The French army of the Napoleonic era before the invasion of Russia. The size of Napoleon's army
Napoleon, having left the dying and freezing Grand Army in the Belarusian Smorgon, got into a sleigh with his chief of horsemen Caulaincourt and went to Paris. He would have to cross Germany faster than the news of the disaster would reach it. On December 18, 1812, Bonaparte arrived in his capital and immediately began preparations for a new campaign. He had no doubt that the war would continue. He already had at his disposal the scripts of 1813, and the Senate adopted a resolution to conscript another 350 thousand people: 150 thousand of them were conscripts of 1814, as well as an additional 100 thousand reservists of conscription of 1809-1812. In addition, 100 thousand people of the 1st Ban of the National Guard were placed at the disposal of the Minister of War.
How did Napoleon's army replenishment system work?
During his entire reign, the conscription system was in effect in France; it existed in France until 1872, and was also applied in the Polish regions of the Russian Empire in 1815-1874. All young people who reached the age of 20 were recorded in books kept in the mayor's office or the subprefecture, hence their name "conscrits", that is, recorded together. When the decree on a new conscription was issued, not all, but only a part of the conscripts entered the service.
Each year, legislation determined how many people were required for active service and how many for the reserve. It was no longer possible to call for more, otherwise it would be necessary to start the legislative procedure again.
Then the lot was used to determine those who would go to serve, who would go into the reserves, and who would stay at home.
So, if in the town there were only 500 young people who reached 20 years of age during January - December of the current year, and 100 were required to be drafted, then those who pulled out a number from 1 to 50 had to go, and from 51 to 100 were enrolled in the reserve and could be called up by a simple decree of the Minister of War, without additional red tape. But that was not all.
Immediately on the spot, those who did not fit in height, that is, were below 154 cm, were eliminated. It is noteworthy that the number of such conscripts was half of the total number.
Thus, the first “lucky” ticket was no longer the 51st (or 101st), but, for example, the 75th, because half of those who drew numbers 1-50 were rejected.
In addition to growth, people with obvious physical disabilities were exempted from local service. Then married people were exempt from service (though until 1809), who had dependent children or elderly parents, as well as people with flat feet, poor eyesight and hearing, hernia and ulcers, as well as general physical weakness. The last very vague point was used
doctors who, through an acquaintance or for a secret reward, in other words, a bribe, released completely physically healthy people from service. Students and seminarians received a deferment for the duration of their studies, and if they entered government or church service, they were completely exempt from conscription.
Runiverse Grenadier on the clock
In 1802 and 1803, small but significant changes were made to the law. Now the young man who drew the “unlucky” ticket could exchange his number with another, of course, for a reward. The agreement between two people was concluded directly and recorded by a notary.
Then another person went to serve, and this one received an exemption, at least for at least a year, because theoretically he could get shot if next year there is a decree to call up another soldier of his year of birth or his “deputy” within two years will leave the unit without a good reason.
Death and injury were, of course, completely valid reasons. The amount of the transaction was not regulated in any way and depended entirely on the agreement of the parties. If in the first years of the empire it ranged from 800 to 1500 francs (in terms of modern currency - approximately €8-15 thousand), then by the end, when the wars were increasingly bloody, it reached 10-12 thousand francs (€100- 120 thousand).
National Guard was formed in 1812 from young people of conscription age (20-25 years old) who were not drafted by drawing a “lucky” ticket. In theory, they were supposed to serve in their cities, meeting occasionally for training and replacing regular garrisons in the fortresses. However, in 1813 they were completely transferred to the jurisdiction of the War Ministry, several infantry regiments were formed from them and sent to Germany.
Formation of the army
Napoleon faced the same problems as the Allies in 1813. He could recruit soldiers, but they needed personnel: non-commissioned officers and officers. This turned out to be better for him. Firstly,
Most of the survivors after the Russian campaign were officers and non-commissioned officers, because the retreating units suffered losses for the most part at the expense of less experienced and less motivated soldiers.
The longer the service period and rank, the higher the motivation, the longer he maintained discipline, the greater the chances of survival. In addition, Napoleon had an army of 300,000 fighting on the Iberian Peninsula for five years. From there, Napoleon also took not only trained personnel, but even entire units. Naval artillery regiments with high percentage veterans were left at their guns coastline a minimum of crews, replenished with conscripts and the National Guard, and went into battle as infantry. They made an excellent division, which the enemy sometimes mistook for a guard, not only because of their blue greatcoats, similar to those of the guards, but also because of their fighting qualities.
Runiverse Guard Grenadier in marching uniform
After Napoleon dealt with the infantry, he had to solve the very problematic issue of artillery and cavalry. Both of these types of troops require serious training, which takes a lot of time. And if young conscripts were poured into infantry battalions on the march and along the way they learned everything necessary, then
training a cavalryman and a horse required more time and effort.
Napoleon appealed to the major cities of the empire to provide horses and riders at their own expense. Many responded to the call. Even, as is commonly believed, those who were forcibly annexed to the empire put everything at their own expense in proportion to population and resources: Paris - 500, Rome - 240, Strasbourg, Hamburg and Amsterdam - 100 each; in total there were 22 thousand horses, however, of very different quality. Some of them were sent to the artillery, the most suitable - to the cavalry. But there was still not enough time. As a result, in the campaign of 1813, the Grand Army was in great need of cavalry and artillery.
Napoleon won victories, but could not take advantage of them due to the enemy's superiority in cavalry.
As a result of vigorous measures, by February it was possible, first, using prepared reserves, to staff the army of Beauharnais on the Elbe and stop the advance of the Russians and Prussians, and by the beginning of March to form a new Grand Army with a force of 120 thousand people (four corps and a guard), although the cavalry in It consisted of only 8 thousand, and the artillery was 250 guns. Taking into account the forces of Davout and Beauharnais, Napoleon was able to oppose the allies in the spring campaign with about 200 thousand people. In addition to the French, allied contingents also took part in this new army: Badenians, Hessians, Bavarians, Württembergers and even Italians.
Runieverse Conscripts of 1813
On April 15, Napoleon left Paris, and on the 29th, at the head of a new army, he entered Saxony. As new reserves and reinforcements from France were prepared, the share of the French element grew, and along with it the numbers grew. During the Pleisswitz Truce (June-July 1813), the size of the Great Army grew, and now it included 14 army and 5 cavalry corps. It was impossible to control such a colossus, so it was divided into four groups: the 3rd, 5th and 11th Army and 2nd Cavalry Corps were moved to the Silesian direction; 4th, 7th and 12th Army and 3rd Cavalry Corps - to the Berlin direction; The 1st and 14th Army Corps covered Dresden.
