Spain on the periphery of Europe at the end of the 19th century. Spain in the second half of the 19th century
Spain in the 19th century Isabella II of BourbonIn the 19th century, Spain embarked on the path of capitalist development. However, many remnants of feudalism continued to persist in the country. Bourgeois property coexisted peacefully with large feudal landownership, and elements of the new bourgeois law - with the medieval privileges of the feudal-aristocratic elite and the Catholic Church. The Spanish bourgeoisie, weak and cowardly, was never capable of decisive revolutionary action, and therefore the four Spanish revolutions (from 1808 to 1856) did not lead the country to radical bourgeois-democratic transformations and invariably ended in the triumph of reaction.
Fifth revolution 1868 - 1874 from the very beginning acquired a much wider scope than the revolutions that preceded it. This is largely explained by the fact that this time the young Spanish parliament, which played a large role in the proclamation of the republic in 1873, appears in the arena of political struggle as an independent force. However, the Spanish bourgeoisie, frightened by the activity of the working class, betrays this revolution too. At the beginning of 1874, the reactionary military carried out a coup and restored the Bourbon monarchy.
The 70-80s in the history of Spain were years of relatively intensive development of capitalism. Having betrayed the revolution, the bourgeoisie compromised and entered into an alliance with the landowners and the aristocratic military. In parliament, playing out the comedy of bourgeois “democracy,” the governments of conservative landowners and liberal bourgeois succeeded each other, without introducing any improvements into the life of the working people. The oppression of the feudal-clerical reaction was still unbearable, but capitalist oppression was also added to this. New class conflicts arose, and new social forces entered the historical stage. The rise of the labor movement, the first workers' strikes, and the organization of the socialist party were the harbingers of fierce class battles.
Isabella II of Bourbon
This story about the beautiful Isabella of Bourbon, to whom was entrusted a blessed country and a great people, who rejected her truest adherents and sincere friends, is destined to become in world history a terrible warning and shame to mankind.
The Queen of Spain did not trust her friends, she sentenced her best ministers to death and believed the whispers of her cunning mother, incapable and malicious ministers and greedy Jesuits more than the voice of the people.
In Santa Madra they wove secret nets and hid gold in the black fog. sunlight comfortable freedom.
The Queen, who should have stood at the head of civilization and who accepted from God the highest and most beautiful duty - to lead her country and people to light and happiness, blindly and fanatically surrendered herself into the hands of these people of darkness!
Georg Born "Isabella, or Secrets of the Madrid Court"
Invasion by Napoleon, who transfers the Spanish throne to his brother Joseph in 1808. Beginning of the War of Independence, which lasted until 1814.
Having liberated the country from Napoleonic troops at the beginning of the 19th century, the Spaniards at the same time lost all their colonies in South and Central America.
The 19th century in Spain was marked by the struggle between supporters of absolute power and liberals who supported Queen Isabella, who ascended the throne in 1854.
Civil wars. Declaration of independence by the colonies. The Spanish-American War, which ended with Spain losing its last overseas possessions - Cuba and the Philippines.
The First Republic and the Bourbon Restoration.
Battle of Trafalgar.
The beginning of the revolution in Spain.
National Liberation War in Spain.
The first period of the war for the independence of the Spanish colonies in America.
Spanish Constitution of 1812.
The second period of the war for the independence of the Spanish colonies in America.
Declaration of independence of the united provinces of La Plata (Argentina).
Proclamation of Mexican Independence.
Proclamation of Brazilian Independence.
Revolution in Spain.
Bourgeois revolution in Spain.
Liberation uprising in Cuba (Ten Years' War).
Flight of Isabella II to France.
Francisco Serrano is proclaimed regent of Spain.
Regency of Maria Christina during the childhood of Alfonso XIII.
Spanish-American War.
Spanish revolutions of the 19th century bourgeois revolutions that took place in Spain in the period 1808-74. Their goal was to clear the way for the development of capitalist relations in Spain, to eliminate the remnants of feudalism, and to weaken the influence of the Catholic Church, which was the feudal support in Spain. The weakness of the Spanish bourgeoisie, its inconsistency in resolving the agrarian question, the lack of a strong connection with the people, and often the presence of contradictions between its individual groups, on the one hand, and the support in some cases of Spanish feudal circles by international reaction, on the other, had a negative impact on the outcome of the revolutions. Both the first revolution and the next four turned out to be incomplete. First Spanish Revolution 1808-14. It began under the conditions of the occupation of Spain by Napoleon I during the period of his wars of conquest in Europe (see Napoleonic Wars). The peculiarity of this revolution was the combination of the anti-feudal struggle with the struggle of the masses against the French occupiers. On the night of March 17-18, 1808, an uprising began in Aranjuez against the main culprit of the French invasion - Prime Minister Charles IV M. Godoy, which was an expression of protest against the corrupt regime of the Spanish Bourbons. Charles IV was overthrown and Ferdinand VII took the throne. On March 20, 1808, French troops entered Madrid, which caused an explosion of popular indignation. On May 2, 1808, an uprising broke out in Madrid and was brutally suppressed by French troops; On May 10, Napoleon forced King Ferdinand VII of Spain to abdicate the throne. News of these events caused new popular uprisings in Asturias, Andalusia, Valencia, Galicia and other areas. The driving forces of the liberation struggle were the urban lower strata, the peasantry, the bourgeoisie, the provincial nobility and the lower clergy. While the masses selflessly fought against the French occupiers, part of the higher nobility and clergy accepted the Bayonne Constitution of 1808, granted by Napoleon (See Bayonne Constitution of 1808) and recognized Joseph Bonaparte, Napoleon's brother, as the king of Spain. In the first months of the liberation war, in which the actions of the remnants of the regular army were combined with the armed struggle of the entire Spanish people, the Spaniards achieved major successes. In July 1808, French troops were defeated at the Battle of Bailen A. Most of Spanish territory, including Madrid, was liberated. In the summer of 1808, juntas were created throughout the liberated territory - new local authorities; Most of their members were representatives of the provincial nobility, some also included representatives of the bourgeoisie. For the general leadership of the struggle and government of the country, a Central Junta was created (September 1808), headed by the Count of Floridablanca. The central junta opposed reforms carried out by some local juntas (for example, against the sale of church lands). In October 1809, she was forced to announce the convening of the Constituent Cortes. In the fall of 1808, the military situation of the Spaniards deteriorated sharply. Napoleon I, who took control of military operations in Spain (entered Spain in November 1808 with a huge army), managed to achieve the defeat of the liberation forces. On December 4, Madrid was reoccupied. The Spanish people offered heroic resistance to the French occupiers. WITH extraordinary strength a guerrilla movement developed. Along with partisan detachments, an English expeditionary force under the command of General Wellesley (see Wellington), which landed in 1808 on the Iberian Peninsula, operated in the territory of Portugal and nearby areas of Spain, which included the remnants of the Spanish army. September 24, 1810 on the island. Leon gathered the Constituent Cortes (on February 20, 1811 they moved to Cadiz; see Cadiz Cortes), mainly consisting of representatives of the liberal nobility and bourgeoisie (the Central Junta dissolved itself in February 1810). The Cortes proclaimed a number of important reforms (abolition of feudal duties and privileges, division of wastelands and common lands, abolition of the Inquisition, etc.). On March 19, 1812, the Cadiz Constitution of 1812 was published, which declared the nation to be the bearer of supreme power. The weak connection of the Cortes with the movement of the masses in the country led to the fact that the announced reforms largely remained on paper. Meanwhile, the people's struggle against the French occupiers continued. On July 22, 1812, British troops under the command of Wellington and Spanish partisans under the command of Empesinado defeated the French at the Battle of Arapiles (near Salamanca). On August 12, Wellington and Empesinado entered Madrid (in November 1812, the French briefly reoccupied the Spanish capital). The defeat of Napoleon's armies in Russia (see Patriotic War of 1812) predetermined the inevitability of the withdrawal of French troops from Spain. On June 21, 1813, the combined Anglo-Spanish forces inflicted a heavy defeat on the enemy at Vitoria. In December 1813, the main parts of the French army were driven out of Spain. By this time, the counter-revolution, supported by Wellington, had intensified in the country. On March 22, 1814, Ferdinand VII, released from French captivity in December 1813, entered Spain; On May 4, Ferdinand announced that he did not recognize the constitution of 1812. On May 10-11, arrests of liberals were carried out in Madrid, marking a new triumph of absolutism in India. Second Spanish Revolution 1820-23. The main driving force of the revolution was the army, which was revolutionized during the anti-French national liberation war of 1808-13. It began with a military uprising led by Riego y Nunez in Cadiz in January 1820, which caused an uprising throughout the country. On March 9, 1820, King Ferdinand VII was forced to restore the constitution of 1812. In March - April, a constitutional government was formed, which included former figures of the Revolution of 1808-14, representing the Moderados party (literally - moderate; were in power until August 1822). In 1820, the liquidation of majorates, the closure of some monasteries with the nationalization of their lands, the reduction of church tithes by half, the introduction of a direct income land tax, a single customs tariff, the reduction of duties on imported cars, the expulsion of the Jesuits, the liberation of 13 thousand settlements from seigneurial jurisdiction, the establishment of national police, restoration administrative reforms Spanish Revolution 1808-14. Representatives of the Exaltados party demanded a number of measures in the interests of broad sections of the peasantry. In 1821, 1822, and 1823, the Cortes discussed and passed a bill proposed by the exaltados that provided for the transfer of most of the seigneurial land to the peasants. It was overturned twice by royal veto. In May 1823 the law came into force, but it was too late: a significant part of Spain was already occupied by the French invaders by decision Holy Alliance. Agrarian reform remained unimplemented. The unresolved agrarian question alienated the peasantry from the revolution, which at first actively supported it. In the autumn and winter of 1821, in the context of the intensification of the class struggle in the country, the revival of the counter-revolution based on the Holy Alliance, and provocations against revolutionary figures by the Feliu government (March 1821 - late 1821), mass protests took on an openly anti-government orientation. In August 1822, power passed into the hands of the right-wing exaltados - the Freemasons (the government of E. San Miguel). They did not take decisive action against the counter-revolution, which caused a sharp increase in the struggle of the Comuneros against the government from the fall of 1822. The government responded with repression against the Comuneros, while simultaneously waging military action against the ultra-royalists who had rebelled in various parts of the country. Under these conditions, the Holy Alliance undertook an open intervention; on April 7, 1823, the French army invaded Spain. The government failed to organize defense, and the bulk of the peasantry did not actively oppose the intervention. The interventionists met resistance only from individual military units and partisan detachments, as well as in cities with the most revolutionary-minded population, and quickly moved forward. On September 30, 1823, the constitutional government, which evacuated first to Seville and then to Cadiz, capitulated. On October 1, 1823, King Ferdinand VII restored the absolutist regime. Third Spanish Revolution 1834-43. It was closely connected with the 1st Carlist War (see Carlist Wars). In October 1833, regent Maria Cristina published a manifesto on the preservation of absolutist orders in Spain. The manifesto caused widespread discontent, forcing Maria Cristina to make concessions, including the formation in January 1834 of a government of moderados led by Martinez de la Rosa, and from June 1835 - Toreno. The moderados policy met with opposition from the liberal-bourgeois progressive party and caused popular uprisings, during which the slogan of restoring the Cadiz Constitution of 1812 was put forward. Revolutionary juntas were created locally, contributing to the consolidation democratic forces. Under their pressure, on September 14, 1835, a government of progressives was formed, headed by Mendizábal, which carried out a number of important reforms (including the sale of church lands). The subsequent attempt by Maria Christina to carry out a counter-revolutionary coup once again sparked an uprising. In August 1836, the constitution of 1812 was restored and the Calatrava government was created, which continued the sale of church lands, closed a number of monasteries, and restored the laws of the period of the revolution of 1820-23. The Constituent Cortes were convened and adopted a new constitution on June 18, 1837 (limiting the power of the monarch to bicameral Cortes). The moderate liberal policy of the progressives, who believed that with the introduction of the constitution and the sale of church lands (which passed largely into the hands of the bourgeoisie), the tasks of the revolution were completed, caused the republican democratic wing in the party itself to abandon them, which facilitated the triumph of counter-revolutionary forces. At the end of 1837, the progressives were removed from government, and until October 1840, successive governments were in power, whose policies were marked by an increasing reactionary tendency. Conservative forces began to group around the leader of the Moderados, General Narvaez, and progressives - around B. Espartero. Taking advantage of the indignation of the popular masses and relying on the army, Espartero seized power. On October 17, 1840, Maria Christina renounced the regency. In March 1841, elections were held for new Cortes and municipal bodies. Espartero, appointed regent, retained full power in his hands. However, soon General Narvaez, relying on the army, came to power; On July 23, 1843 he occupied Madrid; Espartero fled to Britain. Fourth Spanish Revolution 1854-56. It began with a military uprising, raised on June 28, 1854. In their program (Manzanares Manifesto, July 7, 1854), the rebels demanded the liquidation of the royal camarilla (royal court clique), the establishment of legality and the convening of constituent Cortes. The uprising was supported by the population of Madrid and other major cities in Spain. On July 31, 1854, Queen Isabella II was forced to appoint as prime minister the former regent of Spain Espartero, who formed a government of progressives and right-wing liberals. The national militia units created in July received legal status. On November 8, 1854, unicameral constituent cortes met in Madrid, most of the deputies of which belonged to the Liberal Union party (created in 1854 from right-wing liberals), led by Minister of War O'Donnell. The left wing of the Cortes consisted of progressives (supporters of Espartero) and a small group of Democratic-Republicans. In 1855 and 1856, the Cortes adopted laws on “demortization,” that is, the sale of lands that belonged to the church, monasteries, the state, as well as the lands of peasant communities. The constant personal rivalry between Espartero and O'Donnell gradually grew into a major political conflict, on the basis of which there was a division between supporters and opponents of the deepening of the revolution. O'Donnell received the support of Isabella II, court circles, the clergy and other conservative elements. In Catalonia, Valencia and Andalusia the republican movement was gaining strength. Barcelona workers organized a federation of their trade unions - the Union of Classes - in 1854 and held a general strike in July 1855. In the spring and summer of 1856, agrarian unrest began in Andalusia, Extremadura and Valladolid. On July 13, 1856, the queen resigned the Espartero government. On July 14, in Madrid, at the call of the progressive deputies of the founding Cortes, an uprising of the national militia and workers began, suppressed after three days of fierce struggle. Similar uprisings occurred in a number of other cities in the country. The new government formed by O'Donnell carried out - after the suppression of the uprisings - the dissolution of the national militia and the constituent Cortes, and restored the constitution of 1845 and other laws that were in force before the revolution. Fifth Spanish Revolution 1868-74. It began on September 18, 1868 in Cadiz with an uprising of the fleet led by Admiral Topete, followed by an army attack led by the highest representatives of the generals (Marshal Serrano, generals Prim, Dulce, etc.). The population of the largest cities - Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia, etc., led mainly by Democrats and Republicans, entered the fight. The revolution also swept the village. Revolutionary juntas began to emerge throughout the country. After the battle of Alcolea (Andalusia), Queen Isabella II fled the country (September 30) and on October 18, a provisional government led by Serrano was formed. However, Democrats and Republicans were not allowed into government. On June 6, 1869, a constitution was published proclaiming Spain a hereditary monarchy. The Constitution introduced universal suffrage for men, freedom of the press, assembly, associations, civil marriage, and for the first time in Spanish history proclaimed freedom of religion. On June 18, 1869, Serrano was appointed regent, Prim became premier. On November 16, 1870, Prince Amadeus of Savoy (son of King Victor Emmanuel II of Italy) was elected to the Spanish throne. The results of the revolution could not satisfy the broad masses. The strike struggle intensified in the country, and peasants fought for land. The demand for a republic was raised everywhere. Under the influence of the revolution, the creation of various organizations of Spanish workers accelerated. In October 1868, the Federal Center of Workers' Societies was formed in Barcelona, uniting over 25 thousand workers. At the end of 1868 and at the beginning of 1869, Spanish groups of the 1st International arose in Madrid and Barcelona. The proletariat of Spain for the first time acted as an independent political force and, despite the disruptive activities of the Bakuninists, actively fought for the republic. Republican uprisings began in December 1868. The reign of Amadeus of Savoy, attacked by Republicans on the left, supporters of Isabella and Carlists (supporters of the pretender to the Spanish throne Don Carlos the Elder) on the right, proved unstable. On February 11, 1873, Amadeus abdicated the throne, after which the Cortes proclaimed Spain a republic; A provisional republican government was formed, headed by the right-wing republican E. Figueres. In June 1873, new constituent cortes opened, elected on May 10, 1873. The head of the executive branch was the left-wing Republican F. Pi i Margal, whose government put forward a broad democratic program (including the abolition of slavery in Cuba). By mid-1873, the Cortes had developed the main provisions of the draft constitution, which provided for the establishment of a federal republic in Spain. The draft constitution caused discontent among Republicans - supporters of fragmenting the country into small independent cantons ("irreconcilable"). They used its publication as a reason to organize anti-government uprisings in various parts of the country (Bakuninists participated in the uprisings). In July 1873, the Pi-i-Margal government resigned. On January 3, 1874, General Pavia and Marshal Serrano carried out a coup d'etat, as a result of which a military dictatorship was established in the country. On December 29, 1874, as a result of a new coup carried out by General Campos, the son of Isabella II, Alfonso XII, was proclaimed king of Spain. The consequence of the incompleteness of the bourgeois revolutions was a compromise between the Spanish bourgeoisie and the feudal lords. The development of capitalism in Spain followed the so-called Prussian path, which doomed the Spanish peasantry to decades of the most painful expropriation and bondage.
