseases is noticeably increasing: polyclinic - hospital - sanatorium. Of particular importance in preventive work among the child population is the development of a network of medical genetic services.
Much attention is paid to the training of paramedical personnel for children's hospitals. Textbooks and monographs are published. Many works of Soviet pediatricians have been translated into foreign languages. In the 60s. 20th century a ten-volume manual on pediatrics was published, which reflects the main achievements of Soviet pediatric science and healthcare practice
Conclusion.
Soviet clinical medicine is developing in clinical-physiological and preventive directions. At a new, higher level of development, there are previously discovered diagnostic methods and technical equipment of a clinician.
The achievements of Soviet medicine are great in all manifestations - in its connections with natural science, its philosophical dialectical-materialist concepts, the successes of science, the creation of numerous large scientific medical schools, wide practical, preventive activities, the development of public initiatives, the activities of societies, congresses, medical periodicals, involvement of workers in the cause of protecting the health of the people.
medical science and healthcare are inextricably linked with each other. The state character of Soviet health care largely determines the possibilities and ways of developing medical science.
List of used literature
1. P.E. Zabludovsky et al. History of Medicine. Textbook. M .: "Medicine", 1981.
2. Yu.P. Lisitsin History of Medicine. Textbook. M.: "GEOTAR-MED" 2004.
3. T.S. Sorokina "History of Medicine". Textbook for higher medical students educational institutions. M .: "Academy" 2005.
4. B.V. Petrovsky "Great Medical Encyclopedia", volume 18,
M.: Publishing house " Soviet Encyclopedia", 1982.
5. Shabalov N.P. "Pediatrics". Textbook. S.-P.; Special Lit 2002
HELL. Gradovsky emphasized the political meaning of the concept of "self-government". He was convinced that the state, transferring some of its functions to local governments, is obliged to provide them with the opportunity to exercise an "act of power" (that is, to act on the rights of state power). He advocated granting the zemstvos, within the limits determined by law, independence and powers of authority1.
V. P. Bezobrazov interpreted bureaucratic and self-governing institutions as "double organs of the same state organism, different forms of the same power." He saw the main drawback of the Regulations of 1864 in the fact that zemstvo institutions were not introduced into the general system of state administration, but were placed “beside it ...” According to V.P. Bezobrazov, zemstvo bodies were given “a lot of will and no power ". He attributed their weakness to their lack of "government" rights.
B.N. Chicherin interpreted zemstvos as legal entities that the state establishes to meet common needs. He credited them with the importance of social associations, which are governed "by state-issued laws and are under the control of state power, but exist to satisfy the special interests of famous persons or localities." B.N. Chicherin held the idea that the state benefits by acquiring an assistant in the person of local self-government. It "relieves him of an unnecessary burden, performing what without his help would have fallen on his own organs." In case of insufficient efficiency of the activities of zemstvo institutions, “the state can, without taking matters into its own hands, come to the rescue ... or fill in the gaps with its own institutions, not in the form of a replacement, but in the form of completing and improving the public initiative”3.
Certain influence in the XIX century. used the legal theory that arose on the basis of the state theory of local self-government. Its supporters reduced the essence of local self-government to one main feature - self-governing units are public legal entities separate from the state. They believed that the rights of local self-government bodies are inalienable and inviolable for the state. Self-government bodies, in their opinion, carry out the will not of the state, but of local communities. Communities have special goals and interests that differ from the goals and interests of the state. However, this theory had a number of weaknesses:
Þ the inviolability of the rights of local self-government bodies exists only for specific administrative bodies, but not for the state itself, which has the right to legislatively change them or completely take them away;
Þ self-governing units, being subjects of the rights granted to them, as well as public administration bodies, are subject to government control;
Þ It is impossible to determine the criteria for determining which functions performed by self-government bodies correspond to their own interests, and which - to the interests of the state (the social theory of self-government also sought to distinguish between these two areas).
The famous Russian jurist N.I. Lazarevsky believed that each of the theories discussed above is correct “in the sense that it points to a feature that occurs in self-governing units and is essential for them, but each of these theories was wrong in that it elevated the feature indicated by it to the main and exceptional". Based on these considerations, he formulated comprehensive definition of the essence of local self-government as a form of decentralized state administration, in which "in one way or another, both real independence from the crown administration and the connection of these bodies with local population"1.
The dual nature of municipal activities (independence in local affairs and the implementation of certain state functions at the local level) is reflected in theories of dualism of municipal government. According to this theory, municipal bodies, in exercising appropriate managerial functions, go beyond local interests and, therefore, should act as an instrument of public administration.