Under the direct command of Napoleon were the guard, three cavalry corps (1st, 4th and 5th), as well as the 2nd, 6th, 8th, 9th army corps. Napoleon occupied a central position and was ready to move in any direction, acting along internal lines of operations.
This series of publications is a continuation. The cycle is prepared
Napoleon's army. What was Napoleon’s “Grand Army” (that was now its official name)? In the period from 1802 to 1805. Napoleon destroyed the previous 13 front-line armies and created a single army with approximately 350 thousand people (by 1812 total representatives of different countries put under arms by Napoleon amounted to about 1 million people with all auxiliary and secondary units). Each of the links of this single military mechanism had clearly defined tasks and functions. Unlike the feudal armies of Austria and Russia, Napoleon did not have corporal punishment, and his soldiers were well trained and armed. Approximately a quarter of them were veterans, drafted into the army during the period of the Republic, who went through the Italian and Egyptian campaigns with Napoleon and were infinitely devoted to their emperor. The officer corps of the Great Army was also excellent. By 1805, approximately half the officer corps came from the ranks. This ratio was not unusual, since promotion in Napoleon’s army required not connections and noble ancestors, but courage, diligence and intelligence. In 1805 there was no shortage of good, experienced officers in the Grand Army. A distinctive feature of the senior military leaders was their youth. The average age of Napoleonic marshals was 44. Among them, for example, 62-year-old J.M.F. was considered a veteran. Serurier, on the contrary, was considered a “boy” by 34-year-old J. Lann; the age of the generals ranged from 29 to 58 years, and average age there are about 40 colonels. For comparison: in the Austrian army, the average age of a commanding Areopagus was much higher than seventy.
Napoleonic Guard. Elite unit The Great Army undoubtedly had a guard. This connection developed gradually over a number of years. In 1805, the number of guards was determined by researchers to be 12 thousand people. By the time of the confrontation with the third coalition, the core of the imperial guard were the “grumblers” - the embodiment of the spirit of the Great Army - horse grenadiers, rangers, lancers, dragoons, united by the name “old guard”. Serving in the Guard, Napoleon's favorite brainchild, was a great honor and entailed significant benefits, but enlistment in the Guards required at least five years of service and participation in two campaigns. At the same time, access to the guard was open to everyone; suffice it to say that the number of the imperial guard continuously grew and in 1812 amounted to at least 50 thousand people. All units of the Grand Army were superbly trained and tactically prepared.
French cavalry under Napoleon I
(from left to right): cuirassier, dragoon,
horse huntsman, gendarme, Mameluke, hussar.
Napoleon's plan. The new war strategy, thought out by Bonaparte in the shortest possible time, was possible with the coordinated, painstaking and quick work of the General Staff. According to the plan of the French emperor, the Grand Army of about 200 thousand soldiers was supposed to move along the shortest route to the Danube, along the way to be replenished with 25 thousand Bavarians, bypass and defeat the army of Field Marshal K. Mack, and then fall on the Russians. This offensive was supported by three more armies. A. Massena was supposed to pin down the troops of Archduke Charles in Italy, General L. Givion Saint-Cyr was supposed to forestall a possible British landing in the Naples area, and General J. Brun, remaining with a corps of thirty thousand in the Boulogne camp, insured Napoleon’s rear from a possible enemy landing in the English Channel region.
Pedants in the Austrian General Staff calculated that the movement of the Grand Army to the theater of operations would take 64 days, but at the same time they forgot (!), when calculating the movement schedule of the Russian army, to take into account the difference of 12 days between the European Gregorian calendar and the Julian calendar adopted in Russia. As a result, Napoleon covered the entire route in 35 days, and the Russian army was in a hurry, exhausted, but was clearly late.
Read also other topics Part V “The struggle for leadership in Europe at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries.” section “West, Russia, East at the end of the 18th century” early XIX century":
- 22. “Long live the nation!”: cannonade at Valmy, 1792
- 24. Italian victories of Bonaparte 1796-1797: the birth of a commander
- Napoleon's Italian campaign. Beginning of a commander's career
- Arcolsky Bridge. Battle of Rivoli. Bonaparte and the Directory
- 25. Egyptian campaign of General Bonaparte (May 1798-October 1799)
- 26. "Battle of the Lion and the Whale"
Organization, armament of the French army
Infantry. During the revolutionary wars, the French army established special organization, which distinguished it from the royal army. The main unit of infantry was still the battalion, but the 6 battalions were not regiments, but a brigade, which was divided into two half-brigades of three battalions. The brigades were organized into divisions, and those into corps. Within the framework of the Grand Army, by 1806, 7 army corps were formed, each of which had 2-4 infantry divisions, a brigade or division of light cavalry, 36-40 guns and formations of sappers and rear convoys. Each army corps had the opportunity to conduct combat operations in isolation from the main forces of the army. Thus, the corps was the basic operational unit. The size of the army corps was determined by its tasks, capabilities and human resources of the formation area. The composition of his forces (infantry, cavalry, artillery, auxiliary units) was balanced. The corps system of the French army made it possible to conduct military operations on a broad front over a large territory.
Napoleon continued to reorganize the infantry, and by February 1808 the new structure. Instead of semi-brigades, regiments were introduced again. Each regiment had 5 battalions: 4 active and 1 reserve, in which recruits were accumulated and trained. In the line infantry, the battalions consisted of 6 companies: 4 fusiliers, 1 grenadier and 1 voltigeur (light rifle company). In the light infantry, the battalion also had 6 companies: 4 chasseurs, 1 carabineer and 1 voltigeur. The strength of the battalion was set at 840 people, the regiment - 3970 people. The line infantry were armed with a rifle with a percussion flintlock mod. 1777 (caliber 17.4 mm), with a triangular 47 cm bayonet. This gun was modernized in 1798-1799. Maximum range rifle firing - 500 steps, aiming - 120. The infantryman had 60 rounds of ammunition with him and the same amount in the convoy. The voltigeurs had lighter guns. Shotguns of the 1777 model had a number of disadvantages: short range of aimed shooting, frequent misfires due to a poorly designed flint plate on the trigger. Soldiers often tried to replace it with a captured one. In addition, there were AN-IX infantry rifles mod. 1801. The gun was almost an exact copy old gun of the 1777 model - French gunsmiths, in the conditions of creating a massive army, which required the production of hundreds of thousands of barrels, were unable to quickly create a new weapon. The gunsmiths simply slightly modernized an existing model. They slightly reduced the weight of the gun and replaced some of the iron parts that were subject to corrosion with copper ones. It is clear that such an “improvement” did not improve the combat qualities of the main infantry weapon. The AN-IX shotgun had all the shortcomings of its predecessor. In addition, there was a deterioration in the quality of the barrels under conditions of hasty mass production. This led to the fact that French gunsmiths were forced to reduce the size of the bullet, thereby creating a gap between the bullet and the walls of the barrel. With the help of this gap, which allowed the breakthrough of some of the powder gases and reduced the shooting accuracy and destructive power of the bullet, they made the use of the gun safer. Otherwise, the barrel of the gun could rupture due to the roughness of the barrel walls, which inevitably arose under conditions of poor metal processing.
