Active and passive speech of a preschooler. Kuraev G.A., Pozharskaya E.N. Developmental psychology: Course of lectures. Alternative types of speech: kinetic

Guilford Joy Paul

Guildford(Guilford) Joy Paul (b. 7.3.1897, Nebraska, USA), American psychologist. Since 1940, professor of psychology at the University of Southern California. One of the leaders of the psychometric field in the study of thinking and personality. The author of a three-dimensional theoretical model of the “structure of intelligence”, according to which intelligence can be represented by three sides: 1) operations, 2) products and 3) the content of thinking. These various components of mental activity are identified by methods factor analysis(originality, mobility, flexibility of intellect, etc.; up to 120 factors in total), with the help of which the level of thinking abilities is determined. Based on his model and the mathematical methods associated with it, G. initiated the development of psychological test systems for studying productive thinking and creative abilities. The more an individual decision deviates from the standard, the higher it is rated as an indicator of the individual’s creative abilities. Since the 50s. G.'s methods are widely used in the USA for practical purposes to diagnose the creative capabilities of engineers and scientists. The general disadvantage of factor analysis of intelligence is that the methods used to identify certain factors allow us to state only the established systems of knowledge and actions of an individual (and not his mental capabilities).

Works: The nature of human intelligence, N. Y., 1967; in Russian lane - Three sides of intelligence, in the collection: Psychology of Thinking, trans. with him. and English, M., 1965.

Lit.: Yaroshevsky M. G., The logic of the development of science and the activity of a scientist, “Questions of Philosophy”, 1969. No. 3.

V.V. Maksimov.

GUILFORD(Guilford) Joy Paul (1897-1987) - American psychologist, specialist in the field of educational psychology, teaching psychology, psychology of art, statistical methods of assessment and measurement in psychology. In 1918 he entered the University of Nebraska (bachelor's degree, 1922; master's degree, 1924), continued his education at Cornell University (Doctor of Philosophy, 1926), and later again in Nebraska (doctor of law, 1952) and in South -University of California ( Doctor of Sciences, 1962). He began his professional career as an associate professor at the University of Nebraska (1928-1940), while simultaneously working as director of the Department of Educational Research (1938-1940). In 1939 he was elected president of the Psychometric Society, and in 1940 - president of the Midwest Psychological Association. From 1940 to 1967 - professor of psychology at the University of Southern California. G. was also a member of the editorial boards of a number of journals and has received APA awards. During World War II, he was director of the Aviation Psychological Service, whose task was to develop tests for cadets. After the war, G. initiated a project to study abilities, which he began to implement at the University of Southern California. In the 1950s explores personality properties, which he interpreted as a simple combination of certain individually specific traits.

In accordance with this approach, the “Temperament Survey” test was developed, which allows diagnosing general activity, self-control, authority, sociability, emotional stability, objectivity, friendliness, thoughtfulness, personal relationships, masculinity (“Fourteen dimensions of temperament”, in collaboration with W.S. Zimmerman, 1956). G. was the first to explore the peculiarities of the connection between personal characteristics and motivational structures, in particular subject interests (“Personality”. McGraw-Hill, 1959). G.'s next important achievement was the development of the problems of divergent productivity and talent, the result of which was the identification of the categories of convergent and divergent thinking. Of particular interest were his methods for studying divergent thinking, which were focused on problems that do not have a strict algorithm and can be solved in different ways. In particular, the “University of Southern California Test” was created, which determined such signs of divergent thinking as ease, flexibility and accuracy. (“The Nature of Human Intelligence”, McGraw-Hill, 1967). G. also conducted a series of studies of creative processes (1968), including four main characteristics of creativity in his model of the structure of intelligence: productivity (fluency), flexibility, originality and development (introduction of ideas). (“Intelligence, creativity, and their educational implications”, 1968). The creativity tests developed by G. and his colleagues (1976) have found wide application in the practice of diagnosing divergent productivity and giftedness. They consist of 10 tasks containing tasks on verbal (semantic) and figurative divergent thinking and are presented to children starting from 4 years of age. Based on all these studies, G. developed a model of intelligence with a systematic arrangement of abilities in the form of a three-dimensional matrix with five mental operations (cognition, memory, evaluation, divergent and convergent productivity), five types of information content and six types of information forms.

