Engineering ammunition: on classification and precautions. Engineering ammunition Engineering ammunition of the armed forces of the Russian Federation

Classification of engineering ammunition and minefields.

Purpose of engineering barriers:

1. Inflict losses on the enemy;

2. Delay the advance of the enemy;

3. Forge the maneuver of the enemy;

4. Ensure defeat by fire;

5. Cover the gaps between strong points to cover the command post and large warehouses.

Barriers are characterized by density - the number of barriers per 1 km.

The barriers are divided into:

1. Mine-explosive (characterized by the arrangement of different minefields, object mines and remote mining systems - aviation, artillery, missile);

2. Non-explosive(using wire ditches);

3. Electrified barriers;

4. Water barriers (undermining dams, bridges);

5. Combined

By appointment:

1. Anti-tank (minefields (MP), remote MP, groups of mines in the nodes of obstacles, anti-tank ditches, scarps and counterscarps, gouges, pieces of piles, hedgehogs, barricades);

2. Anti-personnel (MP, wire barriers, booby traps, MZP, electrified barriers);

3. Anti-vehicle (from individual mines and object mines, blocks);

4. River (sea, river mines, floating mines, mining of fords);

5. Anti-landing (at a depth of up to 5 m).

Minefields: guided and unguided

Mines: contact and non-contact

Mines: anti-tank, anti-personnel, anti-amphibious, anti-vehicle, sabotage

Topic 2

Purpose, main performance characteristics, general device, the order of installation and neutralization anti-tank mine TM-72 with MVN-80.

TM-72 anti-tank anti-bottom mine. An explosion occurs when the projection of a tank (BMP, BMD, armored personnel carrier, car) hits a mine, its magnetic field acts on the reacting device of the fuse. The defeat of vehicles is inflicted by penetrating the bottom with a cumulative jet during the explosion of a mine charge at the moment when the tank or some other vehicle is above the mine.

Housing material………................................................ steel

Weight……………………………………………… 6 kg.

Weight of explosive charge (TG-40)…………………………. 2.5 kg.

Diameter…………………………………………. 25 cm.

Height…………………………………………..12.6 cm

Armor penetration………………………. 100 mm from a distance of 0.25-0.5 m

Fuse……………………………………………………….

Installation

TM-72 mines with MVN-80 fuse are installed only manually; to set the mines manually, you must: install the mine in the hole, move the fuse transfer handle to the firing position and secure it with a pin, remove the pin and tear off the fuse cover with the key, while holding the cover with your hand, pull the thread from the fuse by 0.5 ... 1 m, disguise the mine by taking the cover and moving away from the mine, pull the thread out of the fuse completely and leave the installation site.

Withdrawal

Search and removal of mines installed with the MVN-80 fuse. Allowed only with the help of the control device PUV-80.

PROHIBITED: search for mines with probes; remove a mine that has visible mechanical damage to the fuse; remove the mine if the signal from the fuse is not heard by the control device or the proximity sensor of the fuse target is not turned off by a signal from the control device

To search for and remove mines, it is necessary: ​​to prepare the control device for operation; turn on the device and moving in the required direction, search for mines; having found a mine with a fuse by a characteristic signal in the head phones, give a signal to turn off the fuse; make sure that the fuse is turned off (the signal in the phones should disappear), remove the camouflage layer of soil, and holding the fuse with your hand from displacement, turn the fuse transfer handle to transport position and secure it with a pin.

2. Purpose, main performance characteristics, general arrangement, procedure for installation and disposal of the TM-83 anti-tank mine.

Anti-tank anti-aircraft mine. Designed to disable enemy tracked and wheeled vehicles. The defeat of enemy vehicles is inflicted by penetrating the side armor with an impact core formed from the lining of a cumulative funnel during a mine explosion. When the impact core penetrates into the tank, the crew members and equipment of the tank are affected by drops of molten armor, high pressure that occurs inside and high temperature of the core. This causes a fire inside the tank, detonation of ammunition is possible
The mine can only be placed on the ground or attached to local items manually. The cork box or its lid serves as the base for the mine. The range of destruction of the tank is up to 50 meters, so the mine is installed on the side of the probable route of the tank at a distance of 5-50 meters from the axis of the route. With the help of the sight, the mine is aimed at the place of destruction.
Mina has two target sensors - seismic and infrared. The seismic sensor ensures the operation of the mine in the target standby mode, which saves energy from power sources.

seismic sensor, which has its own power source (373 (R20) battery), is installed in the ground near the mine and is connected to the infrared sensor and PIM by a wire line, and the infrared sensor, which also has its own power source (373 (R20) battery), is mounted on the mine body above. The safety-actuator (PIM) is screwed to the MD-5M fuse, which in turn is screwed into a socket on the back of the mine.
The main task of the PIM is to receive an electrical impulse from the infrared sensor of the target, to ignite the electric igniter, the gases of which will send the drummer forward. The drummer, in turn, will prick the fuse of the MD-5M, from which the mine will explode.
On the top of the PIM there is a safety pin in the form safety pin holding the safety rod. This rod, in the event of an accidental issuance of an electric pulse while the mine is in a safe position, will not allow the striker to chop the fuse. After the safety pin is removed, under the action of the spring, the rod begins to move upward, freeing up space for the striker to move. The movement of the rod is carried out slowly due to the hydraulic resistance of the rubber in the cavity of the rod. The time of movement of the rod is, depending on the temperature, from 1 to 30 minutes. After this time, nothing prevents the striker from moving if the electric igniter fires.

Mina can be installed in an unmanaged (autonomous) version and in a managed version.
The controllability of the mine lies in the fact that with the help of a 100-meter wire line and a control panel (the MZU mine control panel is used), it can be repeatedly switched to a safe (safety) mode or to a target standby mode. In safety mode, the mine is retrievable and defuseable.
If the mine is installed in an unguided version, then it is considered unrecoverable and non-disposable due to the high sensitivity of the seismic sensor and the likelihood of the infrared sensor being triggered by the thermal radiation of the human body when a person approaches the mine (on any side closer than 10 meters). The destruction of such a mine is possible only by shooting it from heavy machine gun.
Also, in an unguided version, a mine can be installed with an MVE-72 or MVE-NS fuse. In this case, seismic, infrared sensors and PIM are not used, but a breakaway target sensor of the MVE-72 or MVE-NS fuse is used. The firing mechanism of the fuse is screwed onto the MD-5M fuse instead of the PIM. In this version, the TM-83 mine is installed similarly to the TM-73 mine.

Mine clearance, installed in the controlled version, is made after it is transferred to a safe position with the help of the MZU control panel. Defusing includes disconnecting the PIM from the mine, disconnecting the wire line from it and removing the batteries from the SD and ID.
It is impossible to neutralize a mine installed in an unguided version and it must be destroyed by shooting it from a heavy machine gun or a large-caliber sniper rifle from a distance of at least 30 meters.
TTX mines TM-83:
Mine type ............................................ anti-tank anti-aircraft on the principle of an impact core
Frame................................................. ................... metal
Weight................................................. ...................... 28.1 kg.
The mass of the explosive charge (TG 40/60) .............................. 9.6 kg.
Dimensions ............................................... ............... 45.5x37.7x44 cm.
Range of destruction of the target .............................. from 5 to 50 meters
Armor penetration .............................................. 100mm.
Hole diameter .................................................................. 80mm.
Main fuse ....................... own non-contact two-channel fuse MD-5M
Fuze target sensors ................................. seismic and infrared
The term of the combat operation of the mine ................................................... not less than 30 days
Application restrictions due to weather conditions. Fog (heavy snowfall, heavy rain) with visibility less than 50 m.
Controllability................................................. ...... managed/unmanaged
Neutralization ............................................... only in controlled option
Retrievability ............................................... ...... only in controlled version
Installation Methods................................................... manual
Long cocking time .............................................. 1-30 min.
Type of long-range cocking mechanism .................... hydromechanical

Not once or twice last years our mass media, especially television, hysterically informed the broad masses about the “criminally negligent attitude of the military to ammunition”, about “another deadly find”, about those found in the forest (at a shooting range, an abandoned military camp, at the site of exercises), etc. . and so on. shells, rockets, mines. Very willingly and in detail, television shows these "terrible finds", interviews excited inhabitants, stigmatizes "criminals in uniform", demands that the "flagrant bungling" be investigated and those responsible be severely punished. By the way, for some reason, yesterday's students are especially excited, who received a minimum of military training in military departments, but who imagine themselves to be major experts in military affairs.