French infantry gun with percussion flintlock mod. 1777, with bayonet.
The rifled carbine (fitting) was atypical for the French army. The French began producing rifled guns for their infantry in 1793, but due to the lack of experienced craftsmen in this field and high costs in France, they were never able to establish mass production. In 1800, production was stopped; since its launch, no more than 10 thousand carbines have been produced. In 1806, they tried to restore production, but without much success - until the end of Napoleonic rule, no more than 2 thousand fittings were produced. According to the regulations, they were supposed to equip non-commissioned officers and light infantry officers of line and light infantry companies. But due to problems in starting production, these plans remained on paper. Almost all non-commissioned officers of the Voltigeurs retained their old smoothbore guns. Only a few officers were able to purchase a carbine for themselves.
Except firearms, the infantrymen also had cold ones. Privates and non-commissioned officers were armed with half sabers (cleavers) with a short blade (about 59 cm). However, it is difficult to classify this weapon as a combat weapon; it was often an improvised tool. In combat, infantry most often used bayonets rather than half sabers. Sappers had a special model of a half-saber (with a large protective guard and a wide blade). Officers were armed with swords and sabers. Models of bladed weapons for command personnel were very diverse; the weapons did not meet the statutory standards. Officers could afford a wide variety of bladed weapons to suit every taste and budget.
It should be noted that the French metallurgical industry did not have sufficient capabilities and resources to have time to arm the ever-growing army of the empire with modern small arms and at the same time replenish the losses of weapons in numerous battles. Therefore, the French army, along with new models, also had old weapons from the second half of the 18th century, released before the revolution, under royal power. And new weapons were created hastily, in a very short time, so they were often only copies of old models with minor improvements and changes. In addition, in the French army, the terminology of types of small arms differed from Russian terminology. Main infantry weapon in both armies they called it a gun, but then the conceptual basis diverged significantly. In the Russian army, rifled guns were called shtutser, and in the French - carbines. Shortened smooth-bore cavalry rifles were called carbines by the Russians, and blunderbuss by the French. “Shotguns” with a bell (a barrel that widens towards the cut) were called blunderbuss by cavalrymen in Russia, and tromblons in France.
The infantry uniform consisted of light blue overcoats, the same uniforms, white camisoles, gaiters and boots. The total number of infantry in the Great Army by 1812 was 492 thousand people.
Cavalry. In 1799, the French cavalry consisted of 2 carabiniers, 25 cavalry, 20 dragoons, 23 chasseurs (chasseurs) and 13 hussars. In total there were 83 regiments (307 squadrons), they numbered 51 thousand people. Then their numbers increased slightly. Thus, the number of dragoon regiments was increased to 30, chasseurs to 31. Napoleon did not make significant changes to the cavalry. He only created a cavalry reserve of two cuirassier divisions (since 1809 - 14 cuirassier regiments). In addition, in 1811, under the influence of the experience of battles with Cossacks armed with pikes, 6 Uhlan regiments were created (then 3 more in the Duchy of Warsaw). The cavalry was divided into heavy (cuirassiers and carabinieri), line (dragoons and lancers) and light (hussars and horse huntsmen). Heavy cavalry was considered the reserve of the main command, cuirassiers and carabiniers were intended for direct frontal attacks and breaking through the enemy line at the decisive moment of the battle. Line cavalry supported the actions of infantry units, and light cavalry mainly performed the function of reconnaissance and sabotage units, and could carry out a raid behind enemy lines and a surprise attack on the enemy from an ambush. The cavalry regiment of 1808 consisted of 4 squadrons, two squadrons made up a division. There were 961 people in the regiment. The number of cavalry in 1812 was 96 thousand people.
The dragoons were armed with a shortened version of the AN-IX infantry rifle. These guns even had bayonets, just like in the infantry. The dragoon rifle was in service with the carabinieri, cuirassiers, and mounted grenadiers of the guard. The main small arms of the French light cavalry at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries was the cavalry blunderbuss of the 1786 model. All chasseurs and hussars regiments were armed with them. At the very beginning of the 19th century, based on it, gunsmiths developed a new, slightly more advanced AN-IX carbine. These weapons began to arrive, first of all, in the newly formed cavalry regiments. The maximum firing distance from a short-barreled cavalry blunderbuss was half that of an infantry rifle. However, it was widely used in light cavalry, since it was indispensable for service at outposts, in combat guards, and also in cases where cavalrymen fought on foot. But due to the weakness of the production base and the lack of new weapons in the huge army of the French emperor, it was necessary to use the old blunderbuss of the 1786 model. The 1786 blunderbuss was widely used until the fall of the French Empire.
French dragoon rifle.
Cavalry blunderbuss AN-IX
Cavalry blunderbuss mod. 1786
Many officers of the French cavalry (primarily the dragoon formations) were armed with short smooth-bore blunderbusses with a bell at the end of the barrel (the French called them tromblons). It was a traditional cavalry weapon of that time; the expansion at the end of the barrel made it possible to form a scattering sheaf of buckshot when fired. It is clear that the tromblon could not hit the enemy at a significant distance, but it was extremely popular among cavalrymen because it reliably ensured a hit from a short distance, even from the back of a galloping horse.
Tromblon.
All cavalrymen of the French army of the era of the First Empire had mandatory 1-2 pistols in saddle holsters (usually one pistol due to the shortage of this type of firearm; only all soldiers of the cuirassier and carabinieri regiments could be armed with a pair of pistols). There was no single model. Some used a cavalry pistol. 1763/1766, created under King Louis XV, it was intended primarily for dragoons (caliber 17.1 mm, weight 1.23 kg). The pistol was produced in two models: 1st version mod. 1763 was too bulky (length 48 cm), so they created a 2nd, shortened version of the model. 1766, 40.2 cm long. The pistol was produced until 1777, a total of 56 thousand units were manufactured. Back to top Napoleonic wars this weapon was considered obsolete, but due to a shortage of pistols it was actively used in wars (it is clear that on a somewhat limited scale - a significant part of the samples produced in the 18th century had already been lost in constant military conflicts).
French pistol model 1763-1766 model 1. Total length 48 cm.