SPANISH REVOLUTIONS of the 19th century, socio-political conflicts in Spain in 1808-74, associated with the process of transformation of Spanish society from the seigneurial regime to the bourgeois regime and which took the form of armed confrontation. The leading force in the Spanish Revolution of the 19th century was a bloc of liberal nobility and the emerging bourgeoisie. The Spanish revolutions were largely due to the failure of the attempted reforms in the spirit of enlightened absolutism undertaken by Charles III in the 2nd half of the 18th century.
The 1st Spanish Revolution of 1808-14 was closely connected with the struggle of the Spanish people against the French occupation. It began on May 2, 1808, with an uprising on the outskirts of French-occupied Madrid. In the summer of 1808, new authorities were created throughout the country - revolutionary juntas, the majority of whose members were representatives of the provincial nobility. On May 10, Napoleon I Bonaparte forced the Spanish king Ferdinand VII to abdicate the throne, and on June 4, 1808 announced the appointment of his brother Joseph (see Joseph I) as king of Spain. The formation of a pro-French government prompted the junta leaders to form an alternative national government. In September 1808, the Central Junta was created, headed by Count H. Floridablanca.
On September 24, 1810, on the island of Leon, near Cadiz (from February 20, 1811 in Cadiz), the Founding (Cadiz) Cortes gathered, consisting mainly of representatives of the liberal nobility, university professors, higher clergy and the commercial bourgeoisie. The Cortes adopted laws on equal rights for the population of the Spanish colonies and metropolis (October 14 - 15, 1811), on the abolition of feudal duties and privileges (August 6, 1811), a decree on the sale and distribution of empty and communal lands among peasants (January 4, 1813), and the abolition of the Inquisition ( 22.2.1813), etc. The culmination of the activities of the Cortes was the publication of the Cadiz Constitution of 1812, which declared the nation the bearer of sovereignty and supreme power. These and other decisions of the Cortes, however, were not implemented, since their power extended only to a small territory not occupied by French troops.
The combined Anglo-Spanish forces entered Madrid on August 12, 1812. On March 22, 1814, Ferdinand VII returned to the country. The Constitution and all acts of the Cortes were repealed, the most prominent figures of the Cortes and provincial juntas were arrested or expelled from the country.
The 2nd Spanish Revolution of 1820-1823 was caused by a protracted internal political crisis (several coup attempts were made in 1814-20), associated, among other things, with the loss of Spain's colonial possessions in Latin America (see the article War of Independence in Latin America) . It began on January 1, 1820 in Las Cabezas de San Juan, near Cadiz, with the rebellion of R. Riego y Nunez. The revolutionary struggle was led by the military, who were imbued with liberal ideas during the war against French rule of 1808-1813. 9.3.1820 Ferdinand VII was forced to restore the Cadiz Constitution of 1812 and in March - April form a constitutional government, which included former leaders of the revolution of 1808-1814, members of the Moderados party ("moderate") A. de Arguelles, Perez de Castro, J. Canga Argüelles and others. On July 9, 1820, the Cortes opened. In 1820-23, internal customs were abolished, the monopoly on salt and tobacco was abolished, guilds were dissolved, the General Regulations on Education were introduced (dividing education into primary, secondary and higher education), the Criminal Code, a people's militia was created, and church tithes were halved.
Representatives of the left liberal party - exaltados ("enthusiastic"; leaders - J. Romero Alpuente, J. Moreno Guerra, A. Alcala Galliano) demanded a radical solution to the agrarian question. In 1821, 1822, and 1823, the Cortes discussed a bill proposed by the exaltados that provided for the transfer of most of the seigneurial land to the peasants. In May 1823 the law came into force.
The majority of the rural population greeted the new laws with hostility. The cholera epidemic and drought of 1821 were used by absolutists and Catholic clergy to agitate against the policies of the government and the Cortes. In 1821, the Catholic organization “Apostolic Junta” was created in Galicia; a year later, the so-called Juntas of Faith became widespread in Catalonia, Navarre and Vizcaya. By the beginning of 1822, a civil war had actually broken out in the country. In July 1822, a counter-revolutionary coup was attempted, in which many ministers from the Moderados party took part. In August 1822, power passed into the hands of the right-wing exaltados, but they were unable to stabilize the internal political situation. On April 7, 1823, with the sanction of the Holy Alliance, French troops invaded Spain. The interventionists met virtually no resistance. Under these conditions, on June 11, the Cortes decided on the “moral insanity” of Ferdinand VII and the creation of a regency. On September 30, 1823, the constitutional government, which evacuated first to Seville and then to Cadiz, capitulated. 10/1/1823 Ferdinand VII restored the absolutist regime.
The 3rd Spanish Revolution of 1834-1843 was closely connected with the 1st Carlist War (see Carlist Wars), during which the rights to the Spanish throne of Isabella II were disputed by her uncle Don Carlos (1788-1855). In the fight against the supporters of Don Carlos, who expressed the interests of the highest landed aristocracy and the Catholic clergy, the regent of Isabella II, Maria Cristina (1806-1878), relied on the liberal nobility, the bourgeoisie, as well as the “progressive” party (leaders - J. A. Mendizábal, B Espartero; represented the interests of the middle and petty urban bourgeoisie).
In October 1833, Maria Cristina published a manifesto on the preservation of absolutism in Spain. The manifesto caused widespread discontent, forcing the regent to make some concessions. In January 1834, a government of moderados was formed, and in April the “Royal Statute” was issued, which envisaged the implementation of some liberal reforms. The policies of the moderates did not find the support of the progressives and became the cause of new popular uprisings. In September 1835, a government of progressives was formed, headed by J. A. Mendizábal, which carried out a number of liberal reforms (the introduction of universal conscription, abolition of primogeniture and other seigneurial rights). On May 15, 1836, Maria Christina dismissed the Progressive government. On August 12, 1836, in La Granja, where the court was located, the sergeants guarding the royal family rebelled (the so-called revolt of the sergeants). They forced Maria Cristina to sign a decree convening (on the basis of broad suffrage) the Constituent Cortes and restoring the government of the progressives. On June 18, 1837, the Cortes adopted a new constitution for Spain. The power of the monarch was limited to a bicameral parliament, the lower house of which was directly elected (a high property qualification was established), and the upper house (the Senate) was appointed. In December 1836 Spain officially recognized independence former colonies in Latin America. In 1836-37 demortization was carried out. In June 1837, a resolution was passed prohibiting the activities religious organizations with the exception of those who were engaged in educating the children of the poor or preparing missionaries for the Philippines.
At the end of 1837, the progressives were removed from government. Until September 1840, conservative forces led by General R. M. Narvaez were in power. The refusal to further reforms led to new popular uprisings. 10/12/1840 Maria Christina renounced the regency and left Spain a few days later. In March 1841, elections to the Cortes and municipal bodies were held, bringing victory to the progressives. B. Espartero resumed the sale of church lands, suspended by the last regent governments. However, Espartero's indecisive policy, his dependence on military circles (Espartero's rule went down in history as liberal Caesarism), and attempts to maintain an alliance with large landowners caused discontent among wide sections of the population. On July 23, 1843, Espartero was overthrown by General Narvaez, who established a dictatorship.
The 4th Spanish Revolution of 1854-1856 began with an uprising (28.6.1854) under the leadership of General L. O'Donnell. The rebels were supported by the country's largest cities. On July 31, 1854, B. Espartero, who returned from emigration, was appointed prime minister. On November 8, 1854, the unicameral Constituent Cortes met in Madrid, most of the deputies of which belonged to the Liberal Union party (created in 1854 by right-wing liberals) led by O’Donnell. The left wing of the Cortes consisted of progressives (supporters of Espartero) and a group of Democratic-Republicans. In 1855, the Constituent Cortes adopted a constitution that restored the main provisions of the 1837 constitution. In May 1855, the Law of General Demortization was published, completing the process of transforming seigneurial possessions into private property. 13.7.1856 Isabella II dismissed the Espartero government. This decision became the cause of the uprising of the people's militia and workers of Madrid, raised at the call of the progressive deputies of the Constituent Cortes. After 3 days the uprising was suppressed. The new government disbanded the people's militia and the Constituent Cortes, and restored the constitution of 1845 and other laws that had been in force before the revolution.
The 5th Spanish Revolution of 1868-1874 went down in history as the “democratic seven years”, accompanied by the most severe political upheavals and the proclamation of the first Spanish republic. It began on September 18-19, 1868 in Cadiz with a revolt of the fleet led by Admiral J. B. Topete y Carballo. 30.9.1868 Isabella II fled Spain. On October 18, 1868, a provisional government was formed headed by General F. Serrano y Dominguez. Power ended up in the hands of supporters of the constitutional monarchy - unionists (Serrano, Topete) and progressives (H. Prim, P. M. Sagasta). On February 11, 1869, the Constituent Cortes were convened, and on June 1, 1869, a new constitution was adopted, proclaiming Spain a hereditary monarchy. The power of the monarch was limited to the bicameral Cortes, which took the legislative initiative. For the first time, the upper house of the Cortes (Senate) became elected (four representatives from each province). The election of the king by the Cortes was allowed. According to the decree on elections to the Constituent Cortes of December 6, 1868, the right to vote was granted to all men over 25 years of age. The Constitution introduced freedom of the press, meetings, associations, civil marriage, and proclaimed freedom of religion. On November 16, 1870, Prince Amadeus of Savoy (son of King Victor Emmanuel II of Italy) was elected to the Spanish throne by 191 votes to 60.
The election of Amadeus of Savoy did not stop the revolutionary struggle, in which organizations of Spanish workers were increasingly involved. In October 1868, the Federal Center of Workers' Societies was formed in Barcelona, uniting over 25 thousand people. In December 1868, the first Spanish group of the 1st International was founded in Madrid. In 1869, Spanish Bakuninists (anarchists) took an active part in cantonal regional uprisings, the goal of which was to create a federal republic from below. All these upheavals took place against the backdrop of the 2nd Carlist War, which began in April 1872. 11.2.1873 Amadeus abdicated the throne. On the same day, both chambers of Cortes, declaring themselves the National Assembly, proclaimed Spain a republic.
In June 1873, new Constituent Cortes opened. They developed the main provisions of the draft constitution, which provided for the establishment of a federal republic in Spain. The head of the executive branch, left-wing Republican F. Pi i Margal, also formulated a broad program of democratic reforms. The draft constitution caused discontent among Republicans. Anti-government uprisings took place in various parts of the country. On January 3, 1874, General M. Pavia y Rodriguez and Marshal F. Serrano carried out a coup d'etat, and a military dictatorship was established in the country. On 12/29/1874, as a result of a new coup, the son of Isabella II - Alfonso XII the Appeaser - was recognized as the king of Spain.
As a result of the Spanish revolutions, there was a transition from absolutism to a constitutional monarchy, and the seigneurial regime was eliminated. At the same time, during the Spanish revolutions, many feudal remnants were not eliminated and the agrarian question was finally resolved. The new political elite (bourgeoisized landowners, the commercial and industrial bourgeoisie and military circles closely associated with them), having achieved satisfaction of their demands, showed no interest in continuing the reforms and became the basis political system restoration in Spain.
Lit.: Maisky I.M. Spain. 1808-1917. M., 1957; Oliet Palá A. El conflicto social y la legitimación de la monarquia ante la revolución de 1868. Madrid, 1989; Fernandez García A. El conflicto Iglesia-Estado en la Revolución de 1868 // Estudios historicos. Madrid, 1990. Vol. 2; Pozharskaya S.P. Revolution 1820-1823. in Spain // Latin America in a historical retrospective of the 16th-19th centuries. M., 1994; Alekseeva T. A. Legislation of the Spanish Revolution. 1808-1814. St. Petersburg, 1996; History of Europe: from ancient times to the present day. M., 2000. T. 5; Jover Zamora J. M., Gómez-Ferrer G., Fusi J. R. España: sociedad, politica y civilización (siglos XIX-XX). Madrid, 2001.
The decline, which began at the end of the 16th century, continued in the second half of the 17th century. From a world empire that played one of the leading roles in international affairs, the country turned into an object of struggle between France and England, who were attracted not so much by Spain itself as by its vast overseas colonies. In 1700, after the death of Charles II, who left no direct heirs, the European War of the Spanish Succession began. France supported Philip of Anjou, the grandson of Louis XIV, and Great Britain supported Archduke Charles, son of the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I.
The Treaty of Utrech in 1713 transferred the Spanish throne to the representative of the Bourbon dynasty, Philip V, while prohibiting the unification of France and Spain under the rule of one monarch; declared Gibraltar and the port of Mahon on the island of Minorca British possessions; transferred part of Tuscany, Milan, Naples, Sardinia and the Spanish Netherlands to Austria, and Sicily to Savoy.
Despite territorial losses and continued wars with Great Britain on the side of France (1739-1748, 1762-1763, 1779-1783), there were some improvements in Spain. The restoration of destroyed fortresses began, shipyards and arsenals were built, and military schools were opened. The economy began to develop due to the introduction of protectionist duties on the import of textile goods and the encouragement of the creation of public and private manufactories. Tax collection was streamlined. The most economically developed provinces were Catalonia, Asturias, and the Basque Country.
The expulsion of the Jesuit order with the complete confiscation of the wealth it had accumulated over a long time also had a significant impact. The concordat signed in 1753 consolidated Spain's political success: the Pope recognized the right of the Spanish monarch to fill most church positions and agreed that papal bulls become valid in the country only after their approval by the king.