At the core social service theories Emphasis is placed on the implementation by municipalities of one of their main tasks: offering services to their residents, organizing services for the population. The main goal of all municipal activities, this theory calls the well-being of the inhabitants of the commune.
Most modern scholars interpret local self-government as a relatively decentralized form of local government. In legal theory, local government is usually viewed through the prism of such concepts as deconcentration and decentralization.
Thus, the well-known French jurist J. Wedel understands deconcentration as an organizational technique, which consists in the transfer important rights decision-making by representatives of the central government, placed at the head of various administrative districts or public services.
Distinguish between vertical and horizontal deconcentration. Within the framework of the first, all the powers to represent the interests of the central authorities at the local level are transferred to only one state official (as a result, deconcentration in the center is sometimes accompanied by a concentration of power on the ground), and within the framework of the second, several “power centers” are formed at the local level with the distribution of responsibilities according to sectoral principle.
Decentralization, J. Vedel notes, consists in the transfer of decision-making rights not just to representatives of the central government, but to bodies that are not hierarchically subordinate to the central authorities and are often elected by interested citizens1.
Thus, deconcentration and decentralization, being two types of transfer of power from the center to the places, have significant differences. Deconcentration- it is only a technique of government, which in itself is not equivalent to democracy, since it keeps the entire administration at the disposal of the central government or its representatives. The deconcentration reforms, G. Braban points out, have a managerial, rather than a political meaning: geographically, the administrative apparatus approaches the citizens, but they themselves are not endowed with any power2.
At decentralization there is a direct alienation of the powers of the state as a legal entity in favor of another legal entity, which is the local management team.
He wrote about the advantages of a decentralized state over a centralized one in the first half of the 19th century. A. de Tocqueville in "Democracy in America"3. He argued that the government, acting as the sole guarantor and arbiter of people's happiness, creates only the illusion of its
omnipotence in solving all problems. He has no choice but to take on the burden of thinking for everyone and overcoming all difficulties himself.
The position on the greater efficiency of decentralized public administration systems is confirmed by the findings of modern science, in particular general theory systems L. von Bertalanffy and evolutionary theory J. Piaget. The latter substantiated the thesis that any systems - physical, biological and social - are self-regulating. Self-regulation acts as a set of system actions aimed at its self-preservation and development. The more complex and dynamic the processes in which any system is included, the greater the degree of freedom it must have in order to respond in a timely manner and adapt to ongoing changes and maintain stability. There is only one effective solution to this problem - the expansion of the independence of subsystems within the viability of the system as a whole. For socio-political systems, this means weakening the dictate "from above", the development of self-government, primarily regional and local, with the simultaneous democratization of governance.
Thus, the local government is responsible two main social needs: firstly, the realization of the right of citizens to participate in the management public affairs and secondly, the creation of effective local authorities capable of satisfying both the vital needs of the population and the interests of national development. In this regard, the ideas of A. de Tocqueville that the initial source of power is by no means the state and not even the people, but voluntarily uniting individuals who manage their own affairs, are extremely important. It is under such conditions that people develop a true civic consciousness, a sense of duty and responsibility, the ability to measure their needs with the needs of their neighbors, and to coordinate interests. The ideal of A. de Tocqueville was a society functioning as a set of many free and self-governing associations and communities.
In his essay “Democracy in America,” he wrote: “Communal institutions ... open the way for the people to freedom and teach them to use this freedom, to enjoy its peaceful character. Without communal institutions, a nation may form a free government, but it will never acquire a true spirit of freedom. Transient passions, momentary interests, random circumstances can only create the appearance of independence, but despotism, driven into the social organism, will sooner or later reappear on the surface.
How relevant this warning is for the young Russian democracy! Totalitarianism, driven into the social organism, manifested itself in such hypertrophied forms that little remains in practice of the constitutional principle of local self-government.
Independently solving local problems under their own responsibility, local governments expect from government agencies management of the “rules of the game”, assistance in replenishing local resources if they are not enough to organize life in accordance with minimum social standards. The legal space in which local self-government would normally function, its material and financial support was formed in Western countries over many decades, creating favorable legal conditions for the life of the local community. This is a long evolutionary path of development of local self-government, and their experience requires careful study.
Analyzing the past and present of local self-government, we can conclude that gradually, taking into account historical, geographical, political and cultural traditions, three models were most often used: Anglo-Saxon (English), continental (French) and mixed (hybrid). What is the basis for the vision and theoretical understanding of these models, and what are the methodological prerequisites for substantiating the Russian model?