Here the mental operations being studied represent what the subject can do; stimulus content includes the nature of the material or information on the basis of which actions are carried out; with the help of information forms (results) the method of processing information by the subject is described. When developing a model of intelligence, G., together with his colleagues, managed to identify and provide diagnostic tools for 98 out of 120 possible factors formed by the cells of a three-dimensional matrix ("Analysis of Intelligence", N.Y., 1971 (jointly with Hoepfner R). Later, the number of factors was increased to 150 by replacing visual stimulus content with stimulus content of the auditory and visual type, which gave five mental contents instead of the original four. Work on improving the model of intelligence continued until the 80s, while G. recognized the existence of factors of a higher level. Second-order factors are formed as a result of the "compression" of one of the three structures of intelligence in relation to the other two, which results in 85 second-order factors. As a result of compression of two of the three dimensions, third-order factors are formed. There are 16 of them, and they correspond to the list of the 5 operations listed above, 5 contents and 6 results. (“Way Beyond the IQ: Guide to Improving Intelligence and Creativity”, 1977). The model developed under the leadership of G. became a heuristic tool for improving intellectual abilities through exercise. Two sections were devoted to creative abilities, the rest were devoted to problem solving. According to G., this model was a necessary basic structure for the development of operational-information psychology. G. also owns works on psychometrics and statistical methods: “Psychometric Method”, McGraw-Hill, 1936, 1954; "Fundamental Statistics in Psychology and Education", McGraw-Hill, 1950, 1956, 1965; ANO 1973, 1978).

Later, J. Guilford (1959) identified 120 intelligence factors based on what mental operations they are needed for, what results they lead to, and what their content is (it can be figurative, symbolic, semantic, behavioral). By operation, Guilford understands a person’s skill, or rather, a mental process: concept, memory, divergent productivity, convergent productivity, evaluation. Results are the form in which information is processed by the subject: element, classes, relationships, systems, types of transformations and conclusions. Currently, appropriate tests have been selected to diagnose more than 100 factors indicated by Guilford.

Rice. 3.30. Guilford's structure of intelligence

His cubic model represents 120 specific abilities based on three dimensions of thinking: what we think about (content), how we think about it (operation), and what mental action leads to (result). For example, when learning Morse code signals (EI2), when memorizing the semantic transformations necessary to conjugate a verb in a particular tense (DV3), or when assessing dimensions of behavior, for example, you need to take a different route to work (AV4), very different types of intelligence.

J. Guilford's model

J. Guilford proposed a “structure of intelligence (SI)” model, systematizing the results of his research in the field of general abilities. However, this model is not the result of factorization of primary experimentally obtained correlation matrices, but refers to a priori models, since it is based only on theoretical assumptions. In its implicit structure, the model is neo-behaviourist, based on the scheme: stimulus - latent operation - response. The place of stimulus in Guilford’s model is occupied by “content”; by “operation” we mean a mental process; by “reaction” we mean the result of applying the operation to the material. The factors in the model are independent. Thus, the model is three-dimensional, the intelligence scales in the model are naming scales. Guilford interprets the operation as a mental process: cognition, memory, divergent thinking, convergent thinking, evaluation.

Results - the form in which the subject gives the answer: element, classes, relationships, systems, types of transformations and conclusions.

Each factor in Guilford's model is derived from combinations of categories across the three dimensions of intelligence. The categories are combined mechanically. The names of the factors are arbitrary. In total, there are 5 x 4 x 6 = 120 factors in the Guilford classification scheme.

He believes that more than 100 factors have now been identified, i.e., appropriate tests have been selected to diagnose them. J. Guilford's concept is widely used in the USA, especially in the work of teachers with gifted children and adolescents. On its basis, training programs have been created that allow rational planning of the educational process and directing it towards the development of abilities. The Guilford model is used at the University of Illinois to teach 4-5 year olds.