French pistol model 1763/1766 model 2. Total length 40.2 cm.
Another old model was the French pistol mod. 1777 (the so-called “casket”). The “casket” pistol of 17.1 mm caliber was small in size. But, nevertheless, it was quite heavy - 1.4 kg. This was due to the original design of the weapon: the entire mechanism was placed in a copper box (“casket”), into which the breech end of the barrel was screwed. This non-standard scheme was adopted at the insistence of the talented artilleryman General de Gribeauval. “Casket” pistols were produced only before the French Revolution, but were used in the army until the very end of the Napoleonic Empire.
French pistol mod. 1777 (the so-called “casket”).
A more modern model was the AN-IX cavalry pistol mod. 1801. This pistol was issued to cuirassiers, dragoons, hussars, lancers and horse huntsmen. Only cuirassiers and carabinieri were armed with a pair of pistols; other cavalrymen received only one pistol. This was also due to the weakness of the French industry, which was not ready to produce weapons of a new, mass type. The pistol in this model was produced for only 4 years. For another 3 years, a slightly modified version of it, “Model AN-XII,” was produced (the modification affected only the method of attaching the barrel to the stock). The most advanced and widespread weapon of the French cavalry was the AN-XIII cavalry pistol mod. 1805 (in total, about 300 thousand units of these weapons were produced). The caliber of this pistol is 17.1 mm, weight - 1.27 kg, total length - 35.2 cm. The pistol was widely used in cavalry units - mainly as a defensive weapon, since in the offensive the French cavalry most of all used edged weapons .
French pistol AN-IX (AN-XII).
French pistol AN-XIII.
In addition, the French had a significant number of captured pistols. The officers did not receive weapons at state expense, but purchased them with their own money. Therefore, officer pistols were even more diverse. Poorer officers used army models, wealthy ones ordered expensive models from famous gunsmiths. Expensive, luxurious pistols were a source of pride for their owner.
I must say that sighting range pistol shooting at that time was extremely low, so military practitioners gave recommendations to shoot it virtually point-blank. They shot from 10, 20 or more steps, but as the distance grew, the accuracy dropped to zero. When shooting from a horse at a trot, the best shooters missed in half the cases, and when shooting at a gallop - in three out of four. And hitting a target from behind from a horse at a distance of 30 steps was considered an accident.
The main attacking weapons of the cavalry were sabers (and broadswords). In the French army of the Napoleonic era, weapons various types cavalry was traditional for Europe of that period: heavy and linear cavalry (cuirassiers, carabiniers and dragoons) were armed with straight broadswords, and light cavalry (hussars, horse huntsmen) with curved sabers. The cuirassiers were armed with broadswords models IX and XI. The Model IX broadsword was good weapon, but had a significant drawback - the scabbard was made of thin metal (0.95 mm thick) and was easily deformed by the slightest blow. Deformation could lead to the most negative consequences, to the point that the broadsword could jam in its sheath at the most decisive moment. Therefore, the Armaments Commission improved the weapons. The scabbard of the cuirassier's broadsword was now made from steel 2.5 mm thick, and a wooden insert with a groove was inserted inside for even greater reliability of the structure. True, this increased the weight of the weapon - from two kilograms to more than three. The broadsword was a very effective weapon. In total, more than 18 thousand cuirassier broadswords of the IX year model were produced, and over 54 thousand units of the XI model. The dragoons had their own Model IV broadsword, which they carried in a leather scabbard rather than an iron one. The dragoon broadsword was somewhat lighter and slightly shorter than the cuirassier's and had a flat blade.
French cuirassier broadsword model XI.
The French cavalrymen were armed with a lot of old edged weapons. But for the most part, French horse huntsmen and hussars were armed with two types of sabers. The first included a saber of the 1776 model; it was made according to the classic Hungarian type. The second type was represented by sabers models IX and XI, created already in the 19th century. The Model IX saber turned out to be so successful in design that, with minor changes, it survived until the abolition of cavalry as a branch of the military. A saber similar to that adopted in the IX year remained in service with the French cavalry until 1940. Characteristic feature sabers for light cavalry model IX had side arches on the hilt, which protected the cavalryman’s hand quite well. The shape of the blade also differed from the Hungarian-type saber: it was straighter and heavier, so that it was possible to perform not only a chopping blow, but also a thrust.
French light cavalry saber model XI.
Most weak point The French army had its cavalry. In preparation for the war with the Russian Empire, Napoleon tried to replenish the army with horses, which were adapted to long and long marches. Experience of military operations against Russian troops in East Prussia showed that French and Italian horses are inferior to oriental breeds in terms of endurance. Even during the campaigns of 1805-1807. Napoleon took almost the entire cavalry of the Austrian and Prussian armies, and then the Confederation of the Rhine. However, this number of horses was not enough. Therefore, by order of Napoleon, they began to purchase significant quantities of horses in the states of Germany and Austria. Prussia, according to the agreement of February 24, 1812, was supposed to supply 15 thousand horses. Horses were also purchased in Russia. In total, Napoleon managed to collect about 200 thousand horses, the best were given to the cavalry, others went to the artillery and convoy.
To be continued…
"I want everything..."
By the end of the 18th century, the formerly powerful Polish-Lithuanian state - the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - weakened; Torn apart by internal contradictions, it collapsed and was divided between its neighbors: Austria, Prussia and Russia. Polish patriots who wanted to restore their statehood sought support from revolutionary France, which was destroying precisely those countries between which Poland was divided. Realizing that revolutionary France was now their only hope, many Polish patriots began to seek help from French leaders. As proof of the seriousness of the Poles' intentions, their exiled military leader, General Jan Henryk Dąbrowski, began forming the Polish Legion. Since the French Constitution did not allow the inclusion of foreign troops in the army, the legion received salaries from the Cisalpine Republic, newly formed after the victories won by General Napoleon Bonaparte in Italy in 1796.
During 1797-98, 2 legions were formed from the Poles who fled to France and Italy; These units took an active part in the battles against the Austro-Russian army in Northern Italy. After the end of the campaign and Napoleon's return from Egypt, the remnants of both legions were reorganized into the Italian Legion; some Polish units joined the new Danube Legion, which served in the Rhine Valley. But soon both legions ended up in Northern Italy, where they were disbanded and the people were transferred to the Foreign Demi-Brigades. This was done because there was discontent in the Polish units caused by the terms of the peace concluded between the French and the Austrians, which did not give anything to the Poles. Perhaps it was precisely because of this ferment that the French sent two Polish semi-brigades to certain death in the West Indies in 1803...