In Great Britain - the birthplace of classical municipal forms - there was type of local government, called Anglo-Saxon. One of the characteristic features of this system is the absence of plenipotentiary representatives of the government in the localities who take care of local elected bodies. The municipalities are regarded as autonomous entities exercising the power vested in them by Parliament. In the 19th century In the UK, the principle has been established that municipal bodies can only perform those functions that they are expressly permitted by law. This predetermined the role of the British Parliament in the formation of municipal law. The legal framework for municipal government was created by private and local statutes adopted by Parliament, defining the powers of municipal bodies, the basis of their relationship with central authorities. From 1689 to 1832 more than 200 such acts were passed by Parliament, which formed the basis for the adoption in 1834 of the law on the guardianship of the poor, which is considered the act that marked the beginning of the modern system of local government. This act provided for the creation of a management system that constantly works with a paid apparatus and has become the main activity of all local authorities. Municipalities received the right to appoint officials, to carry out various activities related to the elimination of poverty. In 1835, the Municipal Corporations Act basically established legal status 178 cities in England and Wales. This act provided for the election of municipal councilors, publicity of meetings, etc. This and subsequent acts created the modern system of British municipal bodies1.
Along with the Anglo-Saxon system of local self-government, a number of foreign states have a municipal system, which basically has a continental (French) model of local government. The special principles of the organization of self-government in France, laid down in late XVIII- the beginning of the 19th century, differed significantly from the principles underlying the organization of local government in England. France has always been characterized by a high degree of centralization of local government and self-government. This was manifested in the development of a system of administrative control of the central government over local authorities, bureaucratic subordination in relations between the center and places, that is, the continental model represents a hierarchical pyramid through which various directives and information are transmitted and within which a whole network of agents is actively working for the central authorities on places.
Along with Anglo-Saxon and french models local government as an independent municipal system usually allocate local (municipal) self-government in Germany (mixed model). Self-government, according to modern German doctrine, means that state tasks are solved by legal entities of public law. In other words, the state delegates some of its functions to self-government bodies. The federation and the lands, therefore, are not the only subjects of state administration: communities and regions perform the functions assigned to them either as institutions of self-government, or on behalf of the state at the behest of the state body within the framework of the functions delegated to them. In Germany there is no federal law on local authorities: the fundamental principles and principles of self-government are set out in article 28 of the Basic Law. The status of communities in Germany characterizes the following provisions: the community performs all administrative functions on its territory under its own responsibility, except in cases where the execution of these functions is entrusted to other management structures by law; the community regulates the scope of its activities by means of a charter, which must not contradict the law; the community has the right to independently solve problems at the local level under its own responsibility, but in accordance with the laws.
Certain specific qualities of the municipal organization are also distinguished by such countries as Italy and Japan: the governor of the Japanese prefecture, elected by the local
population and is considered the head of the local administration, performs a number of nationwide functions1.
A comparative legal analysis of the differences in the above models of local government organization in developed countries allows us to conclude that these differences are not of a fundamental nature. There has even been a certain rapprochement between them, taking into account the experience of implementing municipal reforms in France and Great Britain, which began in the 1980s.
In addition, the historical experience of mankind shows that the most stable model is a self-governing society, where “each individual is primarily responsible for solving his own problems, voluntarily uniting with other individuals, as well as participating in organizations and relationships within the limits and under the conditions established by the constitutions. and other mutual agreements of people and accepted by the relevant authorities "2. This resolves the main essential contradiction between the objective necessity of interaction between people within the state in the implementation public interest, on the one hand, and self-realization of their personal potential, their abilities, on the other, in order to create favorable living conditions in the eco-dialogue of man and nature.
Public administration and local self-government are two sides of the social contradiction between the need for centralization and decentralization of power, where local self-government is the leading party. And proof of that - the well-known fact of the emergence of the state and public administration on the basis of community administration.
So, tribal community management in Russian lands in the 7th-10th centuries. carried out at tribal meetings which gradually transformed in rural gatherings, as well as in city councils.
For example, out of 50 princes who occupied the Kiev throne, 14 were invited in the evening1, for the period from 1126 to 1400. The Novgorod veche elected 275 posadniks from among the most powerful boyar families and more than 80 princes. The Council of Masters was elected in Novgorod, as well as the Thousand Council. At meetings of districts (ends) and streets of the city, Konchan and street elders were elected. Citing the Novgorod Veche as naturally developing elements of self-government, the author is far from idealizing it as one of the most democratic institutions in the history of society, since the appeal to the masses has always been an additional tool of power, a decoration for the appearance of citizens' participation in decision-making. The first known legal codes Russkaya Pravda, Pravda Yaroslavichi, Long Russian Pravda, as well as the annals The Tale of Bygone Years, Belozersk Letter and others bear the seal of community administration.