Many researchers consider the main achievement of J. Guilford to be the separation of divergent and convergent thinking. Divergent thinking is associated with generating multiple solutions based on clear data and, according to Guilford, is the basis of creativity. Convergent thinking is aimed at finding the only correct result and is diagnosed by traditional intelligence tests. The disadvantage of Guilford's model is its inconsistency with the results of most factor analytical studies. The algorithm of “subjective rotation” of factors invented by Guilford, which “squeezes” data into the “Procrustean bed” of his model, is criticized by almost all intelligence researchers.

American psychologist J. Gilford developed the concept according to which intelligence is a multidimensional phenomenon, a complex property that can be assessed along three dimensions: character, product and content (Fig. 54). The mental operation involved in an intellectual action can be of the following nature: evaluation, synthesis, analysis, memorization, cognition. By product, an intellectual operation can be a unit, a class, a relation, a system, a transformation, and a reasoning. Finally, in terms of content, the corresponding operation can be an action with objects, symbols, transformation of meanings (semantic operation), behavior.

The model of intelligence, according to Guilford, includes 120 different intellectual processes - private abilities. They, in turn, come down to 15 factors: 5 operations, 4 types of content and 6 types of products of mental activity (described above). Operations reflect the nature and methods of mental activity when processing information. Operations include cognition, memory, divergent productive thinking, convergent productive thinking and evaluation. Cognition includes the processes of understanding and perceiving information using the five senses.

Cognition is only one of five ways a person processes information. Memory associated with the processes of memorizing, storing and reproducing information. Divergent productive thinking serves as a means of generating original creative ideas. It allows for multiple correct answers to the same question. Convergent productive thinking associated with solving problems that have

Rice. 54. Three-dimensional model of intelligence according to J. Guilford

the only correct answer. Assessment allows you to compare the obtained result with the required one and judge whether the task has been solved.

The content of mental operations can be of four types: figurative, symbolic, semantic and behavioral. Figurative content- visual-figurative information (images of perception, memory); symbolic content- signs: letters, numbers, codes, etc.; semantic content- ideas and concepts; behavioral content- feelings, thoughts, moods and desires of people, their relationships. The products of mental activity can take the form of units, classes, systems, relationships, transformations and implications. Units serve as separate information. Classes are a collection of information grouped by common essential elements. Relationships express the connections that exist between things. Systems are blocks consisting of elements and connections between them. Transformations- transformations and modifications of information, and implications - possible conclusions from the available information. 120 different private intellectual abilities are formed as all possible combinations of operations, contents and products of mental activity (5x4x6, Fig. 54).

Guilford's model of intelligence

It must immediately be emphasized that for the American psychologist Guilford (1967), factor analysis is a means of confirming the theoretical validity of the proposed model of intelligence, and not a tool for its construction. The model is based on the assumption of three dimensions, the combinations of which determine different types of intellectual abilities. Each factor of intelligence is formed by a combination of one of types of intellectual operations, areas, in which it is produced (content), and the resulting result(picture below). Guilford distinguishes five types of operations that make up the first dimension of the model: understanding information (C), memorizing (M), divergent thinking, or the production of logical alternatives related to the information presented (D), convergent thinking, or drawing logical conclusions (N) And assessment- comparison and evaluation of information units according to a certain criterion (E).

The second dimension is defined in terms of the content or forms of presentation of information. The information provided, according to Guildford, may be figurative(F), symbolic (S), semantic (M)Andbehavioral(IN).

The third dimension is the product, the result of applying a certain intellectual operation to specific content. The results are presented as relatively separate elements, units (U), classes (C), relations(R), systems(S),transformations(T) andimplications(I). Thus, the existence of 120 (5x4x6) factors of intelligence is assumed, each of which includes a combination of three symbols corresponding to the type of operation, the form of presentation of information and the result obtained.