In October 1806, Napoleon defeated the Prussian army at Jena and Auerstedt and, pursuing the retreating Prussians, entered the Polish provinces of Prussia. Here Napoleon organized a new state - the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, which, under French influence, was supposed to act as a buffer between France and Russia in preparation for the next war. The new duchy needed an army; its core was cadres of veterans of the 1st Foreign semi-brigade and soldiers of the new unit - the Northern Legion, formed from Prussian and Austrian prisoners of war of Polish origin.
Jozef Poniatowski
The Minister of War in charge of the new army was Prince Józef Poniatowski, who served in the Austrian army during the fighting against the Turks in 1788, and then fought in the Polish army against the Russians in 1794. Initially, the new army received a legionary organization, but soon it began to resemble a divisional structure of mixed branches of the military. As of March 1, 1807, Poniatowski's 1st Legion included the 1st to 4th Infantry Regiments, the 1st Chasseur Cavalry and the 2nd Lancers; The 2nd Legion (Zajoncheka) had infantry regiments from the 5th to the 8th, the 3rd Lancers and the 4th Cavalry Jaegers; while the 3rd Legion (Dombrovsky) had infantry regiments from the 9th to the 12th, the 5th Cavalry Regiment and the 6th Lancers. All three legions had artillery battalions, initially consisting of one company.
Apparently, this structure had, first of all, administrative significance, since during the campaign of 1807 units from various legions were brought together into active formations. After the signing of the Peace of Tilsit, the Duchy of Warsaw formally annexed the Polish lands that went to Prussia. Now the army could be concentrated and properly organized. However, the duchy encountered serious financial difficulties: in particular, in addition to forming its own armed forces, it had to support a significant French contingent stationed on Polish territory. Napoleon cooperated in solving this problem, agreeing to accept three Polish infantry regiments fighting in Spain on French pay. Polish units in Spain and the need to maintain garrisons in fortresses on the territory of Poland itself required too large financial investments. It became clear that the duchy would not be able to support the planned three divisions, and the number of field units was reduced to two divisions.
In 1809, the Grand Duchy was attacked by the Austrians, but the successful actions of French and Polish troops made it possible to transfer military operations to the territory of Austrian Galicia - this made it possible to recruit recruits for new regiments from local Poles. And under the terms of the new world, these Austrian provinces were transferred to the Grand Duchy, and the formation of new parts began in these lands. By 1812, the Grand Duchy could already field an entire corps, equipped according to the imperial battle schedule, in addition, form a significant number of light cavalry units that acted as scouts in the heavy cavalry corps. As soon as the French army crossed the border of the former Polish lands in Lithuania in 1812, Lithuanian volunteer recruits began to flock to the banners of the Polish units. True, the newly formed regiments turned out to be short-lived: they were scattered during the retreat from Russia.
The advancing Russian units again crossed the borders of Poland in February 1813, and soon the capital of the duchy fell. Despite this defeat, the defeated Poles again formed a corps that took part in Napoleon's German campaign. But under the pressure of the united forces of the anti-Napoleonic coalition, the retreat of the French and Poles continued. Poniatowski, who became Marshal of France, died in the Battle of Leipzig. Polish regiments continued to fight and die for the French emperor, who could no longer help them realize the dream of restoring Poland. Now only pride kept the Poles in the ranks of the French army. After Napoleon's abdication, Polish troops were disbanded; however, a Polish squadron of Guards Pikemen followed Napoleon to Elbe and later fought at Waterloo alongside the 2nd (Dutch) Regiment of Guards Pikemen.
Personnel of Polish units 
Officers:
Finding officers for the growing Polish army was not particularly difficult. Many transferred to the army of the Grand Duchy from various legions formed during the revolutionary period or during the early Empire; others left service in the Prussian or Austrian armies. A significant influx of officer personnel was provided by the local aristocracy. Almost the only of all the forces allied to the French, the Polish units were under the leadership of their own officers, and not the appointed French command. Polish officers were considered reliable, competent, and well-versed in military affairs.
Soldiers:
Recruitment into the army was greeted with great enthusiasm by the Poles of the territories liberated from occupation, and only in the German regions did some residents try to evade conscription. Due to lack Money The military units themselves were forced to limit the number of personnel - there was no shortage of recruits. Polish troops were famous for their tenacious and tenacious fighters, perhaps because the Poles knew what they were fighting for. True, some eyewitnesses considered the Polish soldiers to be unnecessarily cruel. Thus, the few surviving soldiers from Colborne’s British brigade near Albuera (Spain) in May 1811 accused the Vistula Legion lancers of stabbing the wounded with pikes. In addition, there is a lot of evidence from both Russians and French that it was the Poles who were the most greedy and cruel marauders in captured Moscow. Polish soldiers, even among the French, earned themselves a reputation as robbers, since they did not miss any opportunity to steal what was in bad shape.
A curious fact is that in the Polish troops the cavalry made up disproportionately most army. This is explained by the fact that cavalry was traditionally the main branch of the Polish troops, and it was they who at one time contributed to the spread of pikes in Western armies.
1st CHEVALEGERNY (ULANSKY) POLISH REGIMENT OF THE IMPERIAL GUARDS 
The regiment was created in 1807, but belonged to the Old Guard. The regiment was supported by the French treasury and was considered a French unit. Moreover, it was formed exclusively from Poles, regardless of their origin; therefore, a nobleman, a tradesman, and a peasant could stand shoulder to shoulder in the ranks. Initially, the regiment consisted of 4 squadrons, and from March 1812 - 5 squadrons. The total strength of the regiment in 1812 was 1,500 people. At the end of August 1812, a company of Lithuanian Tatars joined the regiment.
Until 1809, the Polish Lancer Regiment did not have the traditional Lancer weapon - the pike, which the Poles loved almost as much as sabers. The Poles themselves obtained these weapons in battle during the Battle of Wagram, when they began to snatch pikes from the hands of the Austrian lancers. The Polish lancers were distinguished by their particular bravery and daring; they more than once performed brilliant feats during the Spanish and Russian campaigns. The Poles became especially famous in Spain at Somosierra in November 1808, where the 3rd squadron of the regiment (150 people) in a crazy 7-minute attack on a mountain pass captured 4 artillery batteries (16 guns), paving the way for their regiment, which dropped 3 thousand from the pass Spaniards. After this battle, only 15 people remained in the ranks of the 3rd squadron...
Attack of the Polish Guards Lancers near Somosierra
In addition to Somosierra, Napoleon's Polish lancers became famous in the battles of Medina de Rioseco, Essling, Wagram, participated in many battles in Russia, then fought at Dresden, Leipzig, Hanau, Crayon.