With the beginning of the unification of Russian lands in the XV century. a state power strictly regulated from above is formed. Under these conditions, elements of self-government remained almost unchanged in rural communities and parts, city streets (posads). In large settlements and cities, governors are gradually replaced by a system of local state institutions (gubernias) and officials (city clerks). In the middle of the XVI century. as a result of the zemstvo reform in counties where there was still no landownership, the peasants of the Black Hundreds and palace lands, as well as townspeople, received the right to choose elders (“favorite heads”) and kissers, zemstvo judges and clerks (“best people”) from their midst. The peasant community, as before, elected the sots, the fifties, on whom the elders and kissers relied in their activities. Gradually, elected local bodies, falling under the supervision of the voivode, were the last to turn into state employees.
The reforms of Peter I bore the imprint of the influence of Western Europe. In 1699, the townspeople received the right to elect burgomasters from among themselves. In 1718 Peter I ordered to restore the right of local city estate management, and in 1723-1724. city magistrates and town halls were created. However, these bodies, unlike those in Western Europe, were tightly controlled by government officials and soon after the death of Peter the Great, they “rooted” into the structure of the Russian state.
In 1775, the government carried out a new reform of local government based on the decentralization of power, as a result of which local state institutions received greater powers. Almost simultaneously, the reform of urban self-government began in accordance with the "deed on the rights and benefits of cities Russian Empire". This reform divided urban population into 6 class ranks, the city assembly was the primary body of class self-government in the city. Granting the right to elect and be elected was regulated by age and property qualifications.
“The city assembly elected the mayor, burgomasters and ratmans to the magistrate, elders, judges of verbal courts, assessors from the city class to general and verbal institutions”1. The assembly also elected the administrative body of estate self-government - the General City Duma. These innovations were then used in the course of the zemstvo reform of 1864, since the reform did not work for long in the editorial office of the government of Catherine II - until 1798, when the city estate administration was connected with the police departments.
In the first half of the XIX century. self-government in cities was going through a crisis associated with the tightening of the police and supervisory functions of the state. Such representative bodies as city deputy assemblies, as well as general dumas, ceased to exist. Their members were used for individual assignments by the Six-voice Duma, whose functions included supervision of trade in the bazaars and the improvement of the city under the supervision of the governor. “The underestimated importance of city self-government bodies caused the indifference of the city estates to service in estate institutions and evasion from it”2.
The severity and sluggishness of the state machine, the manifestation of the most inert features of bureaucracy, the evasion of the nobility and merchants from civil service, as well as noticeable democratic changes and their results in Western Europe, forced the Russian government to look for ways to reform the public administration system.
After the peasant reform of 1861, it became necessary to revive everywhere rural community self-government. Peasant class institutions were created for the peasants. The rural society at the gathering elected the village headman, the tax collector, sots, tenths (the latter performed supervisory and police functions). The volost gathering elected the volost foreman, the volost court, as well as representatives to the preliminary congress for the election of vowels to the county village assembly, and resolved the economic problems of the volost. As a representative body there was a volost board.
Thus, the zemstvo and city reforms of 1864-1870. were based on the historical experience of communal and city self-government in Russia, and also relied on borrowings from Western European experience. Moreover, its relative success is explained by the fact that the reformers did not blindly copy Western models, but introduced structures that were understandable to the people and “suitable for work in specific socio-economic and political conditions”3.
The current champions of the revival of zemstvo traditions in the organization of local self-government in Russian Federation along with positive aspects - the desire to rely on domestic roots, the desire to provide residents of towns, villages, villages, cities with broad powers to take the initiative, simplicity and accessibility of the presentation of projects
normative documents- there are also shortcomings: the idealization of the Zemstvo, reliance on obsolete dubious democratic institutions and an attempt to transfer them to the modern soil of Russia, which is closer to the experience of recent times, the experience of the work of the Soviets.
Attempts to justify the formation of representative bodies on a class basis, the unwillingness to take into account the national and cultural characteristics of the regions of the Russian Federation, etc., are also at odds with the spirit of the times. At the same time, it is overlooked that the conditions for the formation of zemstvo institutions, the procedure for appointing and approving officials, were strictly regulated and controlled by the state in the person of governors and presences1.
The assertion of the chairman of the Russian zemstvo movement, E. Panina, that “the zemstvos were never built according to the national or party principle, but were all-class representation bodies” is surprising. As an example that casts doubt on the statement, let us turn to the documents: in the Regulations on the provincial and district zemstvo administration in Art. 16, note 3, we read: “From now on, until the revision of the instructions in force about them, they are not allowed to participate in Zemstvo election meetings and congresses”3.