Rice. Guilford's model of the structure of intelligence

Thus, the ability to recognize hidden, “noisy” objects in images is designated CFU(operation - detection, recognition; content - figurative; result - unit, element of information). The ability to assess the motives of another person's behavior - C.B.I.(operation - recognition; content - behavior; result - implication, or conclusion, logically related to the information, but going beyond its limits). Until recently, about 88 factors were experimentally identified and tests that determine them were developed.

The factors identified in the model are considered orthogonal (independent), which excludes the existence of higher order factors. Thus, this theory denies the general basis of intelligence. According to Guilford, 18% of all correlation coefficients between individual tests are in the range from -0.10 to +0.10 (8677 out of 48140 coefficients), and in 24% of cases the null hypothesis should be assumed (r = 0). At first glance, these data do not support the existence of a general intelligence factor. However, even if we accept the results obtained as completely reliable, in 76% of cases r > 0, despite careful selection of intelligence factors so that they are independent. Therefore, the model does not explain a significant number of correlations greater than zero, because their presence suggests the existence of common factors.

At the same time, we note that Guilford did not always strive to be objective in his research, for example, he examined specific samples of subjects, where the influence of the general factor of intelligence was excluded. It is also very significant that the concept of “intellectual abilities” is interpreted very broadly. For example, a subject's sensitivity to the emotional states of other people, understood as an ability, may not have a direct connection with general intelligence. In the Western psychological literature devoted to this model of intelligence, there are many indications of the irreproducibility of many Guilford factors, the lack of their clear differentiation, as well as the weak predictive effectiveness of the proposed tests, which does not exceed the results obtained using tests based on the recognition of general abilities. Guilford's theoretical ideas are essentially similar to those factor theories in which intelligence is split into many independent abilities.

The development of a child’s speech has two main directions: passive (understanding) and active (pronouncing words and sentences) mastery of words. Passive speech is ahead of active speech in its development. So, at the 7-8th month of life, a child usually understands many words and learns the names of those objects that an adult pronounces. At 8-9 months, children begin to associate words not only with objects, but also with individual actions.

Up to a certain age, the number of words understood significantly exceeds the number of actively pronounced ones. For some children, this period of development of only passive speech is greatly delayed. A child up to 2 years old, understanding everything that adults tell him and well following their simple instructions (“Give”, “Sit”, “Take”), may not utter a single word - either remain silent at all, or explain himself using babbling speaking. And yet speech develops.

Usually in such children the transition to active speech occurs suddenly. Yesterday he didn’t say anything, but today he speaks out in detailed sentences.

And this is understandable, because a fairly rich vocabulary becomes the child’s active vocabulary. And it happens that children who stubbornly remained silent until they were 2 years old, already at 3 years old catch up and surpass in their development those who had their first words at 9 months.

Therefore, there is no need to worry if under 2 years of age the child’s active vocabulary contains only 2-3 words. If he understands speech addressed to him, listens to adults with interest and recognizes many objects by names, then he is speech development goes well, and sooner or later the child will talk. But how early or how late depends on the child’s living conditions.

In order for a child to move from passive understanding of words to his own active speech, at least three conditions are necessary: ​​emotionally warm communication with adults; saturating the child’s life with audible speech and the emergence of interest in words; formation of one’s own objective activity. Let's look at each of these conditions.

Speech arises and develops as a means of communication between a child and other people. If a child has no need to communicate with others, if he is not drawn to various contacts with loved ones, speech cannot arise. More than once in the science and practice of education it has been shown that the quantity and quality of emotional, or situational-personal, communication with an adult significantly affects the timing of the appearance of the first words and the pace of speech development of the child. Therefore, remember: by engaging in emotional communication with a baby, you are not just entertaining him, but also preparing him for speech development. Enough has already been said above about the organization of emotional communication. Let us dwell in more detail on the second, no less important condition for speech development, which is the saturation of the child’s experience with audible speech.

The child hears speech constantly. Adults not only address the child, but also talk a lot in his presence. In addition, the sound environment surrounding the modern child is literally

is imbued with speech sounds - this is a radio, a TV, a player, and a tape recorder. But note that the baby does not always hear and distinguish speech sounds. Audible speech has a positive effect on a child’s speech development only if it is included in communication with a person. It's not enough to just have a record or radio playing. Unable to analyze loud and unnecessary sounds, the child soon ceases to perceive them and may even temporarily become deaf, protecting himself from noise that he does not understand. Speech perception up to one and a half years must be organized in a certain way.