In the 18th century, a liberal movement arose in the country, a new generation of statesmen, highly educated nobles who shared liberal beliefs appeared: G. de Jovellanos (1744-1811), X. Floridablanca (1728-1808), P. Campomanes (1723-1803 years) and others.
In 1793, Spain went to war with the French Republic, in which it was defeated. The Treaty of Basel in 1795 obliged Spain to enter into a military alliance with France and cede to it part of the island of Santa Domingo (Haiti). During the coalition with Napoleonic France, the country entered the war against Britain's ally, Portugal. Under the terms of the peace treaty in Badajoz, Portugal ceded part of the territory in the southeast to Spain, including the strategically important fortress of Olivenço, and closed its ports to British ships; the Portuguese king fled to Brazil. After Admiral G. Nelson's victory over the Franco-Spanish squadron in 1805 at Trafalgar, Great Britain regained control over Portugal.
In 1807, Napoleon declared war on Portugal and, with the assistance of Spain, occupied it. The presence of French troops on Spanish territory for no apparent reason, palace intrigues, contradictions between Charles IV and the heir to the throne Ferdinand, dissatisfaction of the prince's associates with the all-powerful favorite and first minister M. Godoy - all this became the reason for the palace coup. In 1808, Charles IV had to sign an abdication in favor of his son. Having learned about this, Napoleon ordered not to recognize Ferdinand VII as king, declared the Spanish throne vacant and ordered the entry of French troops into Madrid. By his order, the royal family was gathered in the French city of Bayonne on the border with Spain. Napoleon forced Ferdinand to renounce the throne in favor of his father, Charles IV signed an act transferring the throne to the French emperor, who in turn gave it to his brother Joseph.
The people of Madrid tried to prevent Ferdinand from leaving for Bayonne. An uprising broke out in the capital, brutally suppressed by the French garrison. However, anti-French sentiment caused a chain reaction of armed uprisings throughout the country, the main demands of which were the return of King Ferdinand VII and the rest of the royal family, as well as the convening of the Cortes. The highest nobility and nobility joined the anti-French militia forces. In the fall of 1808, the Central Junta of representatives of the nobility gathered, creating a unified command of the armed forces of Spain. Napoleon himself arrived in Spain and took command of the army. British-Portuguese troops provided assistance to the Spanish regular units. Given the clear superiority of the French, the war with the participation of the Spanish regular army gave way to guerrilla warfare, which became widespread.
The War of Independence resulted in the first revolution in Spanish history (1808-1814). In 1810, it was decided to hold elections to the Cortes. Deputies from the provinces occupied by the French were elected by patriotic residents who fled from the French to Cadiz. The Constitution, approved by the Cortes in 1812, was called Cadiz and was very progressive for its time. The people were proclaimed the bearer of supreme power. The legislative branch of government was represented by unicameral Cortes, elected for two years by men over 25 years of age, excluding domestic servants, bankrupts and criminals. The Cortes had to meet annually for at least three months, with a permanent deputation working during breaks. The king did not have the right to dissolve or convene parliament extraordinarily. Deputies had immunity and could not be elected to the Cortes for two consecutive terms. The executive branch of government was represented by the king and the government. The laws adopted by the Cortes were approved by the king. The sanction of the Cortes was required by the king to declare war and conclude peace, and to sign treaties with foreign states. The highest officials were appointed by the king from among the candidates proposed by the Cortes. The judiciary was declared independent. Government officials could not be deputies, and deputies had no right to accept honors or awards from the executive branch.
The Cortes issued decrees on the liquidation of the Inquisition, the abolition of feudal taxes in favor of the church, closed a number of monasteries, abolished the slave trade, granted residents of the American colonies equal rights with the Spaniards, and more.
With the outbreak of Napoleon I's war against Russia, Spain became an ally of the Russian Empire. Taking advantage of the failures of the French troops in Russia, the Spaniards, with the support of the British, inflicted a number of defeats on Napoleonic troops. In November 1813, Spanish-British troops pursuing the French entered French territory.
Returning to Spain, Ferdinand VII refused to swear allegiance to the Cortes. In 1814, having gathered supporters of the restoration of the absolute monarchy, he published a decree dissolving the Cortes and a manifesto abrogating the constitution.
The overseas colonies took advantage of Spain's weakening to start a war of independence. Due to the Napoleonic Wars and the occupation of Spain by the French, trade between the colonies and the mother country virtually ceased. At the same time, influential forces appeared within the colonies, striving for separation from Spain. Despite the crown's attempts to retain American possessions, Spain had lost its colonies in the New World by 1826. Cuba, the Philippines, Puerto Rico and Guam were lost in 1898 as a result of defeat in the war with the United States.
In the field of political and socio-economic development, the 19th century turned out to be extremely difficult for Spain - the country was going through a period of transformation and adaptation to new realities in the context of the irretrievable loss of its former power in Europe and beyond. Under these conditions, the three main institutions that embody national unity - the crown, the church and the army - fought over the choice of paths for the country's development. Significant events This struggle resulted in four bourgeois revolutions during the 19th century (in total, Spain experienced 5 revolutions in the 19th century).
The Second Spanish Revolution (1820-1823), which began with an armed uprising in Cadiz under the leadership of R. Riego y Nunez, achieved from Ferdinand VII the restoration of the Cadiz Constitution. A number of reforms have been carried out in the country. However, by decision of the Verona Congress of European Powers of the Holy Alliance, measures were taken to combat the Spanish Revolution: in 1823, as a result of the armed intervention of France, the previous order was restored, and the royal manifesto annulled all laws and decrees issued in Spain from March 1820 to October 1823 .
In the 1830s, a new threat to the regime appeared - the group of the king's brother Don Carlos (Carlists). Ferdinand VII, who had no sons, proclaimed his daughter Isabella as his heir, thereby abolishing the law on the transfer of the throne exclusively through the male line. Spain was rocked by a dynastic war (the first Carlist war, 1833-1840), which resulted in the third revolution (1834-1843). The dynastic war took on the character of a struggle between conservative and liberal-minded political forces.
In the first quarter of the 18th century, most of the fueros of Catalonia and a number of other regions of the country (Valencia, Aragon, Balearic Islands), which supported the Austrian pretender to the Spanish throne during the War of the Spanish Succession against the French Prince Philip V of Bourbon, were eliminated. In the Basque provinces, attempts to eliminate local liberties in the interests of an absolute monarchy began in the 18th century and continued in the 19th century until the abolition of fueros in 1876. Resistance to violent methods of centralization has acquired a character here armed struggle: in the 19th century, the provinces supported the Carlists - supporters of the brother of Ferdinand VII, who defended his rights to the throne against the widow of Ferdinand and her daughter Isabella and put forward the slogan of protecting the medieval fueros.
Yielding to the liberals, Ferdinand VII's widow Maria Cristina, regent under the minor Isabella, granted the country the Royal Statute of 1834, which created bicameral Cortes (the upper house was appointed by the monarch, and the lower house had the right to dissolve at any time), and suffrage was limited by a high property qualification. However, this was not enough: uprisings took place throughout the country demanding the restoration of the Cadiz Constitution and social reforms, and revolutionary provincial juntas arose again. The Constitution of 1837, being a compromise between the Cadiz Constitution and the Royal Statute of 1834, was a victory for moderate forces, guided by the political models of Great Britain, France and Belgium. The electoral qualification for elections to the lower house was significantly reduced; deputies were elected by direct vote at the rate of two deputies per 50 thousand inhabitants. The Senate was appointed by the king from among the persons represented to him by the electoral colleges; its composition changed by a third with each new election. The king retained the right to veto, convene, postpone and dissolve the Cortes, but if the Cortes were not convened by the head of state before December 1, they could assemble independently.
Isabella II, who ascended the throne in 1843, showed herself to be a supporter of the old order. Ineffective and dubious methods of governance caused a military coup (pronunciamiento) in the summer of 1854, which resulted in the fourth revolution of 1854-1856. The queen was forced to appoint General B. Espartero, leader of the progressives, participant in the war of independence, commander of the Carlist war, as head of the government. former first minister and regent of the kingdom during the previous revolution. A new liberal constitution was developed and adopted by the Cortes, and a decision was made to sell off lands that belonged to the church and the state (“demortization”). However, in the competition between supporters (progressives led by Espatero) and opponents (liberals led by Secretary of War O'Donnell) of deepening reforms, the latter won. The uprisings of the national militia were suppressed and pre-revolutionary order was restored.
Despite economic progress in the second half of the 19th century, Spain continued to remain a backward country. This was especially felt in agriculture. “Demortization” led to some redistribution of land property, but in general the agrarian question remained unresolved.
The fifth revolution in Spain covers the period 1868-1874. It began with a mutiny in the fleet led by Admiral Topete. The mutiny was supported by part of the army led by Marshal Serrano, General Prim and others, as well as by the population major cities(led by Republicans and Democrats). Troops loyal to Queen Isabella II were defeated and she fled the country. The provisional government was headed by Serrano. In 1869, a new constitution was adopted that guaranteed broad political rights and freedoms. At the same time, the monarchy remained in Spain: in 1870, the son of the Italian king Victor Emmanuel III, Amadeus of Savoy, ascended the throne.
Transformations in the political sphere did not stop the growth of instability against the backdrop of increased protests by supporters of the republic, Carlists, and supporters of the deposed Isabella II.
As a result, Amadeus of Savoy abdicated the throne in February 1873, and the Cortes voted to establish a republican system in the country. The left-wing republican F. Pi-i-Margal was elected to the post of chairman of the government of the First Republic, proposing a program of social transformation. At the same time, a draft constitution was developed, according to which Spain was declared a federal republic with some autonomy for the historical regions. However, the opponents of Pi-i-Margal - the “irreconcilables” and the Bakuninists - advocated a confederation (the country was supposed to be divided into small independent cantons). The country was again engulfed in uprisings. Pi-i-Margal resigned. At the beginning of January 1874, a military coup was organized led by General Pavia and Marshal Serrano, and at the end of 1874, during a new coup, the son of Isabella II, Alfonso XII, was proclaimed king of Spain.
The restoration of the monarchy opened a new period in political history Spain. The constitution adopted after the end of the Second Carlist War in 1876, being a compromise between the constitutions of 1845 and 1869, enshrined the basic principles of the established Restoration regime. Spain was proclaimed a hereditary constitutional monarchy. Legislative power belonged to the king and the bicameral Cortes. At the same time, restrictions on the right to vote (property qualifications) were introduced. Broad powers of the executive branch were secured.
After the Restoration, two major political parties emerged - conservatives and liberals, which replaced each other in power, while the liberals played the role of a loyal opposition. Over the years, the difference between conservatives and liberals became smaller and smaller, and parties split into warring factions. The electoral system was characterized by the tradition of the so-called “caciquism”, when in areas (primarily rural) the local large landowner became the decisive political figure - the head of the district, who was called “cacique” (this was the name in Spanish America for the leaders of Indian tribes who had unlimited power and bound by any laws). It was he who was responsible for the political reliability of the residents, contributed the desired result parliamentary elections, appointed the head of the body local government. Conservatives and liberals alike used methods to rig elections.
Opponents of the monarchy were weakened by splits and repression. Peasant protests continued, including terrorist ones (“Black Hand”, 1883). From the middle of the 19th century, the influence of anarchists spread in the labor movement in Spain, one of whose methods was terror. Marxists founded the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) in 1879. In 1888, the country's first trade union was created - the General Union of Workers (GTU), adjacent to the PSOE. In Spain, two directions in the labor movement began to develop in parallel: in Catalonia, Andalusia and Aragon, the influence of anarchists predominated, in Madrid, Asturias, and the Basque Country - the influence of socialists.
IN last quarter In the 19th century, the movement for autonomy in Catalonia and the Basque Country intensified. Despite the centralization of the state, under the conditions of the industrial revolution, the increasing unevenness of economic development (agrarian conservative center and advanced industrial “periphery”) turned into a factor of disintegration. The rise of regionalist movements is an expression of the conflict between the center and the periphery.
In Catalonia in 1892, a congress of representatives of the Catalan bourgeoisie and intelligentsia met, at which the program of the regionalist movement was adopted, which in 1901 became the basis of the political platform of the Regionalist League party. The regionalist movement in the Basque Country took other forms. The development of heavy and mining industry in a region dominated for centuries by a closed rural community with a clan-based social structure, and the huge influx of migrants from other provinces of the country (mainly from central Spain) to work in the iron ore mines of Vizcaya caused an explosion of nationalist sentiment in Basque society. Unlike Catalonia, where successful entrepreneurs, lawyers, and representatives of noble families emerged as ideologists and political leaders of the regionalist movement, and the rise of nationalist sentiment was accompanied by the revival of the Catalan language and literature, in the Basque Country the nationalist ideology from the very beginning acquired a militant character, its features became conservatism, and sometimes reactionary, a tendency towards isolationism, which was determined by the history of this region.
On the territory of modern Israel. They founded the city of Cadiz, which was then called Gadir or Gader. This city became the center of the Phoenician colonies.
Subsequently, the Phoenicians, being skilled sailors, reached Africa and founded the state of Carthage there with the capital of the same name (the territory of modern Tunisia). The inhabitants of Carthage continued to develop new lands, including the Iberian Peninsula. After 680 BC Carthage became the main center of Phoenician civilization, and the Carthaginians established a trade monopoly in the Strait of Gibraltar.
On east coast The Greeks settled, their city-states were located on the territory of modern Costa Brava.
At the end of the First Punic War, Hamilcar and Hannibal subjugated the south and east of the peninsula to the Carthaginians (237-219 BC). Then the Carthaginian military leader Hamilcar created the Punic Empire and moved the capital to New Carthage (Cartagena). New Carthage becomes the center of development of the Iberian Peninsula.
After the defeat of the Carthaginians, whose troops were led by Hannibal, in the Second Punic War in 210 BC. e., the Romans came to the Iberian Peninsula. The Carthaginians finally lost their possessions after the victories of Scipio the Elder (206 BC).
But for almost two centuries, the Celtiberians resisted the Roman Army in the central and northern parts of the peninsula. The Basque tribes that inhabited the northern part of the Iberian Peninsula were never conquered, which explains their modern distinct language dialect, which has nothing in common with the Latin group of languages.
Roman period in the history of Spain
Gradually, the Romans conquered the entire Iberian Peninsula, but they succeeded only after 200 years of bloody wars. Spain became the second most important center of the Roman Empire after Italy itself. She gave the first provincial consul, the emperors Trajan, Hadrian and Theodosius the Great, the writers Martial, Quintilian, Seneca and the poet Lucan.
Spain fell completely under the influence of the Romans. Local languages were forgotten. The Romans built a network of roads in the interior of the Iberian Peninsula. In large centers of Roman Spain, such as Tarraco (Tarragona), Italica (near Seville) and Emerita (Merida), theaters, arenas and hippodromes were built, bridges and aqueducts were erected. There was active trade in metals, olive oil, wines, wheat and other goods through the seaports. Not only did trade flourish, industry and agriculture were at a high level of development. The population was very large (according to Pliny the Elder, under Vespasian there were 360 cities here).
Christianity penetrated into Spain very early and began to spread, despite bloody persecution. The Christian Church had a good organizational structure even before the baptism of the Roman Emperor Constantine in 312.
From the second half of the 5th century. n. e. until 711-718
On the territory of Spain - the feudal state of the Visigoths. They defeated Rome in 410, in the 5th century. captured most of the Iberian Peninsula. At the beginning of the 8th century. the Visigothic state was conquered by the Arabs, who created a number of feudal states on its territory
Arab domination
But Spain was also under the yoke, only the Arab one, which, starting from the 8th century, lasted more than 700 (!) years, with 718 year to 1492 the year when the last Arab stronghold in Spain fell - the Emirate of Granada. And apparently, the Arab yoke for the peoples of Spain (being, of course, also a national tragedy, only it lasted not 230, but 700 years) at the same time served as a powerful incentive for the struggle for national revival and the creation of a strong, united Spanish state.