Further, in the Nominal Supreme Decree of March 14, 1911 “On the extension of the Regulations on zemstvo institutions to the Volyn, Kiev, Vitebsk, Minsk, Mogilev and Polish provinces”, paragraph 10 reads: “In the Dvina, Lucinsk and Riga districts, the Vitebsk province in the first branches of the zemstvo electoral assembly and zemstvo electoral congresses include persons of Russian origin, the second - other persons; in the remaining counties of the Vitebsk province and in the counties of the Volyn, Kiev, Minsk, Mogilev and Podolsk provinces, the first sections include persons who have the right to participate in meetings or congresses, according to their affiliation, with the exception of persons of Polish origin, and the second - persons of Polish origin "4 .
The same is in the note to item 10, and to item 11 in relation to the congresses elected by the volost assembly5.
Similar legalizations are available in the Regulations on the public administration of cities. L.E. also speaks about this. Lapteva: “At the request of the governor, persons recognized as unreliable were to be removed from office”1.
In conclusion, the attention of all Zemstvo idealists should be drawn to the Provisional Regulations on the Volost Zemstvo Administration of 1917, which is built on much more democratic principles.
Other extreme point The view on the use of world historical experience is manifested in the views of modern “Westerners”, who tend to take the Anglo-American, German or French experience as the basis for organizing the system of local self-government in the Russian Federation and demonstrate a desire to see in our laws a mirror repetition of the European Charter of Local Self-Government.
Meanwhile, Russian local self-government has a rather large and contradictory experience. Since the emergence of statehood in Rus', it remained unchanged for a long time only in rural communities in certain regions of the country and experienced constant oppression from the central authorities.
The inclusion of local governments in the system of state bodies in Soviet period by no means deprived local government of the foundations of historical experience, did not destroy, as some jurists, historians and politicians are trying to prove, the principles of organizing local self-government, limiting them to the ability of citizens to independently resolve local issues. The dependence of local self-government on the desire or unwillingness of state bodies to “give it free rein” is present today just as it was 500, 200 or 70 years ago. Only the importance of local self-government and the dependence of the political and economic power of the state on the integrity, development and organization of its forms have increased.
However, the experience of the development of civilization convinces us of the correctness of the Frenchman A. de Tocqueville, who said more than 100 years ago that “communal institutions do for freedom what an elementary school does for science; they make it accessible to the people, allow them to eat its fruits and get used to using it. A nation can introduce free government without communal institutions, but it will not have the spirit of freedom.
Noting the need to achieve economic and political freedom as the basis for the prosperity of society - including through the development of local self-government - one should keep in mind: a) Russia is a unique country; b) Russia has its own historical experience of self-government in the form of rural communities, urban (posad) public administration, zemstvo institutions and Soviets; c) it is impossible not to take into account the existing system of local government; d) the process of reforming the system of local self-government cannot be completed by a command from above or within the established time frame, since it is the result of a certain evolution, an indicator of the state's departure from the administrative-command management system and, undoubtedly, evidence of the maturity of citizens who are ready to take full power and responsibility for solving local affairs;
e) a lot of useful things can be learned from the experience of other peoples, if you show the ability to learn, critically perceive it in relation to the conditions of the Russian Federation.
It would seem that the traditions of local self-government in pre-revolutionary Russia should have been developed in the practice of state building in Soviet Russia. After all, the socialist revolution, according to K. Marx, marks the process of the reverse absorption of state power by society. And in the organization of local self-government, the problem of bringing power closer to the people is most clearly expressed.
However, the idea of local self-government, which implies a certain decentralization of power, the independence of self-government bodies, came into conflict with the practical tasks of the state. proletarian dictatorship, which by its very nature is a centralized state.
The basis for the organization of local power was the principle of the unity of the system of Soviets as bodies of state power with strict subordination of lower bodies to higher ones. All Soviets (including local ones) acted as links in a single system, the highest organizational principle of which was democratic centralism, which formally allows for the independence of places, but in reality manifests itself in the centralization and concentration of power in the highest echelons of the system of state bodies. Municipalism was rejected as a bourgeois principle unacceptable to the Soviet state.
So, the study of the genesis and conceptual models of local communities allows us to more clearly present the content of municipal science, formulate its modern theory and methodology, clarify the scientific foundations of municipal science and the modern system of training municipal government personnel. These issues are of particular relevance, but require additional efforts, extraordinary approaches, without which there can be no effective municipal government.