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Early Iron Age. General characteristics. Iron exploration early Iron Age

An era of human history, identified on the basis of archaeological data and characterized by the leading role of iron products and its derivatives.

As usual, J. v. came to replace the bronze age. At the beginning of life. in different regions from-no-sit to different times, and yes-ti-rov-ki of this process-sa-closer- z-tel-ny. After-the-beginning of life. there is a regular use of ores for the production of tools and weapons, ras-pro-stra -non-ferrous metallurgy and blacksmithing; The massive use of iron products means a special stage of development already within the framework of iron and steel, not -something cul-tu-rah from-de-linen from the na-cha-la Zh. several hundred years. The end of the life. they often consider it a technical position. era-hi, associated with industrial. re-in-ro-that, or prolong it until the present time.

Wide-ranging out-of-drainage has made it possible to produce mass series of labor tools, which from- ra-zi-elk on the improvement and further development of the land (especially in forest areas, on heavy for soil cultivation, etc.), progress in construction. de-le, re-me-slah (in part-st-no-sti, pi-lys appeared, on-pil-ni-ki, shar-nir-nye in-st-ru-men-you etc.), production of metals and other raw materials, from the production of wheeled transport ports, etc. Development This pro-from-water-st-va and trans-port led to the expansion of trade, apparently you can-not. The use of mass-so-in-go iron-no-go vo-ru-zhe-niya su-s-st-ven-but affected the progress in military de-le. In many societies, all this is a way of developing the first but-ve-nu-go-su-dar-st-ven-no-sti, inclusion in the circle of ci-vi-li-za-tions, the oldest of which are many -th senior J. century. and had a level of development, superior to the ascending plural. society of the per-rio-yes.

Are there early and late living centuries? For plural cultural tour, before all the Europeans, gra-ni-tsu between no-mi, as a rule, from-to-epoch the collapse of the an-tic-ci-vi-li-za-tion and the on-stu-p-le-niya of the Middle-ne-ve-ko-vya; a number of ar-heo-logs so-ot-no-sit fi-nal ran-ne-go Zh. with the beginning of the influence of Rome. cult-tu-ry in plural. on-ro-dy of Europe in the 1st century. BC e. - 1st century n. e. In addition, different regions have their own internal. per-rio-di-za-tion of iron-le-no-go-ve-ka.

Po-nya-tie “J. V." it is used primarily for the study of primitive societies. Processes associated with the st-nov-le-ni-em and development of go-su-dar-st-ven-no-sti, for-mi-ro-va -no modern na-ro-dov, as a rule, ras-smat-ri-va-yut is not so much within the framework of ar-heo-lo-gich. cultural tour and “centuries”, how many in the context of the history of the ancient states and ethnic groups. It is with them that many people co-operate. ar-heo-lo-gich. cultures of the late J. century.

Distribution of black metal-lur-gy and metal-lo-work-bot-ki. The oldest center of metal-lur-giya zhe-le-za was the region of Asia Minor, East. Middle-earth-no-sea, Trans-Caucasus (2nd half of the 2nd millennium BC). The evidence about the wide-ro-com use of the same-le-za appears in texts from the middle. 2nd thousand. By-ka-za-tel-but-sla-nie of the Hittite king Fa-rao-nu Ram-se-su II with co-ob-society about from -right ko-rab-lya, na-gro-zhen-no-go-le-zom (late 14th - early 13th centuries). Means. the number of metals from de-liy nay-de-but on ar-heo-lo-gich. memory-ni-kah 14-12 centuries. But in the Hittite kingdom, steel was made in Pa-lesti-ne from the 12th century, in Cyprus - from the 10th century. One of the oldest on-ho-dok metal-lur-gi-che-go mountains from-no-sit-to the ru-be-zhu of the 2nd and 1st thousand (Kve-mo-Bol-ni-si, territory of modern Georgia), went - in the layers of the ar-hai-che-skogo period-da Mi -le-ta. On the ruble 2 - 1st thousand. century. on-stepped in Me-so-po-ta-mii and Iran; so, during the excavations of the palace of Sar-go-na II in Khor-sa-ba-de (4th quarter of the 8th century) about-on-ru-but approx. 160 t-le-za, basically. in the form of krits (ve-ro-yat-but, tribute from sub-government territories). Perhaps, from Iran to the beginning. In the 1st thousand, black metallurgy spread to India (where it was first used niya-le-za dates back to the 8th or 7/6th centuries), in the 8th century. - on Wednesday. Asia. In the steppes of Asia, the same-le-zo-lu-chi-lo-shi-ro-some race-country no earlier than the 6th/5th centuries.