And every time, my eye habitually fixes with boredom the white stripes on the shells of the mines, the distinct inscriptions "inert", the black color of the "unexploded" shells. All these finds are no more dangerous than an old harrow, or, say, an old (out of order) typewriter.

In this article, the author wants to try to teach non-military people to distinguish training, completely harmless engineering ammunition from really dangerous combat mines, fuses. Maybe then someone will not have to, leaving an exciting mushroom picking or throwing a rake, grabbing their children in an armful, rush to the phone to notify the authorities about the find. Or vice versa, you don’t have to put your life in mortal danger, bringing home a small, elegant gray shell with black letters (it’s a sin to hide, it happens that the shell doesn’t fly where it’s supposed to, and the valiant army lost entire rockets).

First of all, in contrast to artillery training (inert) ammunition, which, to distinguish them from combat ones, are painted not in gray, but in black, in contrast to naval ammunition, in which the warhead of training torpedoes, mines, shells, missiles is painted in red -white color, engineering ammunition, both combat and training, training and simulation are painted the same way. The color of engineering ammunition can be different - green, black, dirty yellow, brown, gray, bare metal, etc.

It is possible to distinguish between combat and training (inert), training and simulation engineering ammunition by marking.

Small-sized ammunition such as fuses, blasting caps, electric detonators, which cannot be placed on alphanumeric marking have the following distinguishing features:
* training (inert) - white stripe;
* training and simulation - red stripe. These ammunition, when fired, either give off a flash of flame, or colored smoke, or make a sharp sound, a pop. It is impossible to suffer much from them, but it is possible to get injured.
* combat - without colored stripes. These items are deadly.

The figure shows the detonator caps No. 8 in full size. Two upper combat (aluminum above, copper below). The third from the top is training, the lowest is training and simulation. You just want to turn these beautiful shiny silver or golden tubes in your hands, sort them out, play with them, children often take them in their mouths. The result of the explosion in the hands of the detonator cap is three severed fingers and a gouged eye (standard!). Caps, igniters, electric detonators, fuses have exactly the same marking.

Recently, some small training ammunition began to mark the letter AND. For example, PFM-1 training mines are marked this way.

Anti-tank mines made of metal and wood are usually painted green (rarely dirty yellow). The mines are marked on the side of the body with black paint. The top number indicates the item number. Below is the code of the product. Usually this is the brand of mine (TM-46, TMD-B, etc.). Even lower is the triple number, written with hyphens. The first number is the number of the equipment factory, the second is the number of the batch of mines, the third is the year the mine was equipped. At the very bottom, the code of the explosive used in the mine is indicated. Usually you can find the following ciphers: A-50, A-80, G, PVV-4, MS, TGA, TG-50, TG-30, T, Tetr, TN. These or other alphanumeric combinations just indicate that this is a military mine. The training mine in place of the BB cipher has a white horizontal stripe.

Training mines TM-62M and all mines of later developments, in addition, on the side of the body still have a black inscription INERT., or INERTN., or INERT.

Training mines are equipped with a mixture of cement and rosin. This the mixture is identical in weight and volume to TNT, but it is absolutely not dangerous.

The upper part of the training mines TM-46, in addition, is painted white, as shown in the figure, where the training mine TM-46 is shown on the left, the combat mine on the right. Mines TM-57 and later do not have white coloring of the upper part of the hull.

Exactly the same markings on plastic cases. On shells of anti-tank mines made of polyethylene, where the paint does not hold well, the markings may be embossed, i.e. having no color. However, a white stripe is also applied on the polyethylene cases of training mines.

Other placement of markings on anti-tank mines is also possible (for example, on the bottom of the hull or on its upper part). However, in all cases, the body of the training mine will have at least a white stripe or the inscription "inert" or both at the same time.

On anti-personnel mines, the marking is the same, but placed in place, i.e. where it is more convenient to do so. The figure shows a training anti-personnel mine PMN. The marking is placed on the rubber cover. The inscription "inert" and a white stripe are clearly visible. At the PMN combat mine, the explosive font is placed in place of the white stripe.

Engineer ammo boxes are usually painted dark green, rarely unpainted. The side wall is marked with black paint. The top row - the code of the product and the number of products in the box, below, through hyphens, the code of the manufacturer, batch number, year of manufacture, below the code of the explosive with which the products are equipped. For boxes with training ammunition, "INERT" is written in this place and an additional white stripe is applied on the side. For boxes with imitation ammunition, the stripe is red. Below all the gross weight of the box. In addition to these mandatory markings, boxes can be marked with the capacity of the cargo in the form of a black triangle with a number in the center (for civil transport organizations), warning labels (such as: "When transporting by plane, pierce with an awl here", "Afraid of dampness", "Do not turn over", "Flammable cargo", etc.). If different products are packed in one box (for example, TNT checkers of different nomenclature), then their codes and quantities are also indicated on the box.

In the picture on the left is a box with combat mines TM-46, on the right with training ones.

In all cases, inert and live ammunition are not placed together in the same box.

On anti-personnel mines (such as PMD-6M, POMZ-2M), which are manufactured or equipped with explosives and fuses in the troops (and this is allowed only in war time) may not have any markings at all. Also, any marking may be absent on Soviet engineering ammunition from the Second World War.

Sources

1. Guide to demolition work. Start approved. eng. Troops of the USSR Ministry of Defense 27.07.67. Military publishing house. Moscow. 1969
2. Manual on military engineering for Soviet army. Military publishing house. Moscow. 1984
3. Engineering ammunition. Book one. Military publishing house. Moscow. 1976
4. B.V. Varenyshev and others. Textbook. Military engineering training. Military publishing house. Moscow. 1982
5. B.S. Kolibernov and others. Handbook of an officer of engineering troops. Military publishing house. Moscow. 1989

---***---

From the author An old typewriter, if it's in good working order, is far more dangerous than any mine. It is impossible to imagine how much deadly poison a typewriter that fell into the experienced hands of a green (dollar) journalist can throw into the brains of people.

Subdivided into explosives, explosive charges ( extended charge), and engineering mines.

Classification

• Explosives are intended for excitation (initiation) of an explosion of explosive charges (BB) and engineering mines. These include igniter caps, blasting caps, electric igniters, electric detonators, detonating and igniter cords, incendiary tubes, fuses, and mine fuzes.
• Demolition charges are structurally designed, determined by volume and mass, the amount of explosives produced by the industry. They are intended for explosive work. The shape is concentrated, elongated and cumulative. As a rule, explosive charges have shells, nests for explosives, devices and devices for carrying and fastening on objects undermined.
• Mine-clearing charges intended for the device of passages in minefields.
• engineering mines are explosive charges structurally combined with means for their detonation. They are intended for the installation of explosive barriers and are divided into anti-tank, anti-personnel, anti-amphibious and special. Depending on the purpose, mines can be high-explosive, fragmentation, cumulative. The main elements of engineering mines are the explosive charge (HE) and mine fuse. The explosive charge is intended to destroy or destroy an object.
• mine fuse- a special device for initiating (initiating) an explosion of an explosive charge of a mine. A device that has all the elements of a fuse, except for a detonator cap (igniter), is called explosive device.