Audible speech should make the baby want to “talk on his own” - to make babbling sounds that resemble real speech. Usually, after properly organized listening, an explosion of vocal activity is observed. The child seems to begin to understand that it is best to contact an adult using his voice.

For a baby, audible speech is inseparable from a specific person. Moreover, this person does not necessarily have to talk all the time. Sometimes his silent presence is enough. But friendly attention, eye contact and focus on audible speech are necessary. Outside the presence of a specific person, without his participation, audible speech is not perceived by the child and does not lead to his speech development.

Listening to the speech of others, the child begins to isolate individual words and distinguish phonemes of his native language, that is, to isolate words that are close in sound but different in meaning. It is clear that without such phonemic hearing, speech perception is generally impossible. To develop phonemic hearing, you can play special games with your baby. Let's take one of them as an example. The adult sits at the table opposite the child, holding two toys in his hands - a Shura doll and a Mura cat. Toys are hidden from the child behind the table. After the adult says the word “Shura,” a doll “comes out” from the left side of the table and “talks” to the baby, and then hides. After the word “Mura,” a cat sits on the right side of the table, which also “addresses” the child, meows and disappears.

After several such “visits,” the child already knows that Moore needs to wait on the right, and Shura on the left, and after the appropriate words, if he, of course, distinguishes them, he immediately turns his head in the right direction. Children really like these games, and soon they themselves begin to call their heroes by name.

Third necessary condition normal development of active speech is the formation of the baby’s objective activity and his business cooperation with adults. In order for a child to start speaking on his own initiative, he must have a need to do so. It consists of the need to communicate with an adult and the need for some object. Neither one nor the other separately leads to a word. The baby can successfully communicate with adults without any words, exchanging smiles and vocalizations - parents already understand everything.

He is able to play with toys for a long time without feeling any need to name them, unless such a need is created by an adult. It is he who sets the task of “saying something” to the child. And the need for cooperation encourages the child to accept this task and say the right word. Communication with an adult about objects and substantive actions, included in communication, create the need for the child to name the desired object and pronounce the word himself.

Thus, if a child reaches out to an adult and to joint activities with him, if he likes to engage with objects, if he listens carefully to an adult and repeats individual words after him, we can assume that he is ready for active speech and will start talking very soon. However, even in this case, the transition to active speech may be somewhat delayed. To activate speech ability, you can conduct a kind of “training” of the child.

Try to move the toy that is necessary and attractive to the baby so that he cannot reach it himself. This will naturally make him want to get the desired item. In response to his attempts to reach the toy, clearly pronounce its name: “Lala”, or “Misha”, or “machine”. Do not give the toy until he tries to name it. At first, the child will struggle to reach for the toy and express his impatience. Then his efforts will switch to you: most likely, he will point his finger at the object and, with his angry babble “give-give-give,” try to beg for it. And only at the third stage will interest in the word arise. It will manifest itself first of all in the fact that the child will begin to look at your lips and listen to the word that you pronounce. Therefore, pronounce the word clearly, with pronounced and even exaggerated articulation, so that the baby will immediately pay attention to the movements of your lips. Focus on the articulatory apparatus is an important sign that the word has stood out in the child’s mind and has become the subject of his attention, which means that very soon he will pronounce it himself.

The first word brings great joy to the child. And the baby repeats it again and again, and sometimes even prefers word game a previously desired toy.

Only after going through all three stages do children at the age of 1.5-2 begin to actively name objects when the need arises, and not just imitate an adult. If the child stops at the first stage and strives only to master the toy, he will not pronounce the name of the object. This means that you need to draw attention to the sounding word. Games like “Say: Misha”, “Say: tick-tock” are useful here... Although they do not lead to independent speech and do not always initiate direct copying of the model, but they arouse interest in the moving lips of an adult, in his articulation and help establish a connection between the word and the object, preparing the child to pronounce a new word.