Through the Greek. the cities of Malaya Asia, the iron-de-la-tel-nye on-you, have spread out into the end. 2nd thousand to the Aegean Islands and approx. 10th century to mainland Greece, where from that time on we know of to-var-kri-tsy, iron-swords in gre-be-ni-yah. In the West and Center. Euro-pe J. century. on-stu-dil in the 8th-7th centuries, in the South-West. Ev-ro-pe - in the 7-6 centuries, in Bri-ta-nii - in the 5-4 centuries, in Scan-di-na-vii - fact-ti-che-ski in ru-be-same era .

All in. At the Black Sea, in the North. Kav-ka-ze and in the southern Vol-go-Kamye pe-ri-od of the first-vich-no-go-os-voy-niya of the same-le-za-completed -Xia in the 9th-8th centuries; next to things, from-go-to-len-ny-mi in the local tradition, here-known from-de-lia, created -nye in the Trans-Caucasian tradition on-lu-che-niya st-li (tse-men-ta-tion). Na-cha-lo own-st-ven-but Zh. v. in the indicated and tested regions of the East. Europe dates back to the 8th-7th centuries. Then, when there was an increase in the number of iron objects, we received them from the preparation of equipment. ga-ti-lis on-you-m-form-forging (with the help of special clamps and stamps), lap welding and me-to-dom pa-ke-ti-ro-va-niya. In Urals and in the CBC Zh. earliest of all (by the middle of the 1st millennium BC) he stepped into the steppe, forest-steppe and mountain-forest regions. In the taiga and in the Far East and in the 2nd half. 1st millennium BC e. the Bronze Age actually lasted, but it was still closely connected with the culture of J. V. (except the northern part of tai-gi and tun-d-ru).

In China, the development of black metallurgy proceeded separately. Because of your high level of armor, it is produced from the waters of the Zh. started here not earlier than sir. 1st millennium BC e., although the ore forest was known a long time before that. Whale. mas-te-ra per-you-mi-on-cha-li tse-le-on-right-len-but to produce cast iron and, using it, easily melts bone, from-go-tov-la-li pl. from-de-lya is not forged, but poured. In China, it was practically -niya ug-le-ro-da. In Korea J. c. on-sto-drank in the 2nd floor. 1st millennium BC e., in Japan - approx. 3-2 centuries, in In-do-ki-tai and In-do-ne-zia - to the Ru-be-zhu era or a little later.

In Africa J. c. before everything, it was established in the Middle-earth-no-sea region (by the 6th century). All R. 1st millennium BC e. it began on the territory of Nu-bia and Su-da-na, in a number of Western regions. Af-ri-ki; in the East - on the ru-be-same er; in South - closer to the middle. 1st millennium AD e. In a number of areas in Africa, in America, Australia and on the Ti-ho-go islands approx. J.v. on-step-drank with the arrival of the Europeans.