Mine fuses can be mechanical, electrical and electromechanical. They may have special elements to ensure the safety of transportation and use.

Engineering mines explode from the impact of an object on them. Depending on the nature of the impact leading to an explosion, mines can be contact (pressure, tension, break, unloading action) or non-contact (magnetic, seismic, acoustic, etc.)

Precautionary measures

When handling engineering ammunition, it is prohibited:

• Throw, hit, heat, burn them.
• Apply great effort when installing and removing fuses, fuses and blasting caps.
• Store and transport fully equipped engineering ammunition.
• Store engineering ammunition together with fuses, detonator caps without appropriate packaging.
• Open the cases of engineering ammunition and extract explosives from them.
• Defuse and remove engineering mines. Report all cases of finding ammunition to law enforcement agencies.

Links

Wikimedia Foundation. 2010 .

See what "Engineering ammunition" is in other dictionaries:

Engineering ammunition- means of engineering weapons of the border troops, containing explosives and pyrotechnic compositions. K I.b. include: engineering mines, explosive charges of industrial and military production (explosives), ... ... Border Dictionary

Complex devices equipped with explosive, propellant, pyrotechnic, incendiary, or nuclear, biological or chemical substances used in military (combat) operations to destroy manpower, equipment, objects. By … Emergencies Dictionary

AMMUNITION- an integral consumable (single-use) part of the weapon, directly intended for the destruction of manpower and equipment, the destruction of structures and the performance of special tasks (lighting, smoke, etc.). These include artillery ... ... War and peace in terms and definitions

Check information. It is necessary to check the accuracy of the facts and the reliability of the information presented in this article. There should be explanations on the talk page ... Wikipedia

20mm. ammunition for automatic aircraft gun M 61 Vulcan Ammunition all materials and devices, artillery and engineering, used to defeat enemy troops and destroy their structures. B. supplies include ready-made ... Wikipedia

Ammunition - (ammunition), an integral part of the armament, directly intended for the destruction of manpower and military equipment, destruction of structures (fortifications) and the performance of special tasks (lighting, smoke, etc.). B. include: ... ... Dictionary of military terms

AMMUNITION- are the subject of the crimes described in Part 1 3 of Art. 222, part 1 3 art. 223, part 1 of Art. 225, part 1, 3, 4 of Art. 226 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation. When defining the concept of B. should be guided by Art. 1 federal law On weapons of November 13, 1996 (SZ RF. 1996. ¦ 51 ... Dictionary-reference book of criminal law

Ammunition- Complex devices equipped with explosive, propelling, pyrotechnic, incendiary, or nuclear, chemical or biological substances used in military (combat) operations to destroy manpower, equipment and ... ... Encyclopedia of the Strategic Missile Forces

AMMUNITION- (ammunition), an integral part of weapons intended for direct use. defeating targets or ensuring the operation of troops (forces). According to the purpose, there are basic, special. and help. B. Main. B. are divided into ordinary and mass destruction. Ordinary B. ... ... Encyclopedia of the Strategic Missile Forces

Explosives, explosive charges, mines, pyrotechnic devices and other items of engineering weapons equipped with explosives and pyrotechnic compositions. The means of blasting are capsules ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

Information about explosives

Explosives serve as a source of energy necessary for throwing (throwing) bullets, mines, grenades, for breaking them, as well as for performing various blasting operations.

Explosives are called chemical compounds and mixtures that, under the influence of external influences, are capable of very rapid chemical transformations, accompanied by the release of heat and the formation of a large amount of highly heated gases capable of performing the work of throwing or destruction.

The powder charge of a rifle cartridge weighing 3.25 g burns out in about 0.0012 s when fired. When the charge is burned, about 3 large calories of heat are released and about 3 liters of gases are formed, the temperature of which at the time of the shot is 2400-29000. Gases, being highly heated, have high pressure(up to 2900 kg / cm 2) and eject a bullet from the bore at a speed of over 800 m / s.

The process of rapid chemical change of an explosive from a solid (liquid) state to a gaseous state, accompanied by the conversion of its potential energy into mechanical work, is called explosion. During an explosion, as a rule, a reaction occurs when oxygen combines with the combustible elements of the explosive (hydrogen, carbon, sulfur, etc.).

An explosion can be caused by mechanical action - impact, prick, friction, thermal (electrical) action - heating, a spark, a flame beam, the explosion energy of another explosive that is sensitive to thermal or mechanical effects (explosion of a detonator cap).

Depending on the chemical composition explosives and explosion conditions (forces of external influence, pressure and temperature, quantity and density of a substance, etc.), explosive transformations can occur in two main forms that differ significantly in speed: combustion and explosion (detonation).

Combustion- the process of transformation of an explosive, proceeding at a speed of several meters per second and accompanied by a rapid increase in gas pressure; as a result of it, throwing or scattering of surrounding bodies occurs.

An example of the burning of an explosive is the burning of gunpowder when fired. The burning rate of gunpowder is directly proportional to pressure. In the open air, the burning rate of smokeless powder is about 1 mm / s, and in the bore when fired, due to an increase in pressure, the burning rate of gunpowder increases and reaches several meters per second.

Explosion- the process of transformation of an explosive, proceeding at a speed of several hundred (thousand) meters per second and accompanied by a sharp increase in gas pressure, which produces a strong destructive effect on nearby objects. The greater the rate of transformation of the explosive, the greater the force of its destruction. When an explosion proceeds at the maximum possible speed under given conditions, then such a case of an explosion is called detonation. Most explosives are capable of detonating under certain conditions.

An example of the detonation of an explosive is the detonation of a TNT charge and the rupture of a projectile. The detonation speed of TNT reaches 6990 m/s.

The detonation of some explosive can cause the explosion of another explosive in direct contact with it or at a certain distance from it.

This is the basis for the device and the use of detonator caps. The transfer of detonation over a distance is associated with the propagation in the environment surrounding the explosive charge of a sharp increase in the pressure of the shock wave. Therefore, the excitation of an explosion in this way is almost no different from the excitation of an explosion by means of a mechanical shock.

Division of explosives according to the nature of their action and practical application

According to the nature of the action and practical application, explosives are divided into initiating, crushing (blasting), propelling and pyrotechnic compositions.

Initiators explosives are called those that have great sensitivity, explode from a slight thermal or mechanical effect and, by their detonation, cause the explosion of other explosives.

The main representatives of initiating explosives are mercury fulminate, lead azide, lead styphnate and tetrazene.

Initiating explosives are used to equip igniter caps and blasting caps. Initiating explosives and products in which they are used are very sensitive to external influences different kinds, so they require careful handling.

Crushing (blasting) explosives are called those that explode, as a rule, under the action of the detonation of initiating explosives and, during the explosion, crush the surrounding objects.

The main representatives of crushing explosives are: TNT (tol), melinite, tetryl, RDX, PETN, ammonites, etc.

Crushing explosives are used as explosive charges for mines, grenades, shells, and are also used in blasting.

Crushing agents also include pyroxylin and nitroglycerin, which are used as a starting material for manufacturing.

Throwable called such explosives that have an explosive transformation in the form of combustion with a relatively slow increase in pressure, which allows them to be used for throwing bullets, mines, grenades, shells.