Reconquista
The Spaniards fought continuously against the Arab conquerors starting in 718. Their “Battle of Kulikovo” was a battle in the Covadonga River valley in Asturias back in 718, when local militia led by Pelayo defeated a detachment of Arabs.
From that time on, the so-called “ Reconquista" - i.e., the war to recapture Spanish lands from the Arabs. It was during the Reconquista, which lasted 700 (!) years, the Spanish kingdoms of Aragon, Castile and others arose, which later, in their common interests of joint struggle against the Arabs, voluntarily united as a result of the dynastic union of Castile and Aragon 1479 into a unified Spanish state. And already 13 years after that, in 1492 year, the Arab yoke in Spain was over.
16th century
The Spaniards, united in the fight against a common enemy into a single state, at the same time carried out colonial conquests in America and created a vast and prosperous Spanish Empire by the middle of the 16th century. The heyday of the Spanish Empire under Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand V. However, the influx of gold from overseas did not contribute to the development of the country's economy; numerous Spanish cities remained primarily political, but not trade and craft centers. The policies of the ruling circles increasingly suppressed the development of trade and crafts, exacerbating the economic and then political lag of Spain behind other countries. Western Europe. From the middle of the 16th century. under King Philip II - economic decline, wars with England, loss of maritime dominance. Beginning of the period of the "House of Austrian Kings" (1516).
17th century
By the end of the 17th century, the country's economy and state apparatus fell into complete decline, cities and territories were depopulated. Due to a lack of money, many provinces returned to barter trade. Despite extremely high taxes, the once luxurious Madrid court found itself unable to pay for its own maintenance, often even for royal meals.
XVIII century
1701-1714
The struggle of European dynasties for the Spanish throne. War of the Spanish Succession. It began after the death in 1700 of the last Spanish Habsburg. In 1701, France placed Louis XIV's grandson Philip V of Bourbon on the throne of Spain; Austria, Great Britain, Holland, Prussia and others (“Coalition”) opposed it.
Major battles:
1704 - under Hochstedt
1709 p at Madiplaka
1712 - under Denen
1713-1714
End of the War of the Spanish Succession. Peace of Utrecht and Rastatt (1714). The main result of the war was the strengthening of England's maritime and colonial power. The end of the “House of Austrian Kings” period. Spain and its colonies were left to Philip of Bourbon in exchange for his and his heirs' renunciation of their rights to the French throne. The Habsburgs (Austria) received Spanish possessions in the Netherlands and Italy. Great Britain received Gibraltar and the city of Mayon on the island of Menorca, as well as the right to import black slaves into the American possessions of Spain (“asiento right”) and a number of possessions in North America from France. In the 18th century The monetary unit of Spain -1 peseta, equal to 100 centimes, was introduced into circulation.
In the middle of the 18th century A number of important reforms were carried out in the country. Taxes were lowered, the state apparatus was updated, and the rights of the Catholic clergy were significantly limited.
Further transformations led to positive results. In Catalonia and some port cities, the development of manufacturing began, and trade with the colonies flourished. But due to the complete economic decline of the previous period, the development of industry and transport in the country was possible only by the state and required large loans.
19th century
During the 19th century, starting with 1808 years, Spain experienced five (!) revolutions, which followed almost with the frequency of a courier train: after 6, 11, 11 and 12 years, one after another, until the revolution 1868-1874 years. During this period, the Spaniards developed five draft Constitutions, of which four were adopted and worked. The first, the so-called Cadiz Constitution"was adopted in 1812.
Five unfinished revolutions:
1. Revolution of 1808-1814
Merged with the struggle against the French occupiers.
The most important events: - a popular uprising in March 1808 in the city of Aranjuez, where the imperial court was located, which spread to Madrid. Result: resignation of Prime Minister M. Godoy and abdication of Charles IV (King Carlos the Elder of Spain) in favor of his son Ferdinand (King Ferdinand VII); - entry of French troops into Madrid on March 20, 1808, capture of King Ferdinand VII of Spain by the French;
A meeting in Bayonne in June-July 1808 of representatives of the nobility and high administration (“Bayonne Cortes”), which recognized Joseph Bonaparte as the king of Spain and adopted the Bayonne Constitution. The constitution was proposed by Napoleon I and defined Spain as a constitutional monarchy with a powerless Cortes;
The armed struggle of the people and the remnants of the regular army against foreign invaders;
The creation of government bodies (juntas) in the liberated territories and, in September 1810, the Central Junta;
Convocation on September 24, 1810 on the island. Leon of the Constituent Assembly of Spain, which moved on February 20, 1811 to the city of Cadiz (“Cadiz Cortes”). The Cadiz Cortes operated until September 20, 1812. They adopted the Cadiz Constitution of 1812 and a number of democratic anti-feudal laws (freedom of speech and press, destruction of the rights and privileges of lords, etc.). The constitution was in force from 1812-4814. in territory unoccupied by the French. Proclaimed Spain a constitutional monarchy;
The victory of the counter-revolution after the defeat of the armies of Napoleon I by the allied forces, the return of King Ferdinand VII from French captivity in 1814 and the restoration of the absolute monarchy.
2. Revolution 1820-1823
Occurred 6 years after the first revolution. Major events:
The speech of the people under the leadership of the leader of the party of left liberals ("exaltados") Riero y Nunez in January 1820 in Cadiz;
In March 1830, the Cadiz Constitution of 1812 was restored;
In March - April 1820, the formation of the constitutional Government of the party of right-wing liberals (“moderados”), which carried out a number of reforms;
In August 1822, power was transferred to the exaltados government, and a law on agrarian reform was adopted, which was not implemented;
September 30, 1823 - capitulation of the constitutional Government; - On October 1, 1823, King Ferdinand VII restored the absolute monarchy.
3. Revolution 1834-1843
Occurred 11 years after the second revolution under the 4-year-old daughter of Ferdinand VII, Queen Isabella and regent Maria Christina. King Ferdinand VII died in 1833.
Major events:
In October 1833, the manifesto of the regent Maria Christina on the preservation of absolutist orders after the death of the king;
In January 1834, the government of "moderados" was formed;
Popular uprisings under the slogan of restoring the Cadiz Constitution of 1812;
In September 1835, the formation of a government of the bourgeois-liberal Progressive Party, which began selling off church lands;
In June 1837, the convening of the Constituent Cortes and their adoption of a new Constitution, which retained the king’s right of veto;
At the end of 1837, the progressives were removed from power;
In October 1840, the progressives again came to power (the government of General B. Espartero);
In July 1843, a counter-revolutionary coup led by General Narvaez (Duke de Valencia, head of the Moderados party, head of several governments in the following years until 1868) Restoration of Queen Isabella II, who was 13 years old, to the throne. In fact, until 1851
Military dictatorship of Gen. Narvaez.
4. Revolution 1854-1856
It happened again under Queen Isabella II 11 years after the third revolution.
Major events:
June 28, 1854 military uprising and forced appointment by Queen Isabella II of the progressive General B. Espartero as prime minister;
In November 1854, the convening of the Constituent Cortes. Adoption of laws on “depreciation” (sale of lands of the church, monasteries, state, peasant communities);
On April 13, 1856, Queen Isabella II dismissed Prime Minister B. Espartero. In response, uprisings began and were suppressed;
Formation of the new government of O'Donnell (Count of Lusensky, Duke of Tetouan, head of the "Liberal Union"
The party of right-wing liberals, founded in 1854. An opponent of the deepened revolution, prepared a counter-revolutionary coup (1856). Dissolution of the Constituent Cortes, restoration of the Constitution of 1845 and other pre-revolutionary laws;
Queen Isabella II's restoration of absolute monarchy
5. Revolution 1868-1874
Occurred again under Queen Isabella II 12 years after the fourth revolution.
Major events:
Emigration of Queen Isabella II;
February 11, 1869, convening of the Constituent Cortes, which adopted a constitution introducing democratic freedoms;
On November 16, 1870, Amadeus of Savoy, a representative of the dynasty of rulers of Savoy, kings of the Kingdom of Sardinia, and kings of the united Kingdom of Italy, was elected to the throne. Republican uprisings, the emergence of Spanish groups of the First International;
June 1873 - meeting of the new Constituent Cortes, which developed a draft of a new Republican Constitution. Left Republican F. Pi i Margal (1824-1901) was elected Prime Minister
Revolutionary democrat, utopian socialist;
July 1873 - anti-government uprisings with the active participation of anarchists-Bakuninists under the slogan of fragmenting the country into small cantons. Fall of the Pi-i-Margal government;
December 29, 1874 - a new coup, the monarchy was restored, Alfonso XII (son of Queen Isabella II) was proclaimed king of Spain.
Despite the fact that each of these revolutions ultimately ended in the defeat and restoration of the absolute monarchy, the sacrifices and hardships endured by the people could not be in vain: civil legal awareness certainly grew in society, and the vector of its democratic development appeared and increased.
Defeat in the war with the United States and the loss of almost all Spanish colonies was perceived in Spain as a national catastrophe. 1898 the year brought the Spaniards an acute sense of national humiliation. The reasons for the military defeat were immediately related to the economic, social and political problems of the country's development. IN late XIX- early 20th century a number of labor laws were adopted, which introduced the most basic standards of labor legislation in Spain European countries.
XX century
During the First World War, Spain maintained neutrality, but its economy suffered seriously.
After the overthrow of King Alfonso XIII of Spain in the last revolution in 1931, the royal family emigrated to Italy. A Republic was proclaimed in Spain, then a civil war began, which ended in 1939 with the capture of Madrid by rebels and the establishment of a lifelong dictatorship Francisco Franco.
Franco became, for various reasons, a sovereign dictator with unlimited powers. As far as is known, he did not at all show benevolent feelings towards the monarchy in general and the royal family in particular. Rather, it’s the other way around. Franco ruled harshly, single-handedly, and competitors, even defeated ones, were, to put it mildly, undesirable for him. To govern the country, he did not even need partners (especially from monarchist circles). However, later, just 8 years later, in 1947, Franco takes an unexpected and unconventional step. He announces a new, non-gradational form of government for the country, officially defining Spain as “ Kingdom under an unoccupied throne»
Moreover, Franco himself was then only 58 years old, he was the recognized leader of the nation (“Caudillo”), his power was stable, and he had no intention of giving it up to anyone,
Franco brings closer to himself the grandson of the deposed King Alfonso XIII, Prince Juan Carlos (born in 1938, parents are the son of King Alfonso XIII, Juan de Bourbon and the granddaughter of the English Queen Victoria, Maria de Bourbon y Orleans). In 1948, the prince moved permanently to Spain, later studying at the Academy of the Ground Forces, Air Force and Navy, as well as at the University of Madrid. In 1962, Juan Carlos married Princess Sofia, the daughter of the Greek King Paul I and Queen Federica.
Finally, in July 1969, Franco solemnly proclaimed Juan Carlos Prince of Spain (without, of course, renouncing his powers as dictator).
Thus, Franco not only strengthened his personal power after the end of World War II and the collapse of the ideas of fascism (when anti-fascist sentiment sharply increased in society), but also, and what is much more important! - consistently and ahead of time prepared for himself a successor who (given the mentality of the Spanish people) immediately became unattainable for any possible contenders for power both during this period and after the death of Franco.
It is well known from the history of many countries that after a strong ruler, and even more so an illegitimate dictator, there usually comes a very troubled time of struggle for power, which brings great misfortune to the country and the people. Franco did not act like many dictators like him, who acted on the principle: “After me, at least sweat!” and did not allow any candidates for successor next to them, but showed great statesmanship, true concern for his people and the future of the country.
Apparently, this is why, despite all the cruelties and injustices of his regime, Spaniards in our time rarely speak badly of him. They do not discuss this period and prefer not to talk about it. However, the monument to Franco, erected back then on the former Avenue Generalissimo, and now Castellan Avenue in Madrid, still stands.
In Spain, until very recently, coins of those years with Franco’s profile were in use. Moreover, about 50 km from Madrid there is a place called “EL ESCORIAL”. There is a super-giant pantheon complex with Franco's grave and the graves of both his fascist supporters and his Republican opponents. Both of them. Now it is a place of pilgrimage for tourists.
Thanks to Franco, Spain, being a country with a totalitarian fascist regime, not only developed relatively well economically in the difficult pre-war period, not only relatively bloodlessly followed its historical path as an ally of German fascism between the Scylla of Germany and Charybdis of the USSR with its Western allies during the Second World War, but even after the death of the dictator it was able to smoothly transition to the democratic path of its development, although in form a monarchy was again established in the country, although not absolute, but constitutional.
And monarchs are no longer what they used to be. Juan Carlos, who replaced Franco, is a comprehensively educated person with democratic convictions and a modern thinker. This is, so to speak, an “enlightened monarch.”
And Franco, having been in power continuously for 36 years as a “Caudillo,” that is, the sole leader and leader of the nation, died quietly in his bed in 1975 at the age of eighty-three.
In November of the same 1975, according to Franco’s will, Prince Juan Carlos was proclaimed King of Spain. This happened 44 years after the overthrow of his grandfather, King Alfonso XIII, from the throne.
Already in April 1977, trade unions and left-wing political (including communist) parties were legalized in Spain, diplomatic relations with Russia (USSR) were restored, and a cooperation agreement was concluded between the United States and Spain. December 1978 the new constitution came into force in 1982 year, Spain was admitted to NATO, and in 1985 became a member of the European Community
Thus, just 10 years after the end of the brutal and long military-fascist dictatorship, Spain carried out its “perestroika” without any special storms and shocks and turned into a prosperous democratic state in Europe.
The most important events of the 20th century
1931-1939
Democratic revolution of the socialist type.
Major events:
December 9, 1931 - adoption of the Constitution of the Republic; - 1933 - creation of the fascist party “Spanish Phalanx” (from the second half of the 50s called the “National Movement”);
January 1936 - creation of the Popular Front;
February 16, 1936 - victory of the Popular Front in the elections, agrarian reform, large banks and enterprises were placed under state control; - July 17-18, 1936 - Franco’s military-fascist rebellion;
March 1939 - fall of the Republic, establishment of Franco's dictatorship.
1947
Spain is declared a "Kingdom of the Vacant Throne."
1953
Spanish-American agreements on US military bases in Spain July 1969 Franco proclaimed King Alfonso XIII's grandson Juan Carlos Prince of Spain. Juan Carlos studied in Portugal in 1946, and in Spain since 1948. From 1955 to 1960 he was a student at the Academy of Ground Forces, Navy and Air Force, in 1960-1962. studied at the University of Madrid. Since 1962 he has been married to Princess Sofia, daughter of the Greek King Paul I and Queen Federica. The wedding ceremony in Athens was attended by 137 kings, queens, princes and princesses from around the world.
1975
Death of Franco. After the death of Franco, Prince Juan Carlos was proclaimed King Juan Carlos of Spain in November 1975. 1. The scope of the anti-fascist movement. Democratization of the country's political life.
April 1977 Legalization of trade unions and left-wing political parties (including the communist one), dissolution of the party National movement("Spanish Phalanx") Replacement of the 1953 Spanish-American treaty on military bases with a cooperation agreement between Spain and the United States, restoration of diplomatic relations with the USSR.
December 1978
Entry into force of the new Constitution.
March 1979
Parliamentary elections, victory of the Union of Democratic Center party.