The most important cults of the early iron-no-century behind the pre-de-la-mi qi-vi-li-za-tions

As a result of the wide distribution of countries and the comparative ease of development of iron ores and bronze -li-te-nye centers in-step-pen-but ut-ra-chi-va-li can-but-po-lyu on the production of metal. Many previously old regions began to understand the technology. and so-ci-al-no-eco-no-mich. level old cultural centers. So-from-vet-st-ven-but from-me-moose paradise-they-ro-va-nie oh-ku-men. If for the era of early metal an important cultural factor was belonging to metal -Lur-gi-che-province or to the zone of its influence, then in Zh. century. in for-mi-ro-va-nii kul-tur-no-is-to-rich. The role of et-noya-zy-ko-vyh, host-st-ven-no-cultural and other connections has intensified in the community. Wide-spread distribution of effective equipment made from iron that can be used -nu pl. communities in gra-bi-tel-skie and grab-nich. wars, co-pro-in-the-dav-shie mass-so-you-mi-gra-tion-mi. All this led to the cardinal iz-me-ne-ni-yam et-no-kul-tur-noy and military-po-li-tich. pa-no-ra-we.

In a number of cases, based on the given links and letters. is-precisely possible to talk about do-mi-ni-ro-va-nii in the framework of op-re-de-l-nyh cultural-tour-but-is-to rich. communities Zh. v. one or a group of nations close in language, sometimes even linking a group of ar-heo-logich. remember-ni-kov with a specific na-ro-house. However, written sources for plurals. regions are scarce or limited, but not for all communities it is possible to obtain data, I allow who co-operate them with the Lin-gwis-ti-che-class-si-fi-ka-tsi-ey na-ro-dov. It should be kept in mind that no-si-te-li is plural. languages, perhaps even entire families of languages, not just the direct languages, but in some way their relation to the well-known et-but-ya-zy-ko-vym communities of gi-po-te-tich-but.

South, West, Central Europe and the south of the Baltic region. After the collapse of the Kri-to-mi-ken-ci-vi-li-za-tion, the beginning of the life cycle. in Ancient Greece coincided with a temporary decline " dark ages" Subsequently, a wide-ranging out-of-dre-nie of the same way-to-be-st-vo-va-lo but-in-the-uplift of the eco-no-mi-ki and society, with -leading to the formation of an-tic-ci-vi-li-za-tion. On the territory of Italy for na-cha-la Zh. you-de-la-yut many ar-heo-lo-gich. cults (some of them were formed in the bronze age): in the north of the pas-de-deux - Go- la-sec-ka, co-from-no-si-mu with part of the li-gu-rows; on average the same river. By - Ter-ra-mar, on se-ve-ro-vo-to-ke - Es-te, with-pos-tav-lya-mu with ve-not-that-mi; all in. and center. in parts of the Apennine Peninsula - Vil-la-no-va and others, in Kam-pa-nia and Ka-lab-ria - “pit-holes in the graves” , remember-ni-ki Apu-lia is connected with me-sa-na-mi (close to il-li-riy-tsam). In Si-tsi-lia from-west-on kul-tu-ra Pan-ta-li-ka and others, in Sar-di-nii and Kor-si-ke - well-rag.

On the Pi-re-ney peninsula there are large centers of non-ferrous metals, which lead to long-lasting pre-ob-la-da-nie from bronze (culture of Tar-tess, etc.). In the early J. century. here fi-si-ru-yut-sya are different in ha-rak-te-ru and in-ten-siv-no-sti waves of mi-gra-tions, appear-la-yut-sya pa -mint-ki, from-ra-zha-sting local and priv-not-syon-nye traditions. On the basis of these tra-di-tions of the sfor-mi-ro-va-la kul-tu-ra of the Iber-men tribes. To the greatest extent, their own traditions were preserved in the at-lan-ti-che-regions (“kul -tu-ra go-ro-disch”, etc.).

For the development of a cultural tour in the Middle-Earth-no-Marya, there is a strong influence of the eye-behind the Phi-Niki-skaya and the Greek. co-lo-ni-za-tion, color-color of culture and ex-pan-sia of et-ru-skovs, invasion of the Celts; later the Middle Earth became internal to Rome. empire (see Ancient Rome).