The uniform of the 1st Guard Regiment was typical of Polish lancers: a short blue jacket with small tails and long trousers with stripes, on the head there was a so-called “confederate” hat, a specially cut hat with a square top. The regimental color of the Guards Poles was dark red (present on the top of the confederate shirt, collar, lapels, coattails and trouser stripes). The trumpeters of the 1st Chevoler wore white jackets, the tops of their caps and stripes were also white; The trumpeters' collars, lapels and trousers are dark red.
1812
By the time of Napoleon's Grand Army invasion of Russia in 1812, the troops of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw consisted of 17 infantry, 16 cavalry and 2 artillery regiments. True, not all of these regiments invaded Russia - the 4th, 7th and 9th Polish infantry regiments fought in Spain at that time.
In the Polish infantry, 14 regiments had 3 battalions (800 people each) + 1 reserve battalion (500 people); together with the officers, the strength of each regiment was 3,000 people. Each field battalion of such a regiment included 1 grenadier, 1 Voltigeur and 4 fusilier companies; in the reserve there were only 4 fusilier companies (there were 136 people in the company). The remaining 3 infantry regiments (5th, 10th and 11th) each had 3,500 people. This regiment consisted of 4 field battalions of 840 people each and the 1st reserve company (140 people). In addition, after the invasion of the Great Army into Russia, the formation of Lithuanian infantry regiments began in Lithuania. It was planned to create 5 line and 2 light Lithuanian regiments, but by the end of the campaign none of them were fully equipped.
The Polish cavalry included: 3 cavalry regiments, 2 hussars and 10 uhlan regiments, each cavalry regiment had 4 squadrons of 983 people + 1 reserve squadron. The only Polish cuirassier regiment included 2 field squadrons and the 1st reserve company; its staff number was 499 people.
Artillery Polish troops consisted of a regiment of foot artillery (3 battalions of 4 companies, each with 4 six-pound guns and 2 howitzers) and a regiment horse artillery(I battalion of 2 companies, each with 4 six-pound guns and 2 howitzers).
The bulk of the Polish units were part of the V Infantry Corps, commanded by Divisional General Prince Joseph Anton Poniatowski. This corps of 36 thousand people was part of the group of Jerome Bonaparte, who acted on the right wing of the Great Army and advanced first to Grodno, and then to Moscow.
The corps consisted of three infantry divisions and three cavalry brigades. The 16th Infantry Division of General Zayonchek included: the 11th and 13th Infantry Regiments of the Brigade of General Aksamitovsky, the 15th and 16th Regiments of the Brigade of General Nemozhevsky. The 17th Infantry Division of General Dombrowski included the 1st and 17th Infantry Regiments of the Brigade of General Zholtovsky and the 6th and 14th Regiments of the Brigade of General Tulinsky. The 18th Infantry Division of General Knyazhevich consisted of the 2nd and 8th Regiments of the Brigade of General Dzevanovsky and the 12th Infantry Regiment of the Brigade of General Pakos.
The corps cavalry was commanded by division general Ignacy Kaminsky. Subordinate to him were: 18th Light Brigade (4th Horse-Jager Regiment); 19th Brigade of General Tyszkiewicz (14th Polish Cuirassier Regiment and 12th Uhlan Regiment); 20th Brigade of General Prince Sulkowski (5th Polish Horse-Jager Regiment and 13th Polish Hussar Regiment).
In addition, Polish cavalry units were part of other, non-Polish formations of the Great Army. Thus, the 4th light (Polish) cavalry division of General Rozhnetsky was part of the IV reserve cavalry corps of the French general Latour-Maubourg. It consisted of the 2nd, 7th, 11th Lancer Regiments of the 28th Light Brigade under General Dzewanowski, and the 3rd, 15th and 16th Lancer Regiments of the 29th Light Brigade under General Kazimir Typno. The 14th Polish Lancer Regiment was in the 7th French Cuirassier Division of General Lorge of the same Latour-Maubourg corps; The 9th Polish Lancer Regiment was in the cavalry of the I Infantry Corps of Marshal Davout, the 10th Polish Hussar Regiment was in the II Reserve Cavalry Corps of General Montbrun; V 1st reserve The cavalry corps of General Nansouty included the 15th light Polish brigade of General Nemoevsky, consisting of the 6th and 8th Polish Lancer regiments. The 5th and 10th Polish Infantry Regiments were part of the 7th Infantry Division of Marshal MacDonald's Xth Infantry Corps. Polish soldiers also served in the Imperial Guard. The Young Guard included Polish units of the Vistula Legion under General Count Claparède. These were the 1st and 2nd Vistula infantry regiments of the brigade of General Baron Chlopicki de Nechnia, the 3rd and 4th infantry regiments of the brigade of General Bronikowski. But the most famous Polish unit was considered the already mentioned 1st Polish Lancer Regiment of the Old Guard of General Krasinski, which covered itself with glory in many battles.
1813
In 1813, the remnants of the Polish regiments killed in Russia were merged into 8 regiments of a reduced 2-battalion strength (450 people each). Despite the small number of soldiers in the battalion, it was divided into the standard 1 grenadier, 1 Voltigeur and 4 fusilier companies.
The number of Polish cavalry was also reduced - to 1 cuirassier (2 squadrons), 2 horse-chasseurs, 1 hussars, and 5 uhlan regiments (4 squadrons each). Moreover, the number of cavalrymen in the squadrons of the cuirassier regiment decreased to 200, and in the remaining regiments - to 700 people.
Polish artillery was reduced to 6 infantry and 1 cavalry companies (each with 4 cannons and 2 howitzers).
UNIFORMS OF THE GRAND DUCHY OF WARSAW ARMY IN 1810-1814.
INFANTRY 
With the exception of the three regiments that fought in Spain and the 13th regiment, all Polish infantry received a single uniform. The jacket was blue, with white lapels and folds, with a bright red (scarlet) collar, cuffs and piping. The exceptions were blue collars for grenadiers and yellow collars for voltigeurs. In addition, in the 1st, 2nd and 3rd regiments and the Voltigeur companies of the 5th regiment, the cuffs were yellow. The epaulettes are red for grenadiers, green for voltigeurs. Fusiliers were given shoulder straps with bright red edging. The trousers are blue in winter and for hiking, white in summer.
The grenadiers wore bearskin hats with a visor and a red bottom with a white cross; The plume and cords are red. Voltigeurs were given quadrangular caps with a yellow plume with a green tip and yellow cords, and fusiliers had a black plume and white cords.
The 13th Infantry Regiment stood out for its appearance. He received white jackets with blue collars, cuffs and lapels; the trousers are also white.