Quite often, a delay in the development of active speech is due to the fact that parents satisfy absolutely all the child’s desires, guessing them at first glance or gesture. You can remember the famous joke about a boy who was silent until he was 5 years old, and his parents considered him dumb, but one day at breakfast he said that the porridge was not sweet enough. When his surprised parents asked him why he didn’t say anything before, he replied that everything was fine before and there was nothing to talk about.

Passive speech - Mental process, which consists in repeating heard and significant verbal information in one’s own mind.

In humans, as is known, there is a process of internal, conscious pronunciation. Whether we are learning a poem, replaying possible scenarios of communication with a colleague in our heads, whether we are thinking about a shopping list - it manifests itself everywhere. inner speech. The process of passive speech is closely related to inner speech. These processes are similar in many ways, but one should not, however, consider passive speech as special case inner speech (or vice versa).

Inner speech is characterized by a fair amount of spontaneity: its content is determined by pressing tasks and the needs of consciousness. Passive speech has an echoic character. Its main task is to keep short term memory perceived verbal information. The second task is to act as a primary filter, highlighting important elements in the perceived verbal information.

Why this type speech is called passive? The fact is that the process of inner speech is actually quite complex and even energy-consuming. Experiments have shown that the process of inner speech is accompanied by slight changes in the tone of the muscles that are involved in the process of normal (loud) speech. For example, the temporalis muscle contracts slightly. In a sense, therefore, inner speech can be considered as ordinary speech, only very quiet. Despite the expense, nature has not come up with anything better than first decoding the perceived verbal information into the algorithms of the speech-motor apparatus, and then in the process of repetition (“chewing”) we understand this information. It turns out like an experiment - we repeat after other people words and phrases that we do not yet understand, we repeat several times to ourselves - as if we were saying it ourselves, and thus we form an idea of ​​​​what the other person wanted to tell us.

Of course, such a complex process of understanding someone else’s speech has low performance efficiency. If we listen to or read a story, we are not able (usually) to repeat at least one paragraph of the text word for word. Moreover, at each moment of perception, a very small number of semantic elements are retained in our consciousness - words or short phrases: about seven (Miller number). However, in the vast majority of situations we are not required to remember verbatim what we are told. It is enough to simply understand what exactly a person wants to say, what kind of benefit we can derive from these words. Therefore, the biggest advantage of passive speech for us is that we understand the general meaning in real time and important facts from what is reported to us.

When we listen to someone, the words and phrases of the speaker circulate in our minds for some time. How long does this period of circulation of one word or phrase last? This very much depends on several factors: the importance of the information heard, the aesthetic nature (musically arranged, rhythmically formed pieces of information circulate longer), functional and emotional state listener, connection with other information (if there is a lot of information, then its portions compete with each other). Typically the circulation period is a few seconds, but can last minutes, hours or even days. This is especially true for highly emotional situations. This is well shown by Maxim Gorky in “The Life of Klim Samgin”:

And when he opened his eyes, he saw that the dark purple, heavy water was slapping Boris’s shoulders and his naked head more and more often, harder, and that small, wet hands, glistening red, were moving closer, breaking off the ice...

And Klim was especially struck by someone’s serious, incredulous question:

Yes - was there a boy, maybe there wasn’t a boy?

"Was!" - Klim wanted to shout but could not. He woke up at home, in bed, in severe heat. Above him, blurring, bent his mother’s face, with alien eyes, small and red.

When grandfather, father and brother, who said goodbye to Klim rudely and hostilely, left, the house was not empty from this, but a few days later Klim remembered the unbelieving words spoken on the river when Boris Varavka was drowning:

“Yes - was there a boy? Maybe there wasn’t a boy?” The horror experienced by Klim in those moments when red, tenacious hands...

Klim felt unwell and confused; the painted river reminded him of the death of Boris; his memory insistently sounded: “Was there a boy? Maybe there wasn’t a boy?” He really wanted to tell Lydia...