On the sign. parts Zap. and Center. Euro-py transition to Zh. century. pro-is-ho-dil in the era-hu Gal-stat. The Gal-Stat cultural region is divided into many. cultural groups and cultural groups. Some of them are in the east. zo-not with-from-but-syat with groups of Il-li-riy-tsev, in the west - with kel-ta-mi. In one of the regions of the west. zones for-mi-ro-va-la kul-tu-ra La-ten, then spread-pro-str-niv-shaya on a huge territory in ho -de ex-pan-sii and the influence of the Celts. Their achievements in metal-lur-gy and metal-lo-about-work-bot-ka, behind them-st-vo-van-nye sowing. and east with-se-dy-mi, about-us-lo-vi-li the state-dominance of iron-works. Epo-ha La-ten op-re-de-la-et special period of Europe. is-to-rii (c. 5-1st centuries BC), its fi-nal is associated with the ex-pan-si-ey of Ri-ma (for ter-ri-to-rii to se- I believe from the culture of La-Ten this era is also called “pre-Roman”, “early iron age”, etc. P.).

On Bal-ka-nakh, to the east of the Il-li-riy-tsev, and in the north to the Dne-st-ra, there were cult-tu-ry, ties- vye-my with the Fra-ki-tsa-mi (their influence reaches the Dnieper, the Northern Black Sea region, right up to the Bos-por-go state va). To denote at the end of the Bronze Age and at the beginning of the Zh. century. The communities of these cultures use the term “Francian Gal-State”. OK. ser. 1st millennium BC e. strengthen your own image of the “Fra-Kiean” cultural tour of the north. zones where the warehouses of the Ge-tov, then Da-kov, in the south. zo-not ple-me-na Fra-ki-tsev entered into close contacts with the Greeks, move-woof-shi-mi-sya here-da group pa-mi of the Scythians, Celts, etc., and then would have joined us to Rome. im-peri-rii.

At the end of the Bronze Age in the South. Scan-di-na-vii and sometimes to the south fi-si-ru-yut the decline of cultures, and the new rise is associated with the races -stra-ne-ne-em and shi-ro-kim is-pol-zo-va-ni-e-le-za. Many cultures of Zh. century. to the north of the Celts it is impossible to communicate with well-known groups of people; more reliably co-posting the formation of the Germans or a significant part of them with the clear-peat culture -Roy. To the east from its area and the upper reaches of El-ba to the basin on the Vistula there is a crossing to the Zh. took place within the framework of the Lu-zhits-koy cult-tu-ry, in the later stages this smell of something strengthened its own cal groups. On the basis of one of them, a maritime culture was formed, spreading out into the gray. 1st millennium BC e. at a significant part of the Lu-zhits-ko-go-area. Closer to the end of the era of La Ten in Poland. Along the seashore there was an Ok-syv-skaya kul-tu-ra, to the south - a Pshe-Vor-skaya kul-tu-ra. In the new era (within the 1st-4th centuries AD), a better name. “Roman imperial”, “pro-vin-tsi-al-no-roman influences”, etc., to the north-east of the gra- prostrate to the Empire's leading power, sta-but-vyat-sya different. unification of the Germans.

From the Ma-zur Po-lake region, parts of Ma-zo-vii and Pod-la-shya to the lower-zo-vii Pre-go-li in La-Ten-time, you are de-la-yut so-called kul-tu-ru of the Western Baltic chickens. Its co-ordination with subsequent cultures is debatable for a number of regions. To Rome time here fi-si-ru-yut-sya cult-tu-ry, connected with na-ro-da-mi, from-no-si-we-mi to bal-tam, in number of which - ga-lin-dy (see Bo-ga-chev-skaya kul-tu-ra), su-da-you (su-di-ny), es-tii, so- post-tab-lya-my with the Sam-bi-sko-na-Tang-kul-tu-roy, etc., but the formation of a large-shin-st-va from the West nykh na-ro-dov zap. and eastern (“le-to-li-tov-skih”) bal-tov from-no-sit-sya already by the 2nd half. 1st millennium AD e., i.e. late century.