1982
Adoption of Spain into NATO: In October 1982, victory in the parliamentary elections of the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party.
1985
Admission of Spain to the EEC.
XXI Century
Well, what is Spain like today? This is a country with a government structure in the form of a constitutional monarchy. The head of state is the king. The legislative body is a bicameral parliament (Cortes). The population is about 40 million people, 68% live in cities. Nationalities: Spaniards (about 75%), Catalans, Basques, Galicians. The country has 50 main administrative units - provinces, which are included in 17 autonomous historical regions, the so-called "autonomies". These include: Asturias, Cantabria, Basque Country, Navarre, Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia, Murcia, Andalusia, Extremadura, Leon, Galicia, Castile and some others.
Detailed history of Spain
History of ancient Spain
The first historical information about Spain
First historical information about Spain are given by foreigners, since the original population of the peninsula, which we know from the remains of material culture that have reached us, did not leave evidence recorded in writing that would allow a more complete interpretation of the material finds.
The lack of accurate information about the ancient history of Spain does not allow us to reconstruct the course of events of that distant era.
It is believed that already in the 18th century. BC. Spain waged wars with. However, until the 12th century. BC, when, according to very plausible data, Cadiz was founded by the Phoenicians, it is impossible to outline any plausible chronological outline.
More or less accurate dating of events related to the history of Spain becomes possible only from the 11th century. BC. However, the first written evidence that talks about Spain dates back only to the 6th century. BC. These are a few and meager texts from Carthaginian and Greek authors that barely shed light on the events of the early history of the Iberian Peninsula. By the 5th and 4th centuries. BC. include evidence from Greek historians and travelers, fragmentary and beyond explanation. Much more complete are later sources dating back to the last two centuries BC. and the first centuries of our era, based on more ancient writings that have not reached us.
In the same way, in the Bible, in various books of the Old Testament, an area called Tarshish or Tarsis is mentioned, which many researchers consider one of the regions of Spain (the southern part of Andalusia - the Guadalquivir Valley or the Murcia region).
Iberians
The territory of Spain has been inhabited since ancient times.
Already in the 3rd millennium BC. e. Iberian tribes appeared in the south and east of Spain. It is not known exactly where they came from; some hypotheses connect their ancestral home to North Africa. These tribes gave the peninsula its ancient name - Iberian.
The Iberians lived in fortified villages, were engaged in agriculture, cattle breeding and hunting. They had metal tools made of copper and bronze. In those ancient times, the Iberians already had their own written language.
The ancient people who created the history of another country well known to us - Georgia, also bore the name Iberians. There is still debate about whether there is a connection between the Spanish and Georgian Iberians.
Amazing similarities can be observed in the historical destinies of different countries! The Iberians created the ancient history of another country well known to us - Georgia. It turns out that the eastern Georgian Iberian tribes lived on the territory of what is now Spain, who formed the basis for the formation of the Georgian people. And the ancient name of Spain “Iberia” (as, by the way, the modern name of the leading Spanish airline) is an ancient and Byzantine name. Eastern Georgia (“Kartli”).
Kartli, in turn, was a historical region in Eastern Georgia in the valley of the Kura River and from the 4th century BC was called the “Kartlian Kingdom of Iberia”. Here is more information about the two Iberias.
Since the end of the 10th century AD, Iberia-Kartli, with its capital in Tbilisi, formed the core of a single Georgian state, which in 1801 joined Russia. This is the connection between times and peoples.
Celtiberians
Later the Celts came to Iberia. The Celts preferred to wage war and herd livestock rather than engage in agriculture.
The Celts and Iberians lived side by side, sometimes uniting, but more often fighting each other. Gradually, the peoples merged and created the Celtiberian culture, famous for its belligerence. It was the Celtiberians who invented the double-edged sword, which was later adopted by the Roman army and often used against its own inventors.
The union of Celtiberian tribes had its own capital - Numantia.
Turdetans
And in Andalusia at the same time there was a state of Tartessus. It is still unknown exactly where the inhabitants of Tartessus, the Turdetans, came to Spain from. They were at a higher stage of development than the Iberians, although they were close to them.
Phoenicians
Around 1100 BC e. The Phoenicians sailed here. They scurried around the colonies of Melaka, Gadir (Cadiz), Cordoba and many others. They named the country where the Turdetans lived Tarshish. Perhaps it is this rich area of "Tarshish" that is mentioned in the Bible.
Carthaginian colonization
Not only the Iberians and Celts lived on the Iberian Peninsula in the 1st millennium BC. The fertile lands of Spain also attracted other peoples. The first people whose activities in Spain have evidence recorded in writing were the Phoenicians. The date of their first appearance in Spain is not precisely known. There is an assumption that the Phoenicians around 1100 BC. e. founded Cadiz, at that time called Agadir or Gadir.
There is no doubt that the Phoenicians in the 8th and 7th centuries. BC e. traveled along the coast of Spain, exploring the lands of the peninsula; The descriptions and routes of these raids are called peripluses.
There are statements by ancient scientists who lived in the 1st century. BC e., that Greek historians owe the first reports about Spain to the Phoenicians.
In Spain, the Phoenicians mainly sought to conduct trade and exploit the mines. They settled in certain areas and founded cities, trading posts and warehouses there. Sometimes their strongholds were located near native settlements, sometimes in uninhabited places. For this purpose, they chose mainly islands or capes close to the coast, where there were convenient natural harbors. Situated in such places, the settlements were easy to defend. The Phoenicians erected their fortresses there, arranged warehouses and sanctuaries.
The most important Phoenician colonies were Melcarthea (Algeciras), Malaka (Malaga), Eritia (Sankti Petri), Sexi (Hate), Abdera (Adra), Hispalis (Seville), Agadir or Hades (Cadiz), Ebusa (Ibisa), etc. The Phoenicians called the entire Iberian Peninsula Span, or Spania (“unknown”, remote, country).
The Phoenician colonies in Spain, in the process of rapid development, achieved a certain political and administrative independence from the metropolis. The center of these colonies was Cadiz. The Phoenicians initially limited themselves to barter trade only; then they introduced money into Spain, minted in many Phoenician colonies.
After the decline of the Phoenician metropolis, its power was inherited by the Phoenician colony on the northern coast of Africa - Carthage. Already in the 7th century. BC e. Carthage became a major trading center and achieved dominance over the other fraternal colonies of the Phoenicians in the West. The Carthaginians established a trade monopoly in the Strait of Gibraltar.
The Phoenicians on the Iberian Peninsula had to deal with the Greeks. The main settlement of the Greeks was Emporion, or Emporia (“market”), located in what is now Castellon de Empurias (province of Girona). The Spanish territory over which they dominated was called Hesperia, or Iberia, by the Greeks.
In the VI century. BC e. Carthage's influence increased significantly. The ancient Phoenician colonies of Spain were absorbed and made directly dependent on Carthage. The Carthaginians traded with the Tartessian federation in the Guadalquivir River valley, but made no attempt to conquer it.
For a long time, Carthage maintained peaceful relations with the rising Rome; both sides entered into trade treaties and, to a certain extent, shared dominance over the Mediterranean.
However, in the end, a war broke out between them in Sicily, in which the Romans won, ousting the Carthaginians from there. This was the First Punic War (264–241 BC).
After this, a new stage of Carthaginian colonization of the Iberian Peninsula began. It can be seen as the systematic subjugation of the country. The Carthaginians sought to turn the peninsula into a springboard for subsequent wars with Rome. Thus, the Carthaginian colonization was provoked by the Romans.
Senate of Carthage in 237 BC entrusted the capture of Spain to the talented commander and politician Hamilcar from the aristocratic family of Barkidiv, who was at the head of the military party.
In an extremely short time, Hamilcar captured the southern part of the peninsula, between the Guadalquivir and Guadiana rivers.
This was the beginning of the Carthaginian state in Spain.
The best lands of Spain - its southern and eastern shores - became Phoenician possessions; new cities were founded there. In 227 BC. e. General Hasdrubal founded the city of Cartagena on the coast of the Iberian Peninsula near the only good harbor on the southern coast, thus ensuring control over the rich mineral deposits of the Southeast.
Cartagena became the capital of the new state and the largest colony of the Carthaginians on the territory of modern Spain.
This city, standing on the shore of a convenient bay and surrounded by inaccessible hills, immediately turned into one of the most important trading centers of the entire western coast of the Mediterranean Sea.
Not far from the city, mining began from silver mines, which brought huge profits. Some of them were sent by Hasdrubal to Carthage, the other part went to create and strengthen the mercenary army.
From the Iberian Peninsula, Carthage received more and more income every year.
Carthaginian rule in Spain was firmly established, and the southern part of the Iberian Peninsula seemed a strong springboard for an advance on Rome.
Rome took retaliatory action. The small Iberian city of Saguntum decided to fall under Roman rule in the face of the threat of attack by the Carthaginians.
The Roman Senate was at first hesitant, but later, in 220, decided to accept Saguntum under the protectorate of Rome in order to be able to control Spain.
Hamilcar's son Hannibal in 220 BC. attacked Saguntum, a city under the protection of Rome. In the ensuing Second Punic War, the Carthaginian troops, led by Hannibal, in 210 BC. uh, they were defeated. This paved the way for the establishment of Roman dominance in the peninsula. In 209 the Romans captured Cartagena, marched through the entire territory of Andalusia and in 206 forced the surrender of Gadir.
Thus, after a series of defeats, dominance in the Iberian Peninsula gradually began to pass to Rome.
Roman domination
Visigothic period in the history of Spain
Arab domination
Reconquista
During the entire period of Muslim rule in Spain, Christians waged a continuous centuries-long war against them, which was called the Christian Reconquista (translated as “reconquest”). The Reconquista was started by part of the Visigothic nobility under the leadership of Pelayo. In 718, the Muslim advance was stopped at Covadonga.
In the mid-8th century, Asturian Christians, led by Pelayo's grandson, King Alfonso I, took advantage of the Berber uprising to occupy neighboring Galicia. Conquests continued under Alfonso II (791-842).
The advance of the Arabs into Europe was stopped by the Franks in the north-west of Spain by the Franks, whose king was then Charlemagne. The Franks created the Spanish March in the northeast of the peninsula (the border territory between the possessions of the Franks and Arabs), which broke up in the 9th-11th centuries into the counties of Navarre, Aragon and Barcelona (in 1137 Aragon and Barcelona united into the kingdom of Aragon).
North of the Duero and Ebro, four groups of Christian states gradually formed:
- in the north-west Asturias, Leon and Galicia, which were later united into the kingdom of Castile;
- the Basque country, together with the neighboring region, Garcia, was proclaimed the Kingdom of Navarre,
- a country on the left bank of the Ebro, Aragon, an independent kingdom since 1035;
- arose from the Spanish mark of the Margraviate of Barcelona, or Catalonia.
In 1085, Christians captured Toledo, and then Talavera, Madrid and other cities fell under Christian rule.
At the Battle of Merida (1230), Extremadura was taken from the Arabs; after the Battle of Jerez de Guadiana (1233), Cordoba was recaptured, and twelve years later - Seville.
The Portuguese kingdom expanded almost to its present size, and the king of Aragon conquered Valencia, Alicante and the Balearic Islands.
The Reconquista resulted in the Spanish peasants and city dwellers who fought alongside the knights receiving significant benefits. Most of the peasants did not experience serfdom, free peasant communities arose on the liberated lands of Castile, and cities (especially in the 12th-13th centuries) received greater rights.
Muslims moved in thousands to Africa and to Grenada or Murcia, but these states also had to recognize the supremacy of Castile. The Muslims who remained under Castilian rule gradually adopted the religion and customs of the victors; many rich and noble Arabs, having been baptized, joined the ranks of the Spanish aristocracy. By the end of the 13th century, only the Emirate of Grenada remained on the peninsula, forced to pay tribute.
In 1340, Alfonso XI won a brilliant victory at Salado, and four years later, with the conquest of Algeziras, Grenada was cut off from Africa.
In 1469, the marriage between Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile took place, the union of the Castilian and Aragonese crowns marked the beginning of the Kingdom of Spain. However, the political unification of Spain was completed only at the end of the 15th century; Navarre was annexed in 1512.
In 1478, Ferdinand and Isabella established an ecclesiastical court - the Inquisition, designed to protect the purity of the Catholic faith.
In 1492, with the support of Isabella, Columbus made his first expedition to the New World and founded Spanish colonies there. Ferdinand and Isabella move their residence to Barcelona.
In the same 1492, Granada was liberated. As a result of more than 10 years of struggle by the Spaniards, the Emirate of Granada, the last stronghold of the Moors on the Iberian Peninsula, fell. The conquest of Granada (January 2, 1492) ends the Reconquista.
History of Spain in the 16th and first half of the 17th century.
After the end of the Reconquista in 1492, the entire Iberian Peninsula, with the exception of Portugal, was united under the rule of the Spanish kings. Spain also belonged to Sardinia, Sicily, the Balearic Islands, the Kingdom of Naples and Navarre.
In 1516, Charles I ascended the throne. On his mother’s side, he was the grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella, and on his father’s side, he was the grandson of Emperor Maximilian I of Habsburg. From his father and grandfather, Charles I inherited the Habsburg possessions in Germany, the Netherlands and lands in South America. In 1519, he achieved his election to the throne of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation and became Emperor Charles V. Contemporaries, not without reason, said that in his domain “the sun never sets.” At the same time, the Aragonese and Castile kingdoms, connected only by a dynastic union, remained politically divided throughout the 16th century: they retained their class-representative institutions - the Cortes, their legislation and judicial system. Castilian troops could not enter the lands of Aragon, and the latter was not obliged to defend the lands of Castile in the event of war. Within the Kingdom of Aragon itself, its main parts (especially Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia and Navarre) also retained significant political independence.
The fragmentation of the Spanish state was also manifested in the fact that until 1564 there was no single political center; the royal court moved around the country, most often stopping in Valladolid. Only in 1605 did Madrid become the official capital of Spain.
Economically, the individual regions had little connection with each other. This was largely facilitated by geographical conditions: mountainous landscape, lack of navigable rivers through which communication between the north and south of the country would be possible. The northern regions - Galicia, Asturias, the Basque Country - had almost no connection with the center of the peninsula. They carried on brisk trade with England, France and the Netherlands through the port cities of Bilbao, A Coruña, San Sebastian and Bayonne. Some areas of Old Castile and Leon gravitated towards this area, the most important economic center of which was the city of Burgos. The southeast of the country, especially Catalonia and Valencia, were closely connected with Mediterranean trade - there was a noticeable concentration of merchant capital here. The interior provinces of the Castilian kingdom gravitated towards Toledo, which for ancient times was a major center of crafts and trade.
The young king Charles I (V) (1516-1555) was brought up in the Netherlands before ascending the throne. He spoke Spanish poorly, and his retinue and entourage consisted mainly of Flemings. In the early years, Charles ruled Spain from the Netherlands. The election to the imperial throne of the Holy Roman Empire, the journey to Germany and the expenses of the coronation required enormous funds, which placed a heavy burden on the Castilian treasury.
Seeking to create a “world empire,” Charles V, from the first years of his reign, viewed Spain primarily as a source of financial and human resources for pursuing imperial policy in Europe. The king's widespread involvement of Flemish confidants in the state apparatus, absolutist claims were accompanied by a systematic violation of the customs and liberties of Spanish cities and the rights of the Cortes, which caused discontent among wide sections of the burghers and artisans. The policy of Charles V, directed against the highest nobility, gave rise to mute protest, which at times grew into open discontent. In the first quarter of the 16th century. the activities of opposition forces concentrated around the issue of forced loans, which the king often resorted to from the first years of his reign.