The three "Spanish" regiments continued to wear French uniforms even after returning to Central Europe in 1813. The 4th Regiment was distinguished by yellow cuffs and lapels; grenadier shakos with red trim, Voltigeurs - with yellow trim.
CAVALRY 
The 14th Cuirassier Regiment looked exactly like the French cuirassiers. The only difference was gold epaulettes for officers and yellow metal buttons for lower ranks. The helmet is steel, with a black horse's mane and a red plume. Blue uniform with bright red collar and cuffs, white suede trousers. The chest and back plates of the cuirass are steel, lined with red along the edges (the Poles did not wear cuirasses in the 1813 campaign).
Mounted huntsmen wore shakos (elite companies - fur hats without a hood) and dark green jackets with applied colors along the regiments (1st - poppy red, 4th - bright red, 5th - orange), as well as green trousers. In 1813, the 4th Cavalry Jaeger was transferred to the Uhlan Regiment, receiving bright red Uhlan hats and uniform trim of the same color; The trousers are bright red.
Both hussar regiments received blue dolmans with bright red collars and blue mentices. In the 10th regiment, the cords on the dolmans and mentics were yellow, and the fur trim of the mentics was black, while in the 13th the cords and fur were white. The shakos are black (the 13th Regiment changed them to blue), with black plumes. In elite companies - black or brown fur hats, busbies, with a blue cap, red plumes and etiquette cords.
The lancers wore quadrangular caps characteristic of the Poles (in elite companies, hats made of black sheepskin or fur) with black plumes (in elite companies - red). Jackets and trousers are blue. The applied colors on the collars, lapels and lapels corresponded to those approved for each regiment. The known colors of pike weathervanes are given as red over white for the 2nd, 3rd, 15th and 16th regiments, with a blue triangle between the colors for the 7th to 12th regiments, and blue over white for regiments from the 17th to the 21st. It is likely that the remaining regiments had weathervanes with a red top and white bottom.
ARTILLERY 
The uniform of the foot artillery is black shakos with red plumes or pom-poms and etiquettes, dark green infantry-style jackets with black trim, and green or white trousers.
Horse artillerymen wore caps with a square top, which were later replaced by fur caps with dark green caps. The cords and plumes are red. The jackets are modeled after horse-jaeger jackets - dark green with black trim. The trousers are dark green with black stripes.
CONCLUSION
As part of the French army, the Poles fought throughout Europe - from Spain to Russia - earning a reputation as one of the most professional, aggressive and resilient armies of the time. The best examples of the fighting qualities of Polish soldiers are: the insane successful attack of the Polish Guards Lancers near Somosierra and the battle of four companies of the 4th Polish Infantry Regiment near Fuengirola. The attack of the Guards lancers near Somosierra has already been described above; there is only one near Fuengirola infantry company repelled all attacks on its positions by the British and Spanish battalions, and the remaining three companies bypassed the enemy and drove him back with a sudden flank attack.
By 1814, when Poland was again in the hands of the Russians and Prussians, only a shadow remained of the Polish regiments, but the thinned Polish companies still stood firm on the battlefield and were ready to mutiny every time they received an order to retreat in front of superior enemy forces. All witnesses who saw the Poles in battle noted: they fought the battle very skillfully, and the Polish infantry regiments acted very flexibly, using both line infantry tactics and, if necessary, light infantry tactics, which the Polish army did not have. Polish cavalrymen always brilliantly performed the tasks of light cavalry, but at decisive moments of battle they were capable, like heavy cavalry, of punching a hole in any enemy formation and overthrowing the enemy with a dashing, merciless attack.
French Army
Napoleon inherited an army created during the revolutionary wars. It was already a massive bourgeois army. It was completed according to the system of conscriptions developed by General Jourdan in 1798. At first, the concept had the character of universal conscription: all men aged 20 to 25 were subject to military service. But already in 1800, the replacement of personal conscription by farming or substitution began to be allowed for persons “who can bring great benefit to the state by continuing their occupations and scientific works" Compulsory personal service was effectively abolished. Nevertheless, a significant number of people were drafted into the French army every year: in 1800 - 30,000 people, from 1801 to 1805 - on average up to 60,000 annually. Then the numbers increased every year.
Napoleon highly valued the contraction system. He said: “The French army owes its superiority over all troops in the world to the concept.” In the first twelve years of the 19th century, more than 1,200,000 people of the French population alone were mobilized into the army.
A large number of conscripts allowed Napoleon to maintain an army of 300-350 thousand in peacetime. Its number was variable and depended on the military-political tasks set. In 1802 the number of troops was 450,000. During the wars of 1805 and 1806-1807, the strength of the field army alone was set at 480,000.
In 1804, the National Guard was established, which included all Frenchmen subject to conscription between the ages of 20 and 60. In 1812, the emperor put 1,200,000 people under arms, of which 980,000 were French. The absolute majority of the army consisted of peasants.
During the revolutionary wars, a special organization developed in the French armed forces, which differed from the organization of the royal army. In the infantry, the main unit was still the battalion, but from six battalions, instead of regiments, brigades were formed, divided into half-brigades. In 1799, the French army had 30 light infantry semi-brigades and 110 line semi-brigades, 420 battalions, numbering 324,898 people.
Since 1796, the divisional system was established. Napoleon was the first to reveal all its potential capabilities and widely used it during combat operations, as well as in quick maneuver tactics. Having taken over the leadership of the country's armed forces, he continued to reorganize the infantry. Its new structure was finally formed by February 1808. Instead of half-brigades, regiments were reintroduced, each with five battalions - four active and one reserve, which served to prepare reinforcements. In the line infantry, each battalion had four fusiliers, one grenadier and one voltigeur company. In the light infantry, the battalion consisted of four chasseurs, one carabinieri and one voltigeur company. The strength of the battalion was set at 840 people, the regiment - 3970 people, including 108 officers.
The line infantry were armed with guns of the 1777 model, improved in 1798-1799, caliber 7 lines 9 points. The gun had a triangular bayonet and weighed 4.6 kg. Longest range shot - 500 steps, sighting - 120 steps. An infantryman was supposed to have 60 rounds of ammunition with him and the same amount in his baggage train. Voltigeurs had lightweight guns that were four inches shorter than linear guns and weighed 4 kg. The infantry uniform consisted of light blue overcoats, the same uniforms, white camisoles, gaiters and boots. The number of infantry in the “Great Army” by 1812 was established at 492,000 people.
French infantry (from left to right): line demi-brigade officer; Line Infantry Private; light infantry private; drummer of a linear semi-brigade.