Steppes of Europe, forest zone and tun-d-ra of Eastern Europe and Siberia. To the beginning of Zh. century. in the steppe belt of Eurasia, extending from Wed. Blowing to Mon-go-lia, a s-q-w-water-station has developed. Mo-bility and or-ga-ni-zo-vanity, along with the mass of effectiveness (including iron- but-th) weapons and equipment, has become a source of military-en.-po-li-tich. meaning a large number of nomads who often spread power to the neighboring settled tribes me and the former serious threat to states from the Middle-Earth to the Far East.

In Europe steppe with gray or con. 9 to start 7th centuries BC e. do-mi-ni-ro-va-la community, with which, in my opinion, a number of studies are connected with kim-me- riy-tsy. We walked with her in close con-tact-so-ple-me-na le-so-step-pi (black-forest kul-tu-ra, bon-da-ri- Khin-skaya kul-tu-ra, etc.).

By the 7th century. BC e. from Pri-du-na-vya to Mon-go-lia with for-mi-ro-val-sya “ski-fo-si-bir-skiy world”, within the framework of which you de -la-yut Scythian ar-heo-lo-gi-che-kul-tu-ru, Sav-ro-mat-skaya ar-heo-lo-gi-che-kul-tu-ru, sa- ko-mas-sa-get-sko-go kru-ga kul-tu-ry, pa-zy-ryk-skaya kul-tu-ru, uyuk-skaya kul-tu-ru, ta-gar-ku-ku-tu -ru (single-vein, co-preserving the production of high-quality bronze-vein items) and others, in different degrees, co-from-no-si-my with ski-fa-mi and na-ro-da-mi “ge-ro-to-howl” of Scy-fii , sav-ro-ma-ta-mi, sa-ka-mi, mas-sa-ge-ta-mi, yuech-zha-mi, usu-nya-mi, etc. Pre-sta-vi-te-li this community would have been before them. euro-peo-i-dy, ver-ro-yat-but, that means. some of them speak in Iranian languages.

In close contact with the “Kim-meri-skaya” and “Scythian-skaya” there were common people in the Crimea and from-li-chav- neck-high-level-of-metal-about-work-bot-ki on-se-le-nie North. Kav-ka-za, south-no-ta-ezh-no-go Vol-go-Ka-mya (ki-zil-ko-bin-kul-tu-ra, me-ot-skaya ar-heo-lo -gi-che-skaya kul-tu-ra, Ko-ban-skaya kul-tu-ra, Anan-in-skaya kul-tu-ra). Significant influence of the “Kimmeriy” and Scythian culture on the village of the Middle and Lower Po-du-na -vya. This is why you use the “Kim-meri-skaya” (aka “pre-Scythian”) and “Scythian” eras when researching not only the cultural steppe.

In the 4th-3rd centuries. BC e. in the steppes of Europe, Kazakh-sta-na and South. Beyond the Ur-lya, the Scythian and Sav-ro-ma-tskaya are being replaced by the Sar-mat-ar-heo-lo-gi-che-kul-tu-ry, op-re -dividing eras, subdivided into early, middle, late periods and lasting until the 4th century. n. e. Means. the influence of Sarmatian cultural tours is traced in the North. Kav-ka-ze, which ra-zha-et both the re-se-le-nie part of the steppe on-se-le-niya, and the trans-formation under its influence on local cultures. Sar-ma-you about-no-ka-li and yes-le-ko to the forest-steppe regions - from the Dnieper-river to the North. Ka-zakh-sta-na, in different forms, interacting with the local na-se-le-ni-em. Large stationary villages and industrial centers to the east of Sr. Du-naya are connected with sar-ma-ta-mi Al-fel-da. From time to time, the continuing tradition of the previous era, which means. step-pe-ni sar-ma-ti-zi-ro-van-naya and el-li-ni-zi-ro-van-naya, so-called. Late Scythian culture was preserved in the lower reaches of the Dnieper and in the Crimea, where a kingdom with a hundred tsey in Neapo-le Scythian, part of the Scythians, according to the letters. is-exactly-no-kam, skon-cen-tri-ro-va-la on the Lower Danube; to the “late-non-Scythian” a number of studies from-no-syat and some groups of monuments of the eastern-ev- rop. le-so-step-pi.