In 1518, in order to pay off his creditors, the German bankers Fuggers, Charles V managed with great difficulty to obtain a huge subsidy from the Castilian Cortes, but this money was quickly spent. In 1519, the king, in order to receive a new loan, was forced to accept the conditions put forward by the Cortes, among which were the following demands:
- so that the king does not leave Spain,
- did not appoint foreigners to government positions,
- did not leave the collection of taxes to them.
However, immediately after receiving the money, the king left Spain, appointing the Fleming Cardinal Adrian of Utrecht as governor.
Revolt of the urban communes of Castile (comuneros)
The king's violation of the signed agreement was a signal for the uprising of urban communes against royal power, called the revolt of the communes (1520-1522). After the king's departure, when the deputies of the Cortes, who had shown excessive compliance, returned to their cities, they were met with general indignation. In Segovia, artisans—clothmakers, day laborers, washers, and wool carders—revolted. One of the main demands of the rebel cities was to prohibit the import of woolen fabrics from the Netherlands into the country.
In the summer of 1520, the armed forces of the rebels, led by the nobleman Juan de Padilla, united within the framework of the Holy Junta. The cities refused to obey the governor and prohibited his armed forces from entering their territory.
In the spring and summer of 1520, almost the entire country came under the control of the Junta. The Cardinal Viceroy, in constant fear, wrote to Charles V that “there is not a single village in Castile that does not join the rebels.” Charles V ordered the demands of some cities to be met in order to split the movement.
In the fall of 1520, 15 cities withdrew from the uprising; their representatives, meeting in Seville, adopted a document on withdrawal from the struggle, which clearly showed the patriciate’s fear of the movement of the urban lower classes. In the autumn of the same year, the cardinal-vicar began open military action against the rebels.
Taking advantage of the hostility between the nobility and the cities, the Cardinal Viceroy's troops went on the offensive and defeated the troops of Juan de Padilla at the Battle of Villalar (1522). The leaders of the movement were captured and beheaded. For some time, Toledo held out, where Juan de Padilla’s wife, Maria Pacheco, operated. Despite the famine and epidemic, the rebels held firm. Maria Pacheco hoped for help from the French king Francis I, but in the end she was forced to seek salvation in flight.
In October 1522, Charles V returned to the country at the head of a detachment of mercenaries, but by this time the movement had already been suppressed.
Simultaneously with the uprising of the Castilian communeros, fighting broke out in Valencia and on the island of Mallorca. The reasons for the uprising were basically the same as in Castile, but the situation here was aggravated by the fact that city magistrates in many cities were even more dependent on the grandees, who turned them into an instrument of their politics.
Economic development of Spain in the 16th century
The most populous part of Spain was Castile, where 3/4 of the population of the Iberian Peninsula lived. As in the rest of the country, land in Castile was in the hands of the crown, the nobility, the Catholic Church and spiritual knightly orders. The bulk of the Castilian peasants were personally free. They held the lands of spiritual and secular feudal lords in hereditary use, paying a monetary qualification for them. In the most favorable conditions were the peasant colonists of New Castile and Granada, who settled on lands conquered from the Moors. Not only did they enjoy personal freedom, but their communities enjoyed privileges and liberties similar to those enjoyed by the Castilian cities. This situation changed after the defeat of the Comuneros revolt.
The socio-economic system of Aragon, Catalonia and Valencia differed sharply from the system of Castile. Here in the 16th century. The most brutal forms of feudal dependence were preserved. The feudal lords inherited the property of the peasants, interfered in their personal lives, could subject them to corporal punishment and even put them to death.
The most oppressed and powerless part of the peasants and urban population of Spain were the Moriscos - descendants of the Moors who were forcibly converted to Christianity. They lived mainly in Granada, Andalusia and Valencia, as well as in rural areas of Aragon and Castile, were subject to heavy taxes in favor of the church and state, and were constantly under the supervision of the Inquisition. Despite persecution, the hardworking Moriscos have long grown such valuable crops as olives, rice, grapes, sugar cane, and mulberry trees. In the south, they created a perfect irrigation system, thanks to which they received high yields of grain, vegetables and fruits.
For many centuries, transhumance sheep breeding was an important branch of agriculture in Castile. The bulk of the sheep flocks belonged to a privileged noble corporation - Mesta, which enjoyed special patronage from the royal power.
Twice a year, in spring and autumn, thousands of sheep were driven from north to south of the peninsula along wide roads (cañadas) laid through cultivated fields, vineyards, and olive groves. Tens of thousands of sheep, moving across the country, caused enormous damage to agriculture. Under pain of severe punishment, the rural population was forbidden to fence their fields from passing herds.
The place enjoyed enormous influence in the country, since the largest herds belonged to the representatives of the highest Castilian nobility united in it. At the beginning of the 16th century, they achieved confirmation of all the previous privileges of this corporation, which caused significant damage to agriculture.
The tax system in Spain also hampered the development of capitalist elements in the country's economy. The most hated tax was alcabala - a 10% tax on every trade transaction; in addition, there was also a huge number of permanent and emergency taxes, the size of which increased all the time throughout the 16th century, absorbing up to 50% of the income of the peasant and artisan.
Spain was the first country to experience the impact of the price revolution. During the 16th century, prices increased 3.5-4 times. Already in the first quarter of the 16th century. There was an increase in prices for basic necessities, and above all for bread. It would seem that this circumstance should have contributed to the growth of agricultural marketability. However, the system of taxes (maximum prices for grain) established in 1503 artificially kept prices for bread low, while other products quickly became more expensive. This led to a reduction in cereal crops and a sharp drop in grain production in the mid-16th century. Since the 30s, most regions of the country imported bread from abroad - from France and Sicily. Imported bread was not subject to the law on taxes and was sold at 2-2.5 times more expensive than grain produced by Spanish peasants.
The conquest of the colonies and the unprecedented expansion of colonial trade contributed to the rise of handicraft production in the cities of Spain and the emergence of individual elements of manufacturing production, especially in cloth making. In its main centers - Segovia, Toledo, Seville, Cuenca - manufactories arose. A large number of spinners and weavers in the cities and surrounding areas worked for the buyers. At the beginning of the 17th century, the large workshops of Segovia numbered several hundred hired workers.
Since Arab times, Spanish silk fabrics, famous for their high quality, brightness and color fastness, have enjoyed great popularity in Europe. The main centers of silk production were Seville, Toledo, Cordoba, Granada and Valencia. Expensive silk fabrics were little consumed on the domestic market and were mainly exported, just like those produced in southern cities brocade, velvet, gloves, hats: At the same time, coarse cheap woolen and linen fabrics were imported into Spain from the Netherlands and England.
In 1503, Seville's monopoly on trade with the colonies was established and the Seville Chamber of Commerce was created, which exercised control over the export of goods from Spain to the colonies and the import of goods from the New World, mainly consisting of gold and silver bullion. All goods intended for export and import were carefully registered by officials and were subject to duties in favor of the treasury.
Wine and olive oil became the main Spanish exports to America. Investing money in colonial trade gave very great benefits (the profit here was much higher than in other industries). In addition to the Seville merchants, merchants from Burgos, Segovia, and Toledo took part in colonial trade. A significant part of merchants and artisans moved to Seville from other regions of Spain, primarily from the north. The population of Seville grew rapidly: from 1530 to 1594 it doubled. The number of banks and merchant companies increased. At the same time, this meant the actual deprivation of other areas of the opportunity to trade with the colonies, since due to the lack of water and convenient land routes, transporting goods to Seville from the north was very expensive. The monopoly of Seville provided the treasury with huge revenues, but it had a detrimental effect on the economic situation of other parts of the country. The role of the northern regions, which had convenient access to Atlantic Ocean, was reduced only to the protection of flotillas heading to the colonies, which led their economy to decline at the end of the 16th century.
The development of the main branch of Spanish industry - the production of woolen fabrics - was hampered by the export of a significant part of the wool to the Netherlands. In vain, Spanish cities demanded to limit the export of raw materials in order to lower their price on the domestic market. Wool production was in the hands of the Spanish nobility, who did not want to lose their income and, instead of reducing wool exports, sought the publication of laws allowing the import of foreign cloth. 1
Despite the economic growth of the first half of the 16th century, Spain remained generally an agrarian country with an underdeveloped internal market; certain areas were locally closed economically.
Political system
During the reigns of Charles V (1516-1555) and Philip II (1555-1598), central power was strengthened, but the Spanish state was politically a motley conglomerate of disunited territories. The management of individual parts of this huge state reproduced the order that had developed in the Aragon-Castilian kingdom itself, which formed the political core of the Spanish monarchy. At the head of the state was the king, who headed the Castilian Council; There was also an Aragonese Council that governed Aragon, Catalonia and Valencia. Other Councils were in charge of territories outside the peninsula: the Flanders Council, the Italian Council, the Council of the Indies; These areas were governed by viceroys, appointed, as a rule, from representatives of the highest Castilian nobility.
The strengthening of absolutist tendencies in the 16th - first half of the 17th centuries led to the decline of the Cortes. Already in the first quarter of the 16th century, their role was reduced exclusively to voting new taxes and loans to the king. Increasingly, only city representatives began to be invited to their meetings. Since 1538, the nobility and clergy were not officially represented in the Cortes. At the same time, in connection with the massive relocation of nobles to the cities, a fierce struggle broke out between the burghers and the nobility for participation in city government. As a result, the nobles secured the right to occupy half of all positions in municipal bodies. In some cities, for example in Madrid, Salamanca, Zamora, Seville, a nobleman had to be at the head of the city council; The city mounted militia was also formed from nobles. Increasingly, nobles acted as representatives of cities in the Cortes. This indicated the strengthening of the political influence of the nobility. True, the nobles often sold their municipal positions to wealthy townspeople, many of whom were not even residents of these places, or rented them out.
The further decline of the Cortes was accompanied in the middle of the 17th century. depriving them of the right to vote taxes, which was transferred to city councils, after which the Cortes ceased to be convened.
In the XVI - early XVII centuries. large cities, despite significant advances in industrial development, largely retained their medieval appearance. These were urban communes, where the urban patriciate and nobles were in power. Many city residents who had fairly high incomes purchased “hidalgia” for money, which freed them from paying taxes, which fell heavily on the middle and lower strata of the urban population.
The beginning of the decline of Spain
Charles V spent his life on campaigns and almost never visited Spain. Wars with the Turks, who attacked the Spanish state from the south and the possessions of the Austrian Habsburgs from the southeast, wars with France due to dominance in Europe and especially in Italy, wars with his own subjects - the Protestant princes in Germany - occupied his entire reign. The grandiose plan to create a world Catholic empire collapsed, despite Charles's numerous military and foreign policy successes. In 1555, Charles V abdicated the throne and handed over Spain, along with the Netherlands, colonies and Italian possessions, to his son Philip II (1555-1598).
Philip was not a significant person. Poorly educated, narrow-minded, petty and greedy, extremely persistent in pursuing his goals, the new king was deeply convinced of the steadfastness of his power and the principles on which this power rested - Catholicism and absolutism. Sullen and silent, this clerk on the throne spent his entire life locked in his chambers. It seemed to him that the papers and instructions were enough to know everything and manage everything. Like a spider in a dark corner, he weaved the invisible threads of his politics. But these threads were torn by the touch of the fresh wind of a stormy and restless time: his armies were often beaten, his fleets sank, and he sadly admitted that “the heretical spirit promotes trade and prosperity.” This did not stop him from declaring: “I prefer not to have subjects at all than to have heretics as such.”
Feudal-Catholic reaction was raging in the country; the highest judicial power in religious matters was concentrated in the hands of the Inquisition.
Leaving the old residences of the Spanish kings of Toledo and Valladolid, Philip II set up his capital in the small town of Madrid, on the deserted and barren Castilian plateau. Not far from Madrid, a grandiose monastery arose, which was also a palace-burial vault - El Escorial. Severe measures were taken against the Moriscos, many of whom continued to practice the faith of their fathers in secret. The Inquisition fell especially fiercely on them, forcing them to abandon their previous customs and language. At the beginning of his reign, Philip II issued a number of laws that intensified persecution. The Moriscos, driven to despair, rebelled in 1568 under the slogan of preserving the caliphate. Only with great difficulty did the government manage to suppress the uprising in 1571. In the cities and villages of the Moriscos, the entire male population was exterminated, women and children were sold into slavery. The surviving Moriscos were expelled to the barren regions of Castile, doomed to hunger and vagrancy. The Castilian authorities mercilessly persecuted the Moriscos, and the Inquisition burned “apostates from the true faith” in droves.
The economic decline of Spain in the second half of the 16th and 17th centuries.
In the middle of the XVI - XVII centuries. Spain entered a period of prolonged economic decline, which first affected agriculture, then industry and trade. Speaking about the reasons for the decline of agriculture and the ruin of the peasants, sources invariably emphasize three of them: the severity of taxes, the existence of maximum prices for bread and the abuses of the Place. Peasants were driven from their lands, communities were deprived of their pastures and meadows, this led to the decline of livestock farming and a reduction in crops. The country was experiencing an acute shortage of food, which further inflated prices.
In the second half of the 16th century. In Spain, the concentration of land ownership in the hands of the largest feudal lords continued to increase.
A significant part of the noble estates enjoyed the right of primogeniture; they were inherited only by the eldest son and were inalienable, that is, they could not be mortgaged or sold for debts. Church lands and the possessions of spiritual knightly orders were also inalienable. Despite the significant debt of the highest aristocracy in the 16th-17th centuries, unlike England and France, the nobility retained its land holdings and even increased them by purchasing domain lands sold by the crown. The new owners eliminated the rights of communities and cities to pastures, seized communal lands and plots of those peasants whose rights were not properly formalized. In the 16th century the right of primogeniture extended to the possessions of the burghers. The existence of majorates removed a significant part of the land from circulation, which hampered the development of capitalist tendencies in agriculture.
While agricultural decline and grain plantings declined throughout the country, industries associated with colonial trade flourished. The country imported a significant portion of its grain consumption from abroad. At the height of the Dutch Revolution and the religious wars in France, real famine began in many areas of Spain due to the cessation of grain imports. Philip II was forced to allow even Dutch merchants who brought grain from the Baltic ports into the country.
At the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th century. economic decline affected all sectors of the country's economy. Precious metals brought from the New World largely fell into the hands of the nobles, and therefore the latter lost interest in the economic development of their country. This determined the decline of not only agriculture, but also industry, and primarily textile production. Already at the beginning of the 16th century. in Spain there were complaints about the destruction of crafts, about the massive ruin of artisans.
It would be possible to reduce the cost of production by introducing protectionist duties, reducing prices for agricultural products and raw materials within the country, banning their export. Despite repeated requests from cities to reduce the export of wool, it constantly increased and almost quadrupled from 1512 to 1610. Under these conditions, expensive Spanish fabrics could not withstand competition with cheaper foreign ones, and Spanish industry lost markets in Europe, in the colonies, and even in its own country. Trading companies in Seville, starting from the middle of the 16th century, began to increasingly resort to replacing expensive Spanish products with cheaper goods exported from the Netherlands, France, and England. The fact that until the end of the 60s, i.e. during the period of its formation, when it especially needed protection from foreign competition, the commercial and industrial Netherlands were under Spanish rule also had a negative impact on Spanish manufacturing. These areas were considered by the Spanish monarchy as part of the Spanish state. The duties on wool imported there, although increased in 1558, were two times lower than usual, and the import of finished Flemish cloth was carried out on more favorable terms than from other countries. All this had the most disastrous consequences for Spanish manufacture; The Spanish merchants withdrew their capital from manufactures, since participation in the colonial trade in foreign goods promised them great profits.