The main representatives of propellant explosives are gunpowder (smoky and smokeless).

Smoke powder is a mechanical mixture of saltpeter, sulfur and charcoal.

Smokeless powders are divided into pyroxylin and nitroglycerine powders.

Rice. 53. The shape of the grains of smokeless powder:

a - plates; b - tape; c - tube; g - cylinder with seven channels

Pyroxylin powder is made by dissolving a mixture (in certain proportions) of wet soluble and insoluble pyroxylin in an alcohol-ether solvent.

Nitroglycerin powder is made from a mixture (in certain proportions) of pyroxylin with nitroglycerin.

The following can be added to smokeless powders: a stabilizer - to protect the powder from chemical decomposition during long-term storage; phlegmatizer - to slow down the burning rate of the outer surface of the powder grains; graphite - to achieve flowability and eliminate grain sticking. Diphenylamine is most often used as a stabilizer, and camphor as a phlegmatizer.

Smoke powders are used to equip fuses for hand grenades, remote tubes, fuses, the manufacture of a igniter cord, etc.

Smokeless powders are used as combat (powder) charges of firearms: pyroxylin powders - mainly in the powder charges of cartridges small arms, nitroglycerin, as more powerful, - in combat charges of grenades, mines, shells.

Grains of smokeless powder can be in the form of a plate, tape, single-channel or multi-channel tube or cylinder (see Fig. 53).

The amount of gases formed per unit time during the combustion of gunpowder grains is proportional to their burning surface. In the process of burning gunpowder of the same composition, depending on its shape, the burning surface, and therefore the amount of gases formed per unit time, can decrease, remain constant or increase.

Rice. 54. Burning grains of smokeless powder:

a - degressive form; b - with a constant burning surface, c - progressive form

Gunpowder, the surface of the grains of which decreases as they burn, are called gunpowders of a degressive form (see fig. 54). This is, for example, a record and a tape.

Gunpowder, the surface of the grains of which remains constant during combustion, are called gunpowder With constant burning surface, for example, tube with one channel, cylinder with one channel. Grains of such gunpowder burn simultaneously both inside and from the outer surface. The decrease in the outer burning surface is compensated by the increase in the inner surface, so that the total surface remains constant for the entire burning time, if the burning of the tube from the ends is not taken into account.

Gunpowder, the surface of the grains of which increases as they burn, are called powders of progressive form, for example, a tube with several channels, a cylinder with several channels. When the grain of such gunpowder burns, the surface of the channels increases; this creates a general increase in the burning surface of the grain until it breaks up into parts, after which combustion occurs according to the type of combustion of gunpowder of a degressive form.

Progressive combustion of gunpowder can be achieved by introducing a phlegmatizer into the outer layers of a single-channel powder grain.

When burning gunpowder, three phases are distinguished: ignition, ignition, combustion.

ignition- this is the excitation of the combustion process in any part of the powder charge by quickly heating this part to the ignition temperature, which is 270-3200 for smoke powders, and about 2000 for smokeless powders.

Ignition is the propagation of the flame over the surface of the charge.

Combustion- this is the penetration of the flame into the depth of each grain of gunpowder.

The change in the amount of gases formed during the combustion of gunpowder per unit time affects the nature of the change in gas pressure and the speed of the bullet along the bore. Therefore, for each type of cartridges and weapons, a powder charge of a certain composition, shape and mass is selected.

Pyrotechnic compositions are mixtures of combustible substances (magnesium, phosphorus, aluminum, etc.) oxidizers(chlorates, nitrates, etc.) and cementers(natural and artificial resins, etc.). In addition, they contain impurities special purpose: substances that color the flame; substances that reduce the sensitivity of the composition, etc.

The predominant form of transformation of pyrotechnic compositions under normal conditions of their use is combustion. Burning, they give the corresponding pyrotechnic (fire) effect (lighting, incendiary, etc.).

Pyrotechnic compositions are used to equip lighting and signal cartridges, tracer and incendiary compositions of bullets, grenades, shells, etc.

Ammunition, their classification

Ammunition(munitions) - an integral part of weapons, directly intended for the destruction of manpower and equipment, the destruction of structures (fortifications) and the performance of special tasks (lighting, smoke, the transfer of propaganda literature, etc.). Ammunition includes: artillery rounds, warheads of rockets and torpedoes, grenades, aerial bombs, charges, engineering and naval mines, land mines, smoke bombs.

Ammunition is classified by affiliation: artillery, aviation, naval, rifle, engineering; by the nature of the explosive and damaging substance: with conventional explosives and nuclear.

The armies of a number of capitalist countries also have chemical (fragmentation-chemical) and biological (bacteriological) munitions.

By purpose, ammunition is divided into main (for destruction and destruction), special (for lighting, smoke, radio interference, etc.) and auxiliary (for training crew crews, special tests, etc.).

Artillery ammunition include shots with shells for various purposes: fragmentation, high-explosive fragmentation, high-explosive, armor-piercing, cumulative, concrete wallpaper, incendiary, with ready-made submunitions, smoke, chemical, tracer, lighting, propaganda, sighting and target designation, practical, training and training.

For firing at the first artillery pieces, spherical shells (nuclei) and incendiary shells in the form of combustible mixture bags were used. In the fifteenth century iron, lead, then cast iron cannonballs appeared, which made it possible, while maintaining the energy of their impact, to reduce the caliber, increase the mobility of the guns and at the same time increase the firing range. From the sixteenth century buckshot with cast-iron or lead bullets began to be used, inflicting heavy losses on infantry and cavalry. In the second half of the XVI century. explosive projectiles were invented: thick-walled cast-iron balls with an internal cavity for breaking the charge. Subsequently, in Russian artillery they were called grenades (when weighing up to l-th pood inclusive) and bombs (when weighing more than l-th pood). In the eighteenth century explosive shells began to be divided into fragmentation, giving a large number of fragments to destroy living targets, and high-explosive - to destroy structures. The so-called grenade buckshot appeared, each element of which was a small explosive grenade. The so-called brandkugels were used as incendiary projectiles, consisting of the body of an ordinary explosive projectile filled with an incendiary composition. Incendiary elements were also invested in explosive projectiles for combined target destruction.

Found the use of lighting and smoke shells. At the beginning of the XIX century. Englishman Shrapnel developed the first fragmentation projectile with ready-made fragments, which in all its modifications received the name of the inventor. By the middle of the XIX century. smoothbore artillery reached its highest development. However, the range of its firing and the effectiveness of the ball projectiles used were very insignificant. Therefore, the improvement of artillery went along the line of creating rifled guns and oblong projectiles, which began to be widely used from the 60s. 19th century This made it possible to significantly increase the range and improve the accuracy of fire, as well as increase the efficiency of shells. IN field artillery at that time, grenades, shrapnel, buckshot, incendiary shells were used, and naval and coastal artillery appeared armor-piercing shells to destroy armored ships. Until the 80s. 19th century Smoke powder served as a throwing and explosive projectile. In the mid 80s. smokeless powder was invented, the widespread use of which since the 90s. 19th century led to an increase in the range of artillery by almost two times. At the same time, the equipment of shells with blasting explosives began with pyroxylin, melinite, and from the beginning of the 20th century. - TNT, etc.

By the beginning of the First World War, the artillery of all armies consisted mainly of high-explosive shells and shrapnel. The German artillery also used fragmentation grenades for firing at open live targets. To combat aircraft, anti-aircraft shrapnel and remote grenades were used. The appearance of tanks led to the development anti-tank artillery with armor-piercing projectiles. Chemical and special projectiles (smoke, lighting, tracer, etc.) were also used. Consumption increased artillery ammunition. If Germany is at war with France in 1870-71. spent 650 thousand shots, Russia in the war with Japan 1904-05. - 900 thousand, then in 1914-18. shell consumption was: Germany - about 275 million, Russia - up to 50 million, Austria-Hungary - up to 70 million, France about 200 million, England - about 170 million. Total consumption artillery ammunition during the First World War exceeded 1 billion.