To the Center Asia and South Si-bi-ri the end of the era-hi “ski-fo-si-bir-sko-go-go-ra” is associated with the rise-high-she-ni-em volume-e-di-ne-niya hun - Well, to the end. 3rd century BC e. under Mao-du-ne. Ho-cha in the middle. 1st century BC e. it has spread out, south. hun-well po-pa-li in or-bi-tu whale. influence, and the north. hun-well, there would have been a window-cha-tel-but the thunder-le-ny to the gray. 2nd century n. e., the “Hunnic” era lasts until the middle. 1st millennium AD e. Pa-myat-ni-ki, so-ot-no-si-mye with hun-nu (hun-nu), from-vest-ny to mean-chit. parts of Za-bai-ka-lya (for example, Ivol-ginsky ar-heo-lo-gi-che-sky complex, Il-mo-vaya pad), Mongo-lia, steppe Noah Manchu-ria and evidence about the complex et-no-cultural tour of this entity. On-rya-du with pro-nik-no-ve-ni-hun-well, in the South. The Si-Bri continued to develop local traditions [in Tu-ve - Shum-Rak-kul-tu-ra, in Kha-ka-siya - Te-Sin type (or stage) and Tash-tyk culture, etc.]. Et-nich. and military-en.-po-li-tich. History Center. Asia in J. century. is largely based on the new whales. letters is-exactly-ni-kov. It is possible to track the movement of one or several nomadic groups across different countries - their power over vast areas of countries, their collapse, the engulfment of the next ones, etc. (dong-hu, tab-ga- chi, zhu-zha-ne, etc.). The complexity of the composition of these volumes, the poor study of a number of regions Center. Asia, labor-sti-da-ti-rov-ki, etc. de-la-ut their comparison with ar-heo-log-gich. remember-ni-ka-mi is very gi-po-te-tich-ny-mi.

The next era is the is-to-rii of the steppes of Asia and Europe connected with the do-mi-ni-ro-va-ni-em no-si-te-ley Turk - languages, formed by the Turkic ka-ga-na-ta, which replaced it with other Middle Ages. military-en.-po-li-tich. ob-e-di-ne-niy and states.

Kul-tu-ry settled on-se-le-niya le-so-step-pi East. Euro-py, Ura-la, Si-bi-ri often enter into “Ski-fo-si-bir-sky”, “Sar-mat-sky”, “Hun-sky” » “worlds”, but could they form cultural communities with forests, ple-me-na-mi, or create their own. cultural areas.

In the forest zone of Verkh-ne-go Po-ne-ma-nya and Pod-vy-nya, Po-Dnep-ro-vya and Po-ochya traditions of the bronze-zo-vo-go ve -ka pro-dol-zha-la shtri-ho-van-noy ke-ra-mi-ki kul-tu-ra, on the basis of pre-im. local cultural tours have developed in the Dnieper-Dvina culture, Dya-kovskaya culture. In the early days, this smelt of their development was the same, although it was dissipated across the country, but it did not reach the level of raw materials -eat; remember-ni-ki of this circle ar-heo-log-gi according to the masses on-the-go-kam of the kos-ty-ty-nyh from-de-liy on the basis. ob-ek-tah ras-ko-pok - go-ro-di-shah ha-rak-te-ri-zo-va-li as “kos-te-nos-nye go-ro-di-sha.” The mass use of the same here is ok. con. 1st millennium BC e., when they come from the region and in other areas of culture, from the mi-gra-tions. For this reason, for example, in the ot-no-she-nii kul-tur shtri-ho-van-noy ke-ra-mi-ki and Dya-kov-skaya research-do-va-te- Do you see how different cultures co-create “early” and “late” cultures?