By the end of the century, against the background of the progressive decline of agriculture and industry, only colonial trade continued to flourish, the monopoly of which continued to belong to Seville. Its highest rise dates back to the last decade of the 16th century. and by the first decade of the 17th century. However, since Spanish merchants traded mainly in foreign-made goods, gold and silver coming from America hardly stayed in Spain. Everything went to other countries in payment for goods that were supplied to Spain itself and its colonies, and were also spent on the maintenance of troops. Spanish iron, smelted on charcoal, was replaced on the European market by cheaper Swedish, English and Lorraine iron, in the production of which coal began to be used. Spain now began to import metal products and weapons from Italy and German cities.
Northern cities were deprived of the right to trade with the colonies; their ships were entrusted only with guarding caravans heading to and from the colonies, which led to the decline of shipbuilding, especially after the Netherlands rebelled and trade along the Baltic Sea sharply declined. The death of the “Invincible Armada” (1588), which included many ships from the northern regions, dealt a heavy blow. The population of Spain increasingly flocked to the south of the country and emigrated to the colonies.
The state of the Spanish nobility seemed to do everything to disrupt the trade and industry of their country. Enormous sums were spent on military enterprises and the army, taxes increased, and public debt grew uncontrollably.
Even under Charles V, the Spanish monarchy made large loans from foreign bankers the Fuggers, to whom, in order to repay the debt, they were given income from the lands of the spiritual knightly orders of Sant Iago, Calatrava and Alcantara, whose master was the King of Spain. Then the Fuggers got their hands on the rich mercury-zinc mines of Almaden. At the end of the 16th century, more than half of the treasury's expenses came from paying interest on the national debt. Philip II declared state bankruptcy several times, ruining his creditors, the government lost credit and, in order to borrow new amounts, had to provide Genoese, German and other bankers with the right to collect taxes in individual regions and other sources of income, which further increased the leakage of precious metals from Spain .
The outstanding Spanish economist of the second half of the 16th century, Tomas Mercado, wrote about the dominance of foreigners in the country’s economy: “No, they couldn’t, the Spaniards couldn’t calmly look at the foreigners prospering on their land; the best possessions, the richest majorates, all the income of the king and nobles are in their hands.” Spain was one of the first countries to embark on the path of primitive accumulation, but the specific conditions of socio-economic development prevented it from following the path of capitalist development. The huge funds received from the robbery of the colonies were not used to create capitalist forms of economy, but were spent on unproductive consumption of the feudal class. In the middle of the century, 70% of all income from the post treasury came from the metropolis and 30% came from the colonies. By 1584, the ratio had changed: income from the metropolis amounted to 30%, and from the colonies - 70%. The gold of America, flowing through Spain, became the most important lever of primitive accumulation in other countries (and primarily in the Netherlands) and significantly accelerated the development of the capitalist structure in the bowels of feudal society there. In Spain itself, which began in the 16th century. the process of capitalist development came to a halt. The disintegration of feudal forms in industry and agriculture was not accompanied by the emergence of a capitalist mode of production. This was the main reason for the economic decline of the country.
If the bourgeoisie not only did not strengthen, but was completely ruined by the middle of the 17th century, then the Spanish nobility, having received new sources of income, strengthened economically and politically. It lived exclusively by robbing the people of its country and the peoples of the provinces and colonies dependent on Spain. Within it there was no such group as the English “new nobility” or the French “nobility of the robe”.
Spanish absolutism
As the trade and industrial activity of cities declined, internal exchange decreased, communication between residents of different provinces weakened, and trade routes became empty. The weakening of economic ties exposed the old feudal characteristics of each region, and the medieval separatism of the cities and provinces of the country was resurrected.
Under the current conditions, Spain did not develop a single national language; separate ethnic groups still remained: Catalans, Galicians and Basques spoke their own languages, different from the Castilian dialect, which formed the basis of literary Spanish. Unlike other European countries absolute monarchy in Spain did not play a progressive role and was unable to ensure true centralization.
Foreign policy of Philip II
The decline soon became evident in Spanish foreign policy. Even before ascending the Spanish throne, Philip II was married to the English Queen Mary Tudor. Charles V, who arranged this marriage, dreamed not only of restoring Catholicism in England, but also, by uniting the forces of Spain and England, to continue the policy of creating a worldwide Catholic monarchy. In 1558, Mary died, and the marriage proposal made by Philip to the new Queen Elizabeth was rejected, which was dictated by political considerations. England, not without reason, saw Spain as its most dangerous rival at sea. Taking advantage of the revolution and the war of independence in the Netherlands, England tried in every possible way to ensure its interests here to the detriment of the Spanish ones, not stopping at open armed intervention. English corsairs and admirals robbed Spanish ships returning from America with a cargo of precious metals and blocked trade in the northern cities of Spain.
Spanish absolutism set itself the task of crushing this “heretical and robber nest”, and if successful, taking possession of England. The task began to seem quite feasible after Portugal was annexed to Spain. After the death of the last representative of the reigning dynasty in 1581, the Portuguese Cortes proclaimed Philip II their king. Together with Portugal, the Portuguese colonies in the East and West Indies also came under Spanish rule. Reinforced by new resources, Philip II began to support Catholic circles in England that were intriguing against Queen Elizabeth and promoting a Catholic, the Scottish Queen Mary Stuart, to the throne in her place. But in 1587, the plot against Elizabeth was discovered, and Mary was beheaded. England sent a squadron to Cadiz under the command of Admiral Drake, who, breaking into the port, destroyed the Spanish ships (1587). This event marked the beginning of an open struggle between Spain and England. Spain began to equip a huge squadron to fight England. The “Invincible Armada,” as the Spanish squadron was called, sailed from La Coruña to the shores of England at the end of June 1588. This enterprise ended in disaster. The death of the "Invincible Armada" was a terrible blow to the prestige of Spain and undermined its naval power.
Failure did not prevent Spain from making another political mistake - intervening in the civil war that was raging in France. This intervention did not lead to an increase in Spanish influence in France, nor to any other positive results for Spain. With the victory of Henry IV of Bourbon in the war, the Spanish cause was finally lost.
Spain's fight against the Turks brought more victorious laurels. The Turkish danger looming over Europe became especially noticeable when the Turks captured most of Hungary and the Turkish fleet began to threaten Italy. In 1564 the Turks blockaded Malta. Only with great difficulty was it possible to save the island. In 1571, the combined Spanish-Venetian fleet under the command of Charles V's illegitimate son Juan of Austria inflicted a decisive defeat on the Turkish fleet in the Gulf of Lepanto, which stopped further maritime expansion of the Ottoman Empire. However, the winners failed to reap the benefits of their victory; even Tunisia, captured by Don Juan, again fell to the Turks.
By the end of his reign, Philip II had to admit that almost all his extensive plans had failed, and the naval power of Spain had been broken. The northern provinces of the Netherlands broke away from Spain. The state treasury was empty. The country was experiencing a severe economic decline.
Spain at the beginning of the 17th century.
With the accession of Philip III (1598-1621) to the throne, the long agony of the once powerful Spanish state began. The poor and destitute country was ruled by the king's favorite, the Duke of Lerma. The Madrid court amazed contemporaries with its pomp and extravagance, while the masses were exhausted under the unbearable burden of taxes and endless extortions. Even the Cortes, obedient in everything, to whom the king turned for new subsidies, were forced to declare that there was nothing to pay, since the country was completely ruined, trade was killed by the alcabala, industry was in decline, and the cities were empty. Treasury revenues were declining, and fewer and fewer galleons loaded with cargo were arriving from the American colonies. precious metals, but this cargo often became the prey of English and Dutch pirates or fell into the hands of bankers and moneylenders who lent money to the Spanish treasury at huge interest rates.
Expulsion of the Moriscos
The reactionary nature of Spanish absolutism was expressed in many of its actions. One of the clearest examples of this is the expulsion of the Moriscos from Spain. In 1609, an edict was issued according to which the Moriscos were to be expelled from the country. Within a few days, under pain of death, they had to board ships and go to Barbary (North Africa), carrying only what they could carry in their arms. On the way to the ports, many refugees were robbed and killed. In the mountainous regions, the Moriscos resisted, which accelerated the tragic outcome. By 1610, over 100 thousand people were evicted from Valencia. The Moriscos of Aragon, Murcia, Andalusia and other provinces suffered the same fate. In total, about 300 thousand people were expelled. Many became victims of the Inquisition and died during the expulsion.
Spain and its productive forces were dealt another blow, hastening its further economic decline.
Foreign policy of Spain in the first half of the 17th century
Despite the poverty and desolation of the country, the Spanish monarchy retained its inherited claims to play a leading role in European affairs. The collapse of all the aggressive plans of Philip II did not sober up his successor. When Philip III came to the throne, the war in Europe was still ongoing. England acted in alliance with Holland against the Habsburgs. Holland defended its independence from the Spanish monarchy with arms in hand.
The Spanish governors in the Southern Netherlands did not have sufficient military forces and tried to make peace with England and Holland, but this attempt was thwarted due to the excessive claims of the Spanish side.
Died in 1603 British Queen Elizabeth I. Her successor, James I Stuart, radically changed England's foreign policy. Spanish diplomacy managed to draw the English king into the orbit of the Spanish foreign policy. But that didn't help either. In the war with Holland, Spain could not achieve decisive success. The commander-in-chief of the Spanish army, the energetic and talented commander Spinola, could not achieve anything in conditions of complete depletion of the treasury. The most tragic thing for the Spanish government was that the Dutch intercepted Spanish ships from the Azores and waged a war with Spanish funds. Spain was forced to conclude a truce with Holland for a period of 12 years.
After the accession of Philip IV (1621-1665), Spain was still ruled by favorites; The only new thing was that Lerma was replaced by the energetic Count Olivares. However, he could not change anything - the forces of Spain were already exhausted. The reign of Philip IV marked the final decline in Spain's international prestige. In 1635, when France directly intervened in the Thirty Years, Spanish troops suffered frequent defeats. In 1638, Richelieu decided to strike Spain on its own territory: French troops captured Roussillon and subsequently invaded the northern provinces of Spain.
But there they encountered resistance from the people. By the 40s of the 17th century. Spain was completely exhausted. The constant strain on finances, the extortion of taxes and duties, the rule of an arrogant, idle nobility and fanatical clergy, the decline of agriculture, industry and trade - all this gave rise to widespread discontent among the masses. Soon this dissatisfaction burst out.
Deposition of Portugal
After Portugal joined the Spanish monarchy, its ancient liberties were left intact: Philip II sought not to irritate his new subjects. The situation changed for the worse under his successors, when Portugal became the object of the same merciless exploitation as the other possessions of the Spanish monarchy. Spain was unable to hold on to the Portuguese colonies, which passed into Dutch hands. Cadiz attracted Lisbon's trade, and the Castilian tax system was introduced in Portugal. The silent discontent growing in wide circles of Portuguese society became clear in 1637; this first uprising was quickly suppressed. However, the idea of setting aside Portugal and declaring its independence did not disappear. One of the descendants of the previous dynasty was nominated as a candidate for the throne. The conspirators included the Archbishop of Lisbon, representatives of the Portuguese nobility, and wealthy citizens. On December 1, 1640, having captured the palace in Lisbon, the conspirators arrested the Spanish viceroy and proclaimed Joan IV of Braganza king.
History of Spain in the second half of the 17th - early 18th centuries.
Deep economic decline in the history of Spain at the end of the 16th and 17th centuries. led to the collapse of its political hegemony in Europe. Defeated on land and at sea, almost completely deprived of its army and navy, Spain found itself eliminated from the ranks of the great European powers.
However, by the beginning of modern times, Spain still retained extensive territorial possessions in Europe and huge colonies. She owned the Duchy of Milan, Naples, Sardinia, Sicily, and the Southern Netherlands. It also owned the Canary, Philippine and Caroline Islands and significant territories in South America.
In the middle of the 17th century. The Spanish throne remained in the hands of the Habsburgs. If at the beginning of the 17th century. The outer shell of the former powerful power was still preserved, but during the reign of Charles II (1665-1700) decomposition and decline engulfed all spheres of the Spanish state. The degradation of the Spanish monarchy was reflected in the personality of Charles II himself. He was physically and mentally underdeveloped, and never learned to write correctly. Unable to rule the state on his own, he was a toy in the hands of his favorites - the Spanish grandees and foreign adventurers.
In the second half of the 17th century. Spain lost its independence and international politics, becoming dependent on France and Austria. This was due to the dynastic connections of the Spanish court. One of the sisters of Charles II was married to Louis XIV, the second - to the heir to the Austrian throne, Leopold I. The consequence of this was a fierce struggle between the Austrian and French groups at the Spanish court, especially since due to the childlessness of Charles II, the question of the future heir to the throne was acute. In the end, the French party won, and Charles II bequeathed the throne to his French nephew, who in 1700 was crowned Philip V (1700-1746). The transfer of the Spanish throne to the Bourbons caused a sharp aggravation of contradictions between the Austrian Empire and France, which escalated into the pan-European War of the “Spanish Succession” (1701 -1714).
The territory of Spain became the arena of military operations of rival powers. The war further exacerbated the internal crisis of the Spanish state. Catalonia, Aragon and Valencia took the side of the Austrian Archduke, hoping with his help to preserve their ancient privileges. According to the Peace of Utrecht (1713), Philip V was recognized as the king of Spain, subject to the renunciation of rights to the French throne. Spain lost a significant part of its possessions in Europe: Northern Italy went to Austria, Minorca and Gibraltar to England, Sicily to Savoy.
History of Spain 18th century
History of Spain late XVIII - early XIX centuries
First bourgeois revolution in Spain (1808-1814)
The beginning of the first bourgeois revolution in Spain
On March 17, 1808, crowds of people attacked the Godoy Palace in the countryside royal residence of Aranjuez. The favorite fled, but Charles IV had to abdicate in favor of his son Ferdinand VII. Napolnon, having lured first Ferdinand VII and then Charles IV to the French border city of Bayonne, forced them to abdicate the throne in favor of his brother Joseph Bonaparte.
By order of Napoleon, a deputation of representatives of the Spanish nobility, clergy, officials and merchants was sent to Bayonne. They composed the so-called Cortes of Bayonne, which drafted the Constitution of Spain. Power passed to Joseph Bonaparte, and some reforms were proclaimed.
The Spanish did not accept the constitution imposed by the French. They responded to the French intervention with a general guerrilla warfare. “...Napoleon, who - like all the people of his time - considered Spain a lifeless corpse, was very unpleasantly surprised when he became convinced that if the Spanish state was dead, then Spanish society was full of life, and in every part of it the forces of resistance were overflowing.”
Immediately after the French entered Madrid, an uprising broke out there: on May 2, 1808, the city's residents entered into an unequal battle with an army of 25,000 under the command of Marshal Murat. There were battles on the streets of the city for more than a day, the uprising was drowned in blood.
In July 1808, the French army was surrounded by Spanish partisans and capitulated near the city of Bailena. Joseph Bonaparte and his government hastily evacuated from Madrid to Catalonia.
In November 1808, Napoleon led the invasion of the country by a 200,000-strong French army. But the partisan movement at that time swept the entire country. The people's war - guerrilla - was massive.
During the ensuing war against the invaders, local authorities were created - provincial juntas. They implemented some revolutionary measures: taxes on large property, indemnities from monasteries and the clergy, restrictions on the feudal rights of lords, etc.
In September 1808, during the revolution, a new government of the country was created - the Central Junta, consisting of 35 people.