Physically tired, Klim walked slowly, feeling how the light cold of the night was freezing unclear thoughts and sensations out of him. He even mentally sang to the tune of some operetta: “Yes - was there a boy? Perhaps - there was no boy?”

As already noted, the duration of the period of circulation of a specific piece of verbal information is influenced by the functional state. For example, in a state of overwork middle period significantly less. However, some words or phrases circulate in the mind for an inappropriately long time. This is partly due to the fact that a person does not have enough strength to utilize new knowledge. Also matters general level activity. If a person is in good shape, tuned to active, spontaneous actions, then he may poorly perceive verbal information, especially if it is of secondary importance for the current activity. Conversely, in a calm, relaxed environment, the circulation process lengthens.

This is also why schoolchildren mostly sit in their seats during lessons (such as mathematics or biology), rather than standing, much less running around the classroom. Theoretically, it would be possible to combine physical education and, for example, physics lessons. Students are playing basketball in the gym, and the teacher is telling them about Newton's laws through a loudspeaker. It seems that the benefits are obvious: children become smarter and develop physically. However, the share of information passed through passive speech in this case will tend to zero.

Externally, passive speech shows almost nothing. An indirect sign of the presence of passive speech is attention directed to talking man, and a thoughtful expression on his face. Sometimes passive speech manifests itself in the fact that the listener moves his lips. By the way, this may also indicate that he is trying to remember as accurately as possible what he is told. Sometimes passive speech manifests itself in muttering, in which you can hear a repetition of what was said.

In developmental psychology, it is believed that a child first masters passive speech, and then passive speech gradually develops into active speech. However, it should be borne in mind that both passive and active speech have a solid “material basis”, that is, instincts. And these instincts begin to manifest themselves more in parallel than sequentially. Already from the first month of life, the child’s vocal characteristics begin to correlate with the mother’s voice; to some extent, already during this period the child learns to speak actively.

In both children and adults, there are significant differences in the degree of development of active or passive forms of speech. individual differences. As you know, some people have the ability to speak very quickly (words fall out like peas). Others are only able to speak slowly. The same goes for passive speech. Depending on their abilities and life experience, some people understand other people very well, they are able to repeat almost word for word what was said, others understand only after several repetitions.

The degree of development of active and passive speech is weakly related. It often happens that people with well-developed active speech understand others poorly. And vice versa.

And yet, at an early age (up to one and a half years), there is a fact that passive speech is developed much better than active speech. The child already has a very rich passive vocabulary, but a very mediocre active one. The development of passive speech at an early age is closely associated with visual activity: the child willingly repeats those words that denote available objects (toys, dolls, figurines), people and animals.

Understanding the specifics of passive speech for oratory is quite important. A speaker who speaks dryly and unemotionally usually leaves a small mark on the passive speech of the listener. The worst thing in this regard for a speaker is to speak from a piece of paper. As already mentioned, passive speech manifests itself in the fact that we repeat the speaker’s words. By repeating his words, we try to understand the true, original meaning of words and judgments. And this understanding is facilitated by lively, “native” intonations: fleeting surprise, joy, meaningful pauses, exclamations, etc. When a person himself does not understand what he is saying, his speech is devoid of such “richness”. The ideal speaker is the one who speaks as he thinks. But this, of course, requires a certain culture of thinking.

We can write, read, speak and listen. What are these skills and how are they different? In psychology, there are two main types of speech and several forms of their manifestation. Read on to find out what this looks like in practice and how they differ.

Types of speech

Human speech appears in various forms, but from a psychological point of view they all relate to external and internal views.

External means oral and written methods of communication.

In the first version, words can be heard and said, leaving information in the head and space. The second option implies that the same information will be written using hieroglyphs, that is, alphabetic characters - each language has its own.

Oral speech

Depending on the number of people taking part in a communicative act, there are two ways of exchanging information.

Dialogue

Conversation is the most common form of oral speech, which is also called dialogue (when there are two participants) or polylogue (when many interlocutors take part).

Conversation is considered the simplest, most natural, and also the most convenient way to find connections and express your thoughts.