According to the origin and location of the early Dyakov culture, it is close to the eastern city -det-kaya kul-tu-ra. To the ru-be-zhu er there is a real expansion of its area to the south and north, to the same regions in the speech of Vet-lu-gi. Near the ru-be-zha er in her are-al pro-moves to the se-le-nie because of the Vol-ga; from Su-ry to Ryazan-skogo Po-ochya cultural groups associated with the tradition of An-d- re-ev-sko-go-kur-ga-na. On their basis, the cultures of the late Jewish century were formed, associated with the no-si-te-la-mi Finnish-Volga languages -kov.

South zone forest-no-go Po-Dnep-ro-vya behind-ni-ma-li mi-lo-grad-skaya kul-tu-ra and Yukh-novskaya kul-tu-ra, in which trace-va- that means. the influence of the Scythian culture and La-te-na. Several waves of mi-gra-tions from the Vistula-Oder-region led to the appearance in Vol-ly-ni along the sea and pshe-vor- skoy cultural tour, for-mi-ro-va-niu on the b. part of the south forest-no-go and forest-so-step-no-go Po-Dnep-ro-vya beyond-ru-bi-nets-koy kul-tu-ry. Her, next to Ok-ksyv-skaya, Pshe-vor-skaya, singing-nesh-ti-lu-ka-shev-skaya kul-tu-ry, you de-la-yut in the circle “la -te-ni-zi-ro-van-nykh”, from the special influence of the La-ten culture. In the 1st century n. e. for-ru-bi-nets-kul-tu-ra per-re-zhi-la disintegration, but on the basis of its traditions, with the participation of more sowing. on-se-le-niya, for-mi-ru-yut-sya remember-ni-ki late-not-across-ru-bi-nets-ko-go-ri-zon-ta, light-shie in the os-no-wu of the Ki-ev-skaya kul-tu-ry, op-re-de-lyav-shay kul-tur-ny image of the forest-no-go and part of the forest-so-steppe of the Dnieper River in the 3rd-4th centuries. n. e. Based on the Vo-Lyn monuments of the Pshe-vor culture in the 1st century. n. e. for-mi-ru-et-sya tooth-rec-kaya kul-tu-ra. With kul-tu-ra-mi, having re-accepted-shi-mi com-on-nen-you according to the sea culture, before everything according to the so-called. for-ru-bi-nets-line, research-to-va-te-whether the for-mi-ro-va-nie of the Slavs is connected.

All R. 3rd century n. e. from the Lower Danube to the North Don, the Cher-nya-Khovskaya culture was formed, in which a significant role played la Vel-bar-kul-tu-ra, the spread of which to the south-east is associated with the mi-gra-tion of ready-to-go-to and ge -pi-dov. The collapse of society. structure, correlated with the Cher-nya-khov culture, under the blows of the guns in the con. 4th century n. e. marked the beginning of a new era in the history of Europe - the great re-se-le-tion of the people.

In the north-ve-ro-east-ke of Ev-ro-py na-cha-lo Zh. connected with the Anan-in-skaya kul-tu-r-no-historical. region. In the territory of the north-west. Russia and parts of Finland are home to cultures, in which some of the Anan-Indian and tech-styles noy ke-ra-mi-ki kul-tur pe-re-ple-ta-yut-sya with me-st-ny-mi (luu-kon-sa-ri-ku-do-ma, late kar- Go-Polish kul-tu-ra, late-not-white-sea, etc.). In the basins of the rivers Pe-cho-ry, Vy-che-gdy, Me-ze-ni, Sev. Movements appear to be a memory, in which the development of the gree-ben-cha continued -that or-na-mental tradition associated with the Le-byazh-skaya culture, while the new ornamental mo-ti- you indicate interaction with the Kama and trans-Ural groups in the village.