The most combat-ready infantry unit of the Napoleonic wars was rightfully considered the French Old Guard, or more precisely, the 1st and 2nd Grenadier Regiments. The 1st, 2nd, 3rd Jaeger Regiments were conditionally assigned to the Middle Guard. The strength of these units was that, unlike all the armies of Europe, where the guard was recruited from young recruits according to their external characteristics: height, strength, hair color, the French formed their regiments solely according to their fighting qualities. The candidate must have served at least five years in the ranks and taken part in at least two campaigns. The number of guards in 1809 reached 10,000 people. Subsequently, it increased significantly: to 52,000 soldiers by 1811, when Napoleon separately allocated the newly created Young Guard.
The French cavalry in 1799 consisted of 2 carabinieri, 25 cavalry, 20 dragoons, 23 chasseurs and 13 hussars. In total there were 83 regiments (307 squadrons), numbering 51,053 people. Napoleon did not make any changes to the organization of the cavalry. As before, it was divided into heavy (carabinieri and cuirassiers), medium (dragoons) and light (hussars). The previous regimental organization was retained for all cavalry. Since 1808, the cavalry regiment numbered 961 people. It included four squadrons, two squadrons made up a division.
The heavy cavalry were armed with seven-line pistols and broadswords. To protect against blows from cold weapons, the fighters of this cavalry wore cuirasses ( metal armor, worn on the back and chest). Light cavalry were armed with lightweight guns or muskets of 7 lines 7 points caliber; the gun had a triangular bayonet and weighed 3.6 kg.
The uniform of the carabinieri and cuirassiers was the same as that of the infantry, only instead of an overcoat they were given white cloaks. The dragoons also had the same uniform, but only green. The huntsmen and hussars were dressed in dolmans (hussar uniform embroidered with cords), chikchirs and green cloaks. All cavalry were required to wear boots. The number of cavalry of the "Grand Army" in 1812 was established at 96,000 people.
French cavalry (from left to right): hussars of the 7th bis hussars; Private of the Dromedary Regiment; officer of the 20th Dragoons; Private, 18th Dragoons.
The French Revolutionary Army retained excellent field artillery from the monarchy. It was divided into foot and horse. In 1799 there were eight regiments of foot and eight of horse. Each foot regiment consisted of 20 companies, and the horse regiment consisted of six. All companies of both foot and horse regiments had 6 guns each. The number of artillery was 1248 guns, which served 22,471 people.
The field artillery at that time was armed with 4- and 8-pound cannons. In 1803, 6- and 12-pounder guns, 6- and 7-pounder howitzers for horse artillery, and 4-pounder howitzers for foot artillery were adopted; as well as 24-pound mortars. Old guns continued to be in service in large quantities, and in addition to them there were many captured ones.
The rate of fire of the French artillery was: grapeshot - two shots, shells - one shot per minute. The average firing distance is 400-900 meters for cannons and up to 1500 meters for howitzers. When shooting with buckshot - up to 700 meters. The guns were provided with ammunition for 160-219 rounds directly at the companies. Each gun had a servant of 8-15 people. The gun harness consisted of six horses. Until 1809, gun servants were required to have guns and sabers; starting from 1809 - only sabers, and horse artillery - cavalry-style sabers and pistols. When determining the number of guns, Napoleon proceeded from the calculation of four guns for every thousand people. In preparation for the campaign in Russia, he increased this norm to 5.5 guns. In 1812, the emperor had only 1242 in the "Great Army" field guns and 130 siege troops.
Napoleon made artillery the main instrument in military operations. One of his famous innovations was massed fire using large batteries that bombarded enemy positions until his defenses were crushed; only then did the infantry and cavalry go into battle.
The engineering troops in 1799 consisted of 36 sapper companies and 6 miner companies, numbering 7,406 people. By 1809 they had been reorganized and given a battalion organization.
Pontoon battalions became part of the artillery, and a special engineering corps was created from sapper and miner battalions. In 1812, the total number of artillery and engineering troops of the Grand Army was 21,500 people.
French infantry and artillery (from left to right): foot artillery private; corporal of a line demi-brigade; brigadier of horse artillery; light infantry private.
The highest tactical formations in the Napoleonic army were brigades, divisions and corps. The brigades were established with two regiments of infantry and cavalry. Divisions, as a rule, had two brigades, but there were also deviations from the established norm.
As the French army approached 200,000 men, it became necessary to organize the divisions into army corps. The first experiment was made in 1800, when Moreau included 11 divisions of the Army of the Rhine into 4 corps. However, it was not until 1802 that Napoleon created army corps as permanent formations. The infantry corps consisted of two infantry divisions, a cavalry brigade, a battalion of sappers, one foot and one horse artillery battalion. In practice, corps could have up to five divisions. Horse corps usually included 2-3 cavalry divisions and 1-2 horse artillery divisions.
The corps were combined into one active army, which Napoleon always commanded directly. During the war, each corps performed a separate task. He could conduct an independent battle for 1-2 days before the main forces arrived, perform a flanking maneuver, etc.
Troop control in the French army was carried out through General base and headquarters of higher tactical formations. The organization of the headquarters acquired its final form in 1806. The General Staff consisted of the main apartment and the main headquarters. The headquarters of military formations - corps, division and brigade - were subordinate to the latter. The main apartment was at the direct disposal of Napoleon and consisted of officers for assignments with the emperor and a camp office. The officers for assignments included generals who were directly attached to the emperor and enjoyed his personal trust, adjutants general, adjutants and orderlies. The field office had two sections: an office-bureau and a topographical bureau.
The main headquarters of the army, which since 1796 was headed by Marshal Berthier, consisted of three departments that carried out the main tasks of the headquarters service. The main staff included: the chief of staff, generals and officers for assignments, staff adjutants - usually 20-25 people in total. For security purposes, there was a guard regiment at the headquarters.
Organization of the army of the first French Empire.
The corps headquarters consisted of one general, seven staff officers, 10-11 chief officers and 4-6 orderlies, the division headquarters - three staff officers and six chief officers. The brigade commander had two adjutants.
Staff officers did not receive special training. The headquarters were staffed by officers who had gained experience in commanding troops in numerous wars. Although the French headquarters was quite numerous and staffed with fairly experienced and practical officers, it still did not play the role that it should have played in the transition to new tactics. He was, rather, a transmission point for orders from Napoleon, who did not trust any of his marshals and took the entire burden of control upon himself. With the ever-increasing volume of operations, he himself no longer covered all aspects of management, so he was often in a state of extreme fatigue at critical moments.
The supply of the army was carried out through requisitions on the spot according to the principle “war must feed war” and through the establishment of bases and communication lines guarded by troops.
In general, the French army was distinguished by high combat training and discipline. It prohibited corporal punishment and encouraged the promotion of distinguished soldiers to officer positions.
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