Napoleon's army continued its offensive. It captured most of Spain, including Seville, where the Central Junta met, which was forced to move to Cadiz, the last city not occupied by the French. However, the occupiers failed to extinguish the flames of the guerrilla war.
Constitution of 1812
In September 1810, new unicameral Cortes were convened in the city of Cadiz. They included many progressive figures who contributed to the development of the constitution adopted in 1812.
The new constitution was based on the principles of popular sovereignty and separation of powers. The power of the monarch was limited to unicameral Cortes, which were convened on the basis of fairly broad suffrage. Men over 25 years of age took part in voting, with the exception of domestic servants and persons deprived of their rights by court.
The Cortes had the highest legislative power in the country. The king retained only the right of a suspensive veto: if the bill was rejected by the monarch, then it was returned to the Cortes for discussion and, if confirmed at two subsequent sessions, it finally came into force. The king nevertheless retained significant power: he appointed senior government officials and senior officers, declared war with the approval of the Cortes, and made peace.
Reforms of the first bourgeois revolution
The Cortes also adopted a number of decrees:
- feudal duties were abolished
- Church tithes and other payments to the church were eliminated,
- the sale of part of the church, monastery and royal estates was announced.
At the same time, communal property was liquidated and the sale of communal lands began.
Restoration of absolutism
In connection with the beginning of Napoleon's conquest in Russia in 1812, a significant part of the army stationed in Spain was sent there. Taking advantage of this, Spanish troops inflicted a series of crushing defeats on the French in 1812, and they were forced to completely leave the territory of Spain in November 1813.
Napoleon attempted to maintain his influence over Spain through Ferdinand VII, who was a prisoner of war in France. Napoleon invited him to return to Spain and restore his rights to the throne in exchange for a promise to maintain friendly relations with France. However, the Cortes refused to recognize Ferdinand as king until he swore allegiance to the 1812 constitution.
Ferdinand, returning to Spain, gathered around him supporters of the restoration of absolutism. Taking on the role of head of state, he issued a manifesto declaring the constitution of 1812 invalid and all decrees of the Cortes annulled. The Cortes were dissolved, and the liberal ministers who were part of the government they created were arrested. In May 1814, Ferdinand VII arrived in Madrid and announced the final restoration of the absolute monarchy.
The Inquisition was again completely restored, returned former owners monastic, church and large secular land property.
Bourgeois revolution in Spain 1820 -1823.
Prerequisites for the revolution
The feudal-absolutist order, restored in 1814, hampered the development of capitalist relations in industry and agriculture. In Spain, the alcabala (medieval tax on trade transactions), internal customs duties, and state monopolies were preserved; Numerous workshops continued to exist in the cities.
In the village, more than 2/3 of the cultivated land was in the hands of the nobility and the church. The system of majorates guaranteed the maintenance of the feudal lords' monopoly on land.
The lack of progress in the economy caused sharp discontent among wide circles of the bourgeoisie, the liberal nobility, the military, and the intelligentsia. The economic weakness of the Spanish bourgeoisie and its lack of experience in political struggle led to the fact that the army began to play a special role in the revolutionary movement in the first decades of the 19th century. Patriotic officers began to realize the need for profound changes in the life of the country.
In 1814-1819 Secret societies of the Masonic type arose in the army environment and in many large cities. The participants in the conspiracies, among whom were officers, lawyers, merchants, and entrepreneurs, set themselves the goal of preparing a pronunciamiento (a coup d'état carried out by the army) and establishing a constitutional monarchy.
The beginning of the revolution
The impetus for the start of the revolution in Spain was the difficult and unsuccessful for Spain war for the independence of the Spanish colonies in Latin America. Cadiz became the training center for pronunciamiento, in the vicinity of which troops intended to be sent to Latin America were stationed.
On January 1, 1820, a revolt in the army began near Cadiz, led by Lieutenant Colonel Rafael Riego. Soon, troops under the command of A. Quiroga joined Riego’s detachment. The goal of the rebels was to restore the constitution of 1812.
News of Riego's uprising and campaign across Andalusia, in which she died most of his troops shook the whole country.
At the end of February - beginning of March 1820, unrest began in the largest cities of Spain.
On March 6-7, people took to the streets of Madrid. Under these conditions, Ferdinand VII was forced to announce the restoration of the constitution of 1812, the convening of the Cortes, and the abolition of the Inquisition. The king appointed a new government consisting of moderate liberals - "moderados".
The so-called observation army was created, which included the troops that rebelled in the south of the country in January 1820. It was headed by Rafael Riego.
The left wing of the liberals, the “enthusiastic” (“exaltados”), enjoyed predominant influence in the “surveillance army.” The Exaltados demanded a decisive struggle against supporters of absolutism and the consistent implementation of the principles of the 1812 constitution. They enjoyed the support of wide circles of the urban population.
The revolution also found a response in the countryside, where the outbreak of unrest brought the agrarian question to the forefront of the political struggle.
The "Moderados" won the elections to the Cortes, which opened in Madrid in June 1820.
The “moderados” policy favored the development of industry and trade: the guild system was abolished, internal customs duties and monopolies on salt and tobacco were abolished, and freedom of trade was proclaimed. The Cortes decided to liquidate religious orders and close some monasteries. Their property became the property of the state and was subject to sale. Majorates were abolished - from now on the nobles could freely dispose of their land. Many impoverished hidalgos began to sell them.
In June 1821, the Cortes passed a law abolishing seigneurial rights. The law abolished the legal and administrative power of the lords. However, Ferdinand VII refused to approve the law abolishing seigneurial rights, using the suspensive veto granted to the king by the 1812 constitution.
The "Moderados" did not dare to violate the royal veto. The law abolishing seigneurial rights remained on paper.
"Moderados" opposed the intervention of the masses in political struggle. Already in August 1820, the government disbanded the “surveillance army” and in October limited freedom of speech, press and assembly.
The dissatisfaction of many Spaniards with the indecisiveness of the government in its fight against the counter-revolution led to the discrediting of the “moderados.” At the same time, the influence of the “exaltados” increased, with which they pinned hopes for the continuation of revolutionary changes.
At the beginning of 1822, the Exaltados won the elections to the Cortes. Rafael Riego was elected chairman of the Cortes.
In June 1822, the Cortes passed a law on wastelands and royal lands: half of this land was supposed to be sold, and the other was to be distributed among veterans of the anti-Napoleonic war and landless peasants. In this way, the “exaltados” tried to alleviate the situation of the most disadvantaged part of the peasants, without violating the fundamental interests of the nobility.
In August 1822, the exaltados government led by E. San Miguel came to power. The new government was more active in the fight against counter-revolution. While suppressing counter-revolutionary protests, the “exaltados” at the same time did nothing to deepen the revolution. The government of E. San Miguel actually continued the agrarian policy of moderate liberals.
Counter-revolutionary intervention and restoration of absolutism
In 1822, it was already clear that Spanish reaction could not independently suppress the revolutionary movement. Therefore, the Verona Congress of the Holy Alliance, which met in October 1822, decided to organize an intervention. In April 1823, French troops crossed the Spanish border. The government and the Cortes were forced to leave Madrid and move to Seville and then to Cadiz. Despite the heroic resistance of General Mina's army in Catalonia and Riego's troops in Andalusia, in September 1823 almost all of Spain found itself at the mercy of counter-revolutionary forces.
On October 1, 1823, a decree of Ferdinand VII abolished all laws adopted by the Cortes in 1820-1823. Absolutism re-established itself in Spain, and the lands taken from it were returned to the church. In November 1823, Rafael Riego was executed.
Spain's attempts to restore its power in Latin America proved futile. By early 1826, Spain had lost all its colonies in Latin America, with the exception of Cuba and Puerto Rico.
Bourgeois revolution 1820-1823 was defeated, but it shook the foundations of the old order, preparing the ground for further development revolutionary movement.
Bourgeois revolution in Spain 1834 - 1843
The reactionary regime of Ferdinand VII, victorious in 1823, could not stop the progressive development of capitalism. In the 30-40s, the industrial revolution began, which exacerbated the contradictions between the needs of the development of capitalist relations and the preservation of the “old order”. The Spanish bourgeoisie, having lost colonial markets, began to more actively fight against feudal remnants that hindered the development of entrepreneurship and trade in Spain itself.
Bourgeois revolution in Spain 1854 - 1856
In June 1854, a group of opposition-minded generals led by O'Donnel called for the overthrow of the government. The uprising in the army gave impetus to the revolutionary movement in the cities. At the end of July, a government was formed led by the leader of the "progressives" - Espartero; the post of Minister of War was taken by O "Donnell, representing the Moderados."
The government decided to confiscate and sell church lands. Lands in the hands of peasant communities were also confiscated and put on sale.
The government of Espartero-O'Donnell restored the national militia and convened the Cortes. In 1855-1856, laws were passed that promoted the growth of entrepreneurial initiative and the attraction of foreign capital.
As the revolutionary movement developed, the big bourgeoisie and the liberal nobility moved into the camp of the counter-revolution. On July 14, 1856, Minister of War O'Donnell provoked the resignation of Espartero and dissolved the Cortes. This step led to an uprising in Madrid. On July 16, the uprising was suppressed. O'Donnel's government suspended the sale of church lands and disbanded the national militia. This was the end of the fourth bourgeois revolution.
After the revolution of 1854-1856. Two blocs emerged: the Liberal Union and the Conservatives. The liberal union, the leader of which was General O'Donnell, expressed the interests of the bourgeois nobility and the top of the bourgeoisie. The conservatives, led by General Narvaez, represented the interests of large landowners and nobles. In 1856-1868, the Narvaez government came to power three times and was replaced three times by the government of O "Donnel.
Bourgeois revolution in Spain 1868 - 1874
Beginning of the fifth bourgeois revolution (1868-1874)
As capitalism developed, the bourgeoisie in Spain, strengthened economically, more and more decisively laid claim to political power. By the end of 1867 - beginning of 1868, a bloc of bourgeois parties had formed, which included the “progressives”, the Liberal Union, and republican groups. The leaders of the bloc came to the conclusion that a new military coup was necessary.
In September 1868, an uprising began in Cadiz, which caused a wide response: in Madrid and Barcelona, the rebels seized arsenals; The creation of detachments of “freedom volunteers” began everywhere. Queen Isabella fled Spain.
By June 1869, a new constitution had been drafted. Spain was proclaimed a constitutional monarchy, a bicameral parliament was formed on the basis of universal male suffrage. The monarchy has been proclaimed, but there is no king. In Spain there was a fairly long period of struggle between various political forces, in which the governments of a number of European countries were involved. At the end of 1870, the son of the Italian king, Amadeo of Savoy, was proclaimed king of Spain. The Carlist pretender also aspired to become a monarch.
The Basque Country and Navarre became the support of Carlism, whose population pinned their hopes on Carlism for the restoration of ancient local liberties - “fueros”. In 1872, the Carlists started a civil war in northern Spain.
First Republic in Spain
The republican movement was expanding in the country, and the influence of sections of the First International was growing. The north of Spain was engulfed in the Carlist war. The deepening political crisis forced King Amadeo to abdicate the throne. On February 11, 1873, Spain was declared a republic.
Now the struggle has already begun within the republican camp. Revolts broke out in southern Spain. The Carlist war continued in the north.
The Spanish bourgeoisie, frightened by the scale of the revolutionary movement, sought to restore the monarchy. The army continued to be the driving force behind all changes in Spain. On January 3, 1874, the military, having dispersed the Cortes, carried out a coup d'état. The new government began preparations for the restoration of the monarchy. In December 1874, Isabella's son Alfonso XII was proclaimed king. Thus ended the fifth bourgeois revolution. In 1876, the Carlist War ended with the defeat of the Carlists.
Results of the bourgeois revolutions of 1808-1874.
The cycle of bourgeois revolutions that shook Spain in 1808-1874 destroyed many feudal remnants that stood in the way of the development of capitalism.
History of Spain 19th century
Restoration mode
Cycle of revolutions 1808-1874 ended with the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy in December 1874. During the reign of King Alfonso XII (1874-1885) and then during the regency of his widow Maria Christina (1885-1902), the monarchical regime acquired relative stability.
In 1875, two political parties took shape in the ruling circles of Spain: liberal and conservative.
The Liberal Party, led by Mateo Sagasta, enjoyed the support of the financial and commercial bourgeoisie. Liberals advocated the gradual “liberalization” of the restoration regime through anti-clerical policies (limiting the number of religious congregations, developing secular education) and political reforms (the introduction of universal suffrage, etc.).
The Conservative Party was led by the head of the first restoration government, A. Canovas del Castillo. The party found support among a significant part of the landed aristocracy and the church. Conservatives advocated a moderate constitutional monarchy that limited both absolute power and democratic freedoms. In the customs area, conservatives showed themselves to be supporters of agricultural protectionism, while liberals demanded a policy of free trade.
In 1876, the Cortes adopted and the king sanctioned a monarchical constitution, which then existed until 1931. It proclaimed freedom of the press, assembly and association. The bicameral Cortes shared legislative power with the king. The king had supreme command of the army and navy. He appointed ministers and was the head of the executive branch. The Catholic religion was declared the state religion.
El Pardo Pact
In November 1885, when information was received from the royal palace of El Pardo about the hopeless condition of the king, who was suffering from tuberculosis, the conservative and liberal parties entered into an unspoken agreement among themselves to alternately come to power and to jointly defend the dynasty in the event of new uprisings by the Carlists or Republicans. The agreement became known as the El Pardo Pact. The birth of an heir was expected only a few months later. Saving the dynasty, the ruling circles provided demonstrative support for the regency of Maria Christina, established after the death of Alfonso XII on November 25.
In the 90s, the ruling parties changed power every two or three years, invariably ensuring for themselves a corresponding position in the Cortes. In the agricultural regions of Spain during this period, the casique system was widespread, which contemporaries called “new feudalism” or “the true constitution of Spain.” Individuals with the greatest economic influence in a given area became caciques. As a rule, this was a large landowner or, if the latifundist himself lived permanently in Madrid, his representative. The caciques took on the responsibilities of political leadership, organized elections to the Cortes and, in fact, determined the composition of local authorities.
Liberals carried out some of their political program transformations. Gradually, Spain acquired the appearance of a European-style legal state. In 1881, the Sagasta government allowed the formation of associations, including political parties. Sagasta's second government passed legislation in 1890 introducing universal male suffrage, abolishing the property qualification required by the 1878 law.
Military defeat of 1898 and the problem of Spain
Before the start of the war with the United States, Spain controlled Cuba and Puerto Rico in the West Indies, the Caroline and Mariana Islands, the Philippines, the Palau Islands in the Pacific Ocean and a number of small possessions on the African continent. Claims for the division and seizure of Spanish colonial possessions were made by the imperialist powers - the USA and Germany.
In April 1898, a war began between Spain and the United States, which sought to actually transfer Spanish possessions under their sovereignty. The war lasted only four months and ended with the defeat of Spain. Spain lost its navy in two battles and could no longer defend its colonies. According to the Paris Peace Treaty of December 10, 1898, Spain lost Cuba and ceded Puerto Rico and other islands in the West Indies, Guam and the Philippines to the United States (for $20 million). Germany in February 1899 forced Spain to sell it the Caroline and Mariana Islands. All that remained of the old Spanish colonial empire were its possessions in Africa: Spanish Guinea, Western Sahara, Ifni and several strongholds in Morocco.
Defeat in the war with the United States and the loss of colonies were perceived in Spain as a national catastrophe. The Spaniards then experienced an acute sense of national humiliation.
It was clear that the root cause of the military defeat of 1898 was the relatively weak development of the Spanish economy.