By the 3rd century. BC e. on the basis of the Anan-in-skaya warehouse of the community of drinking-no-bor-skaya culture and glya-de-novskaya culture (see .Look-but-in). The upper border of the kul-tour of the drinking-but-bor-sko-th circle a number of is-sled-to-va-te-leys count-ta-yut ser. 1st millennium AD e., others you de la for the 3rd-5th centuries. Ma-zu-nin-skul-tu-ru, Az-lin-skaya kul-tu-ru, etc. A new stage of is-to-rich. development is associated with a number of mi-gra-tions, incl. leading to the formation of the Middle Ages. cultural tour associated with modern no-si-te-la-mi. Permian languages.

In the mountain forest and ta-hedgehog regions of Ura-la and West. CBC in the early J. century. were there cross-country ke-ra-mi-ki kul-tu-ra, it-kul-skaya kul-tu-ra, gre-ben-cha-to-yamoch -noy ke-ra-mi-ki kul-tu-ra for the west-no-si-bir-sko-go circle, Ust-Po-Lui-skaya kul-tu-ra, Ku-lay-skaya kul -tu-ra, be-lo-yar-skaya, no-vo-che-kin-skaya, bo-go-chanovskaya, etc.; in the 4th century BC e. here the ori-en-ta-tion on non-ferrous metal-lo-o-work-bot-ku was preserved (the center, supply -zhav-shiy plural regions, including steppe, raw materials and from-de-li-mi from copper), in some cultural cultures -about the development of black metallurgy from the 3rd third of the 1st millennium BC. e. This cultural circle is connected with the ancestors of modern times. Ugric languages and Samodic languages.

To the south there was a region of forest-steppe cultures of the West. CBC, sev. per-ri-fer-rii of the world of Ko-chev-ni-kov, connecting-zy-vae-may with the south. vet-view Ug-ry (Vo-rob-ev-skaya and no-si-lov-sko-bai-tov-skaya cult-tu-ry; they were replaced by sar-gat-skaya cult-tu-ra , go-ro-khov-skaya kul-tu-ra). In the forest-steppe Ob region in the 2nd half. 1st millennium BC e. Ki-zhi-rov-skaya, Star-ro-alei-skaya, Ka-men-skaya cult-tu-ry, which are sometimes ob-e-di- they come together into one community. Part of the forest-so-step-no-go on-se-le-niya was in-vle-che-na in the mi-gra-tion of the ser. 1st millennium AD e., the other part along the Ir-ty-shu moved to the north (pot-che-your-kul-tu-ra). Along the Ob River to the south, right up to Al-tai, there was a spread of the Ku-lay culture (upper-non-Ob culture). Remaining in the village, associated with the traditions of Sar-Gat and Ka-men culture, in the Middle Ages -ve-ko-vya was-lo tyur-ki-zi-ro-va-no.

In the forest cults of the East. Si-bi-ri (late Ymy-yakh-takh-kul-tu-ra, Pya-sin-skaya, Tse-pan-skaya, Ust-Mil-skaya, etc.) from-de-lia from bron -there are not many numbers, please. im-port-nye, the processing of iron-iron-appears not earlier. 1st millennium BC e. from Pri-Amur and Pri-Mo-Rya. These cults are the remains of the vizh-ny groups of hunters and fishermen - the ancestors of the Yuka-Gir, sowing. some of the Tun-gu-so-man-chur peoples, Chuk-chey, Ko-rya-kov, etc.

Eastern regions of Asia. He grew up in culture. Far away from China, north of China and Korea, the Bronze Age is not as bright as in China. bi-ri or in more south. districts, but already in the 2-1st millennium BC. e. This is where the establishment of iron began within the framework of the Uril culture and the Yankov culture, and then replaced them Ta-la-kan-skaya, Ol-gin-skaya, Pol-tsevskaya culture and other cultures close to them from the territory of China (wan-yan- he, gun-tu-lin, feng-lin) and Ko-rei