Dialogue Features:

• Conditional brevity, conciseness of remarks;
• Syntactically correct sentences are rare;
• Phrases have an unspoken character;
• Facial expressions and gestures are actively used;
• Feedback, exchange of emotions;
• Assessment of the situation “online”;
• Use of vocabulary characteristic of everyday style;
• Possibility of an unexpected ending.

Monologue

When speech comes from only one person and is addressed to him or other silent listeners, it is called a monologue (from the Greek “mono” - one).

This term is used in drama, literature, linguistics, psychology, acquiring different semantic shades in each of them.

Most often, a monologue can be encountered while listening to a lecturer, speaker, politician, orator or actor on the stage of a theater.
Unlike dialogue, monologue requires the communicator to:

• Coherent presentation of thoughts;
• Logical, intelligible construction of speech;
• Compliance with literary norms and language rules;
• Taking into account the individual characteristics of the audience;
• Constant self-control;
• Thoughtful facial expressions, gestures.

Active and passive perception of oral speech

Psycholinguists (researchers of the mutual influence of language, consciousness and thinking) have found that when we listen, we almost always repeat to ourselves the words spoken by someone. This can be called the “parrot effect”, in which the main types of speech are combined. We succumb to its influence unconsciously.

If the words of the interlocutor resonate in our minds, we take an active position as a listener, spontaneously saying out loud what we want to say right now.

The passive form involves repeating the interlocutor’s phrases to oneself.

An adult is equally proficient in both forms. And children first learn to perceive the words of others, and only after that they decide to repeat certain sounds after them. The level of development of these forms depends on individual characteristics, life experience, type of temperament, as well as other factors.

Written speech

Main difference writing– this is the presence of a material carrier. Its role was once played by stone blocks recording the hieroglyphs of the first people. Then there was parchment, chronicles, books, and now information is mostly stored on flash drives or hard drives, and is recognized by special programs.

The development of progress has given impetus to overcoming the barrier in communication. Social media, Viber, Skype, Telegram and other applications make the exchange of information a continuous process. Recent studies have even shown that we spend three times less time on “live” communication than on virtual ones.

Despite the fact that conducting a conversation with signs is easier psychologically, it is still a more complex form, since it requires special concentration and the fulfillment of a number of conditions.

Let's do an experiment!

To do this, you need to ask your friends to communicate with each other in letters to any general theme(about the weather, pies or bad roads). When the conversation reaches a climax, you should continue it in orally, recording the remarks on a voice recorder.

In fact, our “lexical deficiencies” manifest themselves in both types of speech. But they can be seen clearly only externally.

Psychological features of written communication:

• Constant concentration;
• Compliance with the rules of spelling, style, and other norms;
• Difficulty in conveying feelings or emotions (you can use “emoticons” in informal correspondence);
• The ability to think about proposals or edit already written ones;
• Lack of instant feedback.

Inner speech

The basis of our thinking, as well as any action, is inner speech. It is its presence that distinguishes us from animals, who can also think a little or be aware of something. We are all in fact in a continuous dialogue with our inner “I”. Moreover, our consciousness is designed in such a way that it is impossible to stop the continuous flow of thoughts.

Internal monologue can upset us, cheer us up, convince us, or inspire us with something. It is characterized by fragmentation, dynamics, fragmentation, understatement.

In most cases, you don’t need to look for a topic to talk to yourself - it appears on its own.
For example, a person returning from shopping heard someone say: “What a nightmare!” Immediately his own associative series appears in his head: “What a nightmare! What a nightmare it is to go back to work tomorrow. They promised an inspection... We need to be well prepared..."

Alternative types of speech: kinetic

Man mastered the ability to transmit information through movement of body parts even earlier than he learned to scratch out some signs. This is the most ancient way to understand each other. With the advent of words, we stopped using gestures as the main means of communication. Most turn to them as an auxiliary opportunity to express their emotions.

Kinetic speech remains the main form of communication for deaf and mute people. Modern techniques done sign system maximum perfect for conversation, reading special books, the ability to write down thoughts.