In the Soviet Army in the 30s. the modernization of artillery was successfully carried out, and during the years of the first five-year plans, new types of guns and shells for them were developed, rocket artillery. For the first time, 82-mm caliber rockets were successfully used from aircraft in 1939 in battles on the river. Khalkhin Gol. At the same time, lZ2-mm M-13 rockets were developed (for the legendary Katyushas and aircraft weapons), and a little later, 300-mm M-30 rockets. big development before the war and during it, they received mortars - smooth-bore guns that fire feathered projectiles (mines). New species have been created armor-piercing shells: sub-caliber (with a solid core, the diameter of which is less than the caliber of the barrel) and cumulative (providing a directional effect of the explosion). The Great Patriotic War consumed a huge amount of ammunition, and the Soviet industry coped with this task.

In total, during the war, she produced over 775 million artillery shells and mines. After World War II, anti-tank guided missiles (missiles) appeared in service with the armies of a number of states. They fire from launchers from armored personnel carriers, vehicles, helicopters, as well as from portable launchers. The control of these projectiles in flight is carried out by wire, by radio, in an infrared beam or a laser beam. Active-rocket projectiles, projectiles for recoilless rifles are being improved, specialized ammunition of increased efficiency and ammunition for cluster munitions are being created. To defeat manpower and equipment, ammunition is created with fragments of a given shape and mass and with ready-made lethal elements (balls, rods, cubes, arrows). Fragments are obtained by applying cuts on the outer or inner surface of the body (when it breaks, it is crushed into cuts) or by creating a special surface of an explosive projectile with elementary cumulative grooves (when it breaks, the body is crushed by cumulative jets) and other methods. Improved cumulative shells. Cluster parts of rockets, rockets and artillery shells with a large number of cumulative feathered combat elements are being developed, scattered at a certain height to destroy tanks from above. Work is underway to create rocket and artillery shells that provide remote mining of the terrain with anti-tank and anti-personnel mines. High-explosive-armor-piercing projectiles with a flattening warhead loaded with plastic explosives are widely used. When meeting with a target, the head of such a projectile is crushed and comes into contact with the armor over a large area. The explosive charge is undermined by a bottom fuse, which ensures a certain direction of the explosion. On the opposite side of the armor, large fragments break off, hitting the crew and internal equipment of the tank. In order to improve the accuracy of shooting, work is underway to create the simplest flight control systems and homing heads for projectiles. From the 50s. in the United States, nuclear weapons are being created for artillery systems.

Aviation ammunition was first used in 1911-12. in the war between Italy and Turkey and in a relatively short time received significant development. They include aerial bombs, one-time bomb cassettes, bomb bundles, incendiary tanks, cartridges for aircraft machine guns and cannons, warheads for guided and unguided aircraft missiles, warheads for aircraft missiles, warheads for aircraft torpedoes, aircraft mines, etc.

Disposable bomb cassettes - thin-walled air bombs equipped with aircraft mines (anti-tank, anti-personnel, etc.) or small bombs (anti-tank, fragmentation, incendiary, etc.) weighing up to 10 kg. In one cassette there can be up to 100 or more mines (bombs), which are scattered in the air by special powder or explosive charges, activated by remote fuses at a certain height above the target. Bomb bundles - devices in which several aircraft bombs are connected by special devices into one suspension. Depending on the design of the bundle, the separation of bombs occurs either at the moment of dropping from an aircraft, or in the air after dropping a remote device. The cartridges of aviation machine guns and cannons differ from the usual ones due to the specifics of aviation weapons (high rate of fire, small calibers, dimensions, etc.). The most common calibers of aviation bullets are 7.62 and 12.7 mm, shells - 20,23,30 and 37 mm. Shells with an explosive shell (high-explosive, fragmentation, etc.) have fuses that fire with a slight delay after hitting an obstacle. Fuzes can have self-liquidators, which, after a certain time after the shot, detonate projectiles in the air that did not hit the target, ensuring safety. ground troops in air combat over their own territory. Warheads of aircraft missiles have a conventional or nuclear charges. They can be delivered to targets by air-to-air missiles at a range of up to several tens of kilometers, by air-to-ground missiles at hundreds of kilometers. unguided missiles have conventional (rarely nuclear) warheads, a rocket engine (powder, liquid) and shock or proximity fuses. Their range reaches 10 km or more. aircraft mines(anti-tank, anti-personnel, sea, etc.) are designed for setting minefields from the air on land and sea.

Marine ammunition includes naval and coastal artillery rounds, mines, depth charges, missile and torpedo warheads used naval forces to destroy naval targets. Ship and coastal artillery ammunition includes artillery rounds of various calibers and capacities. They use fragmentation tracer, high-explosive fragmentation, high-explosive and armor-piercing shells. Mines, first used at the end of the 18th century, remain an effective positional means of combating surface ships and submarines. Anchor galvanic impact mines of relatively low power were replaced by anchor, bottom, floating mines of high power, triggered by various physical fields of the ship. The torpedo, as an underwater projectile, entered service with ships in the second half of the 19th century and retains its importance as an effective means of destroying surface ships and submarines.

The depth charge, which appeared during the First World War, is an effective means of destroying submarines at considerable distances and various depths. The basis of the armament of the modern Navy (Navy) is missile weapon with warheads in nuclear and conventional equipment. It can hit objects at ranges of several thousand kilometers.

Artillery and naval munitions include reactive munitions, which include unguided projectiles of land and sea systems salvo fire, grenades (melee weapons).

Rocket munitions are delivered to the target due to the thrust generated during the operation of the rocket engine. They leave the guide launchers (leave the barrel of grenade launchers) at relatively low speeds, and acquire full speed in flight at the end of the active part of the trajectory.

An intermediate position between artillery and rocket projectiles is occupied by the so-called active rocket projectiles (mines), which combine the properties of conventional (active) and rocket projectiles. They are fired from artillery pieces with initial speed close to the speed of conventional projectiles. Due to the reactive charge that burns up during the flight of the projectile in the air, a certain increase in its speed and firing range is obtained. Rocket-active projectiles have the disadvantages of rocket projectiles, as well as reduced target efficiency.

Shooting ammunition is intended for direct destruction of enemy manpower and military equipment. They represent unitary cartridges, consisting of a bullet, a powder charge and a primer, united by a sleeve.

They are subdivided: according to the nature of the action of the bullet - with ordinary and special bullets (single and combined action); depending on the type of weapon in which they are used, on a pistol (revolver), machine gun, rifle and large-caliber.

Engineering ammunition - means of engineering weapons containing explosives and pyrotechnic compositions; mines, charges (demining, demining) and explosives.

Nuclear ammunition is designed to destroy critical targets. Are in service missile troops, aviation, navy, in the US Army, in addition - artillery and engineering units. These include the head (combat) parts of missiles, aerial bombs, artillery shells, torpedoes, depth charges and engineering mines equipped with nuclear charges.

Chemical Ammunition (foreign) is equipped with toxic substances (S) of various durability and toxicity and is intended for the destruction of enemy manpower, contamination of weapons, military equipment, food, water and terrain. These include chemical artillery and rocket projectiles, mines, aerial bombs, elements of missile warheads and aircraft clusters, land mines, etc.

Biological Ammunition (foreign) is equipped with biological (bacterial) agents and is intended to destroy people, animals and plants.

Depending on the method of transferring a biological formulation to a combat state, there are: explosive ammunition; with mechanical opening; devices that convert a biological formulation into an aerosol state under the influence of an air flow or pressure of inert gases.

Special ammunition is used to smoke and illuminate the area, deliver propaganda literature, facilitate zeroing, target designation, etc.

These include: smoke, sighting and target designation, lighting, tracer, propaganda shells (mines, bombs), lighting and signal cartridges, etc.

The fundamental difference between special ammunition is that their internal cavity is filled not with an explosive charge, but with smoke, lighting, tracer compounds, leaflets. They also have fuses (tubes) and expelling or small bursting charges to open the case in the air or when hitting an obstacle.

Signal and lighting cartridges are shots that eject shells with a pyrotechnic composition (stars), when burned, colored lights (smoke) are formed as signals, or white (yellow) fire to illuminate the area.

Special ammunition is widely used to support combat operations.

Weapon caliber the diameter of the bore of a firearm (for rifled weapons in the USSR and a number of countries it is determined by the distance between opposite fields of rifling; in the USA, Great Britain and other countries by the distance between rifling), as well as the diameter of the projectile (mines, bullets) according to its largest cross section.

The caliber of a weapon is usually expressed in linear units: inches (25.4 mm), lines (2.54 mm), mm. In the XVI-XIX centuries. the caliber of the weapon was determined by the mass of the cannonball (for example, a 12-pound cannon).

Gun caliber is sometimes specified in hundredths (US) or thousandths (UK) of an inch. For example, .22 (5.6 mm), .380 (9 mm).

Often the caliber of a weapon is used to express so-called relative values, such as barrel length. The caliber of hunting rifles is indicated by the number of ball bullets cast from one English pound (453.6 g) of lead;

The caliber of an aviation bomb is its mass in kg.

Engineering ammunition

Over the past decades, large-scale measures have been taken in the armies of developed countries to improve conventional weapons, among which an important place was given to engineering weapons. The composition of engineering weapons includes engineering ammunition that creates the best conditions for the effective use of all types of weapons and the protection of their troops from modern means defeat, making it difficult for the enemy to inflict significant losses on him. The use of engineering ammunition in recent local conflicts showed their growing role in solving operational-tactical tasks.

Remote mining systems appeared in service with the engineering troops, which made it possible to lay mines during the battle and at a considerable distance from the front line - on enemy territory. Engineering munitions also make it possible to create conditions for the troops to quickly overcome enemy minefields. In this case, the most promising volume explosion ammunition is used.

What applies to engineering ammunition? These are, first of all, mines for various purposes - anti-tank, anti-personnel, anti-amphibious and recently appeared anti-helicopter, as well as demining charges and a number of charges auxiliary purpose. A modern mine is a multifunctional device. Some samples of new mines contain an element of artificial intelligence and have the ability to optimize the selection of a target from several targets and its attack.

Special mention should be made of anti-personnel mines, over the prohibition of which a campaign of states wishing to finally disarm Russia has begun. In connection with the sharp reduction in the size of the Armed Forces, the role of engineering ammunition is increasing. Considering that engineering ammunition mainly plays a defensive role, our political and military leadership should not be disarmed, but should contribute to the improvement and increase in the effectiveness of this type of weapon, which is quite reliable and has high indicators according to the criterion "efficiency - cost". The general direction and purpose of the development of engineering weapons is mainly determined by the ability to effectively hit modern and future targets in the interests of the ground forces.

Consider the features and technical characteristics of engineering ammunition.

Until recently in developed countries a large number of anti-tank mines of different designs were produced, from the whole variety of existing designs of which three main types can be distinguished: anti-track, anti-bottom and anti-aircraft.

Until recently, anti-track mines were considered the main ones, but they are gradually losing their importance. The main disadvantage of these mines is their limited combat capability: usually only individual units of the tank chassis are disabled. Nevertheless, anti-track mines are still in fairly large quantities in the troops various countries.

Anti-track mines are designed to take out tracked and wheeled combat and transport vehicles by destroying or damaging, mainly, their undercarriage (caterpillars, wheels). The installation of these mines is carried out using minelayers or manually (both in the ground and on its surface). Domestic anti-track mines have a cylindrical shape, with the exception of the TM-62D mine, which has the shape of a parallelepiped. The main characteristics of domestic anti-track mines are presented in Table 1, and foreign - in Table 2. Figure I, 2 shows the design schemes of mines TM-46 and TM-62T. Anti-track mines are equipped with mechanical pressure fuses, which are screwed into the central socket of the hull. The pressure on the fuse from the tank caterpillar is transmitted through the pressure cover. Sockets for additional fuses are provided in the side and bottom parts of the mine body. They are used when it is necessary to place mines in an unrecoverable position. Basically, the bodies and fuses of modern mines are made of plastic, so they cannot be detected using induction mine detectors. Due to the tightness of mine hulls, most of them can be used to mine water barriers.

Fig.1. Anti-track mine TM-46:

a) appearance; b) - a section of a mine; 1 - body; 2 - diaphragm; 3 - cover; 4 - MVM fuse; 5 - explosive charge; 6 - intermediate detonator; 7 - cap; 8 - handle.

Table 1

The main characteristics of anti-track mines

table 2

Foreign anti-track mines

Table 3

Foreign anti-bottom mines

Fig.2. Anti-track mineTM-62T:

1-case; 2- explosive charge; 3 - ignition cup; 4 - fuse MVP-62; 5 - fuse drummer; 6 - a checker of the ignition glass; 7 - transfer charge fuse; 8 - primer-detonator fuse.

From the point of view of equipment, domestic mines are “omnivorous”. They are equipped with TNT (T), mixtures of A-IX2, MS, TM; alloys TGA-16, TG-40; ammotols A-50, A-80, etc.

The data in Table 1 indicate that most of the presented anti-track mines have significant dimensions and a large mass of explosives.

The most interesting is the English anti-track mine L9AI, which has an elongated shape (its dimensions are 1200x100x80 mm). For the device of an anti-tank minefield, such mines require two times less than mines with a cylindrical body. Elongated mines are more convenient to store and transport. The body of the L9A1 mine is plastic. The pressure cover is located in the upper part of the body and occupies two thirds of its length. To install this mine in the ground or on its surface, a trailed mine layer is used.

In a number of countries, for remote mining systems, several samples of anti-track mines have been developed, designed to destroy the undercarriage of a tank during a contact explosion. These mines are relatively small in size and weight.

Anti-track mine M56 (USA) is a component of the helicopter mining system. The body of the mine has the shape of a half-cylinder and is equipped with four drop-down stabilizers, which reduce the speed of the fall of the mine (mining is carried out from a height of about 30 m). A pressure cover is located on the flat surface of the housing. The electromechanical fuse is located in the end part of the housing and has two stages of protection. The first is removed when the mine exits the cluster installation, the second - one or two minutes after falling to the ground. In the combat position, the mine can be turned with a pressure cover both up and down. The fuse is equipped with a self-destruct element, which causes the mine to explode after a certain time. Mina M56 is carried out in three versions. The mines of the first (main) version are equipped with a single-stroke fuse, the second - with a two-stroke fuse, triggered by repeated impact on the pressure cover. The fuse of the mine of the third option is activated by shaking the body of the mine or changing its position. The mines of the last two options are intended to prevent the enemy from manually removing them from the passages or making passes in the minefield using roller trawls.

West German mines AT-1 are equipped with 110-mm cluster munitions of the Lars MLRS. Each munition contains 8 mines, equipped with a pressure fuse, elements of non-decontamination and self-destruction.

Italy has developed several samples of anti-track mines designed for installation by helicopter systems, including the SB-81 mine, which has a plastic case and an electromechanical fuse with a pressure sensor. In addition to helicopters, this mine can be installed by a minelayer.

Anti-bottom mines, in comparison with anti-track mines, have a significantly higher destructive effect. Exploding under the bottom of the tank and punching it, they hit the crew and disable the armament and equipment of the vehicle. The explosion of such a mine under the caterpillar of the tank disables it. Anti-bottom mines are equipped with a shaped charge or a charge based on the principle of an impact core. Most anti-bottom mines have proximity fuses with magnetic sensors that detect changes magnetic field when passing a tank over a mine. Such a fuse is installed at the Swedish anti-bottom mine FFV028. When the tank passes over the mine, electrical voltage is applied to the electric detonator, which initiates the explosion of the overburden, and then (with some time delay) the main charge (the armor penetration of the mine from a distance of 0.5 m is 70 mm). When an overburden charge is triggered, the upper part of the fuse, the cover of the mine body and the camouflage layer of soil are dropped, thereby creating favorable conditions for the formation of an impact core. A typical layout of the anti-bottom mine SB-MV / T is shown in Fig. 3.

Fig.3. The layout of the anti-tank mine SB-MV / T: 1 - magnetic sensor; 2 - power supply; 3 - software element of the mine neutralization device; 4-seismic sensor; 5 - a device for delaying the transfer of the fuse to the combat position; 6 - the lever for transferring the fuse to the combat position; 7 - fuse inclusion element; 8 - main charge; 9 - transitional charge; 10 - detonator; 11 - primer-igniter; 12 - overburden charge.

The French anti-bottom mine HPD is equipped with a fuse with magnetic and seismic sensors. The armor penetration of a mine from a distance of 0.5 m is 70 mm. The mine explodes when both sensors are triggered simultaneously. To drop the hull cover and the camouflage layer of soil in the HPD mine, an additional (overburden) charge was used. The mining of these mines is carried out with the help of a mine layer.

Much attention is paid to the development of anti-bottom mines for remote mining systems. In the United States, for example, spreadable anti-bottom mines have been created using artillery and aircraft mining systems (M70, M73 and BLU-91 / B mines). These mines are small in size and equipped with proximity fuses with magnetic sensors and anti-removal elements. M70 and M73 mines are components of the RAAMS artillery anti-tank mining system (for 155-mm howitzers). The cluster projectiles of this system contain nine M70 or M73 mines, which have shaped charges directed in opposite directions, which does not require special orientation on the ground surface. By design, these mines are the same and differ only in the period of self-destruction.

Table 4

The effectiveness of anti-track and anti-bottom mines

The West German anti-bottom mine AT-2 is designed to build anti-tank barriers using ground, missile and aviation systems mining. Mina has warhead on the principle of the impact core.

The comparative effectiveness of anti-track and anti-bottom mines is presented in Fig. 4 and in Table 4.

Anti-aircraft mines are designed to destroy tanks and armored vehicles at a distance of several tens of meters. These mines are effective when used to block roads and make barriers in forests and settlements. The striking element of anti-aircraft mines is an impact core or cumulative anti-tank grenade fired from the guide tube.

The French and British armies are armed with the MAN F1 mine (Fig. 5), which has a warhead (armor penetration of 70 mm from a distance of 40 m) on the principle of an impact core. The body of the mine can be rotated in a vertical plane relative to the support, consisting of two racks and a support ring. The fuse is activated by a 40-meter contact wire.

The American M24 anti-aircraft mine consists of an 88.9 mm grenade (from the M29 anti-tank rifle), a guide pipe, a fuse with a contact sensor made in the form of a tape, a power source and connecting wires. The guide pipe acts as a container in which the mine is stored and transported. Place the unit at a distance of about 30 m from the road or passage. When a tank caterpillar hits the contact strip, the fuse circuit closes and the anti-tank grenade is fired. An improved model of this mine, the M66, has been developed. It differs from the M24 in that. that infrared and seismic sensors are used instead of a contact sensor. The mines are transferred to the combat position after the seismic sensor is triggered. It also includes an infrared target sensor. The grenade is fired as soon as the armored target crosses the emitter-receiver line.

Anti-tank minefields (ATMP) are installed primarily in tank-hazardous directions in front of the front, on the flanks and junctions of subunits, as well as in depth to cover artillery firing positions, command and observation posts and other objects. An anti-tank minefield usually has dimensions along the front of 200 ... 300 m or more, in depth - 60 ... 120 m or more. Mines are installed in three to four rows with a distance between rows of 20 ... 40 m and between mines in a row - 4 ... 6 m for anti-tracked and 9 ... 12 m for anti-bottom mines. The consumption of mines per 1 km of the minefield is 550 ... 750 anti-track or 300 ... 400 anti-bottom mines. On especially important areas, PTMG1 can be installed with an increased consumption of mines: up to 1000 or more anti-track mines or 500 or more anti-bottom mines. Such minefields are commonly referred to as high efficiency minefields.

Fig.5. The layout of the anti-aircraft mine MAN F1:

1-charge; 2 - copper lining; 3 - support ring; 4 - detonator cap; 5 - fuse; 6 - power supply; 7 - transitional charge; 8 - detonator.

Fig.4. Comparative effectiveness of the destructive action of anti-line and anti-track mines:

1 - zone of action of the anti-bottom mine;

2 - zone of action of an anti-track mine.

Table 5

Foreign anti-aircraft mines

Anti-personnel mines vary in design and are mainly of the high-explosive or fragmentation type. The main characteristics of some samples of domestic anti-personnel mines are presented in Table 6. The name MON-50 means that this mine has a fragmentation-directed action. These mines are in service with various countries. Usually, the plastic cases of such mines are made in the form of a curved prism, in which a plastic explosive charge with a large number of fragments is placed. For ease of installation on the ground, there are hinged legs at the bottom of the mine body. The most common way to set the mine in action is to use a regular trip fuse, which is triggered when the target touches the tensioned wire. When a mine explodes, a flat beam of fragments is formed. Directional fragmentation mines are designed to destroy personnel moving in deployed combat formations.

The PMN index means that this mine is an anti-personnel push action. The device of the PMN anti-personnel mine is shown in Fig.6.

Currently, bouncing fragmentation anti-personnel mines are widely used. The operation of such a mine occurs when a walking person touches a tension wire or when pressure is applied to special conductors connected by an explosive chain. As a result of this, an expelling powder charge is ignited, with the help of which a mine is thrown to the height of the chest of a walking person, where an explosion occurs and people in this zone are hit by fragments.

Anti-personnel minefields (APMP) are placed in front of the forward edge and, as a rule, in front of anti-tank minefields in order to cover them. They can be from high-explosive mines, fragmentation mines, as well as a combination of high-explosive and fragmentation mines. PPMP, depending on their purpose, is installed with a length along the front from 30 to 300 m or more, in depth - 10 ... 50 m or more. The number of rows in a minefield is usually two to four, the distance between rows is 5 m or more, between mines in a row is not less than 1 m for high-explosive mines and one or two continuous destruction radii for fragmentation mines. The consumption of mines per 1 km of the minefield is accepted: high-explosive - 2000 ... 3000 pieces; fragmentation - 100 ... 300 pcs. In the directions where the infantry advances in large numbers PPMP with increased efficiency can be installed - with double or triple flow min.

Table 6

Main characteristics of anti-personnel mines

Fig.6. Anti-personnel mine PMN:

a) - general view; b) - cut; 1 - body; 2 - shield; 3 - cap; 4 - wire or tape; 5 - stock; 6 - spring; 7 - split ring; 8 - drummer; 9 - mainspring; 10 - thrust sleeve; 11 - safety check; 12 – metal element; 13 - explosive charge; 14 - fuse MD-9; 15 - plug; 16 - cap; 17 - gasket; 18 - metal frame; 19 - string.

Table 7

The main characteristics of anti-amphibious mines

Table 8

The main characteristics of special mines

Fig.7. Mina PDM-2 on a low stand:

1 - rod; 2 - check; 3 - fuse; 4 - housing with an explosive charge; 5 – lock nut; 6 - bopt; 7 - flange; 8 - upper beam; 9 - lower beam; 10 - steel sheet; 11 - washer; 12 - latch; 13 - handle; 14 - roller.

Fig.8. Mine body PDM-2:

1 - body; 2 - central neck; 3-glass; 4 - intermediate detonator; 5 - side neck; 6 - nipple; 7 - charge; 8 - gaskets; 9 - plugs.

Fig.9. Charge S3-3L:

a) - general view; b) - cut; 1 - body; 2 - explosive charge; 3 - intermediate detonators; 4 - ignition socket for the detonator cap; 5 - socket for a special fuse; 6 - plugs; 7 - handle; 8 - rings for binding the charge.

1 - body; 2 - cumulative lining; 3 - explosive charge; 4 - intermediate detonator; 5 - seal nest; 6 - handle; 7 - retractable legs; 8 - cork.

Fig.10. Charge S3-6M:

1 - capron shell; 2 – polyethylene sheath; 3 – plastic explosive charge; 4 - intermediate detonators; 5 - rubber couplings; 6 - metal clips; 7 - socket for a detonator cap; 8 - socket for a special fuse; 9 - plugs; 10 - union nut; 11 - rings for binding the charge.

Currently, engineering troops developed countries have nuclear mines with a TNT equivalent from 2 to 1000 tons.

Assessing the effectiveness of nuclear mines, foreign experts believe that they can be used as a multi-purpose weapon against advancing enemy forces. It is believed that the explosion of nuclear mines located in special concrete or soil wells creates zones of destruction and contamination that can dismember battle formations enemy troops, to direct his advance to areas advantageous for inflicting conventional and nuclear strikes on him. An important direction in the use of nuclear mines is considered to be the strengthening of mine-explosive barriers in tank-hazardous areas. The protective effect of nuclear mines is due to the creation, as a result of explosions, of craters, blockages, zones of destruction and contamination, which are a serious obstacle to the movement of troops.

The crater from a nuclear mine explosion is a formidable obstacle, since its large size, steep slopes and rapid filling with water greatly impede the movement of not only vehicles, but also tanks.

The size of the craters will depend on the TNT equivalent of nuclear mines, the depth of their laying and the methods of detonation. When a mine explodes on the surface of the earth with a power of 1.2 kt, a funnel is formed with a diameter of 27 m and a depth of 6.4 m; the same charge, detonated at a depth of 5 m, forms a funnel with a diameter of 79 m and a depth of up to 16 m, and at a depth of 20 m - with a diameter of 89 m and a depth of 27.5 m. The protective effect of a nuclear mine explosion is enhanced by radioactive fallout over a large area.

Antiamphibious mines are used to mine water lines in areas of possible landings to destroy amphibious amphibious vehicles and combat vehicles. The main characteristics of these mines are presented in Table 7, the distinguishing feature of which is their use in a submerged position.

The device of anti-amphibious mines and their main components are shown on the example of the PDM-2 mine in Fig. 7, 8.

For mining railway tracks (ZhDM-6), highways (ADM-7, ADM-8) and other specific tasks, special mines are used (Table 8). Mines MPM, SPM, BIM have the property of "sticking" (with the help of a magnet or adhesive material) and have a quasi-cumulative lining for the formation of significant holes in obstacles.

To make passages in anti-tank and anti-mine fields, elongated demining charges are used (Table 9). They are advanced manually or mechanized, or launched into a minefield with the help of jet engines. Therefore, explosive charges are placed in metal pipes or in flexible fabric or plastic sleeves (hoses). Charges UZ-1, UZ-2, UZ-Z and UZ-ZR are metal pipes in which pressed pieces of TNT are placed. The UZ-67 charge consists of a sleeve (material - nylon-based fabric), in which TNT blocks are strung on a flexible hose with explosives of the A-IX-1 type. Charges UZP-72 and UZP-77 are based on a flexible rope with wound layers of plastic charge from PVV-7, placed in a sleeve made of special fabric.

Table 9

Main characteristics of elongated demining charges

Note: p.m. - linear meter.

Table 10

Main characteristics of concentrated charges

Table 11

Main characteristics of shaped charges

Table 12

Characteristics of TNT checkers

Table 13

Characteristics of checkers made of plastic explosives

Table 14

Characteristics of detonating cords

Fig.12. Cumulative charge KZU-2:

a) - longitudinal section; b) - cross section; 1 - foam insert; 2 - explosive charge (TG-40); 3 - body; 4 - plug; 5 - gasket; 6 - bushing; 7 - gasket; 8- glass; 9 - checker BB A-XI-1; 10 - cap; 11 - ring; 12 - latch; 13 - bar; 14 - bracket; 15 - leaf spring; 16 - magnet; 17 - cumulative lining; 18 - clamp.

Fig.13. KZU-2 charge installation diagrams (the arrow indicates the installation location of the electric detonator or fuse)

To carry out demolition work in emergency situations, for example, when it is necessary to make a homemade mine in the shortest possible time, concentrated charges are used (Table 10). Charges SZ-ZA (Fig. 9), SZ-6, SZ-6M (Fig. 10) can be used for blasting under water. It should be noted that SZ-ZA, SZ-6 and SZ-6M charges can be successfully used in underwater blasting.

Shaped charges (Table 11) are used to punch or cut through thick metal slabs during the destruction of armored and reinforced concrete defensive structures.

The design and elements of the shaped charges KZ-2, KZU-2 are shown in Fig. 11-13.

In engineering troops, for demolition work, TNT and plastic explosives are used in the form of checkers, the main characteristics of which are presented in Table. 12.13.

Detonating cords are widely used to transfer an explosive impulse during explosions in engineering troops (Table 14).

Of all the munitions in service with the Russian army, engineering munitions are remarkable in that they are dual-use munitions, i.e. can be used in blasting in the national economy to solve specific problems in the mining, metallurgical and oil industries. For this reason, funding is not required for their disposal. Engineering munitions that have reached the end of their service life should be transferred to civilian organizations conducting explosive work (for example, in the mining industry). By now, millions of tons of so-called scrubs have accumulated at metallurgical plants, which are large-sized multi-ton objects with a significant iron content. Due to the crisis state of our metallurgical industry, these scrubs can serve as a good source of raw materials. But for obvious reasons, such scrubs cannot be transported and loaded into blast furnaces; they need to be split. In this case, engineering ammunition is an indispensable tool for solving this problem. At the same time, the technology for cutting such a scrub is as follows. By detonating a shaped charge (KZ-1, KZ-2, KZ-4), a crater (significant in depth and diameter) is created in the scrub, which is filled with explosives and blasted. As a result of these activities, the scrub is destroyed into parts that can be transported and loaded into a blast furnace. This is just one of thousands of examples of the use of engineering ammunition in the national economy.

Ammunition The fact that the MG 4 machine gun entered the army with a ten-year delay compared to the G 36 rifle clearly shows what a difficult decision it was to switch from 7.62x51 caliber to 5.56x45 caliber. This topic was the subject of constant and heated discussions among BWB specialists (Bundesamt fur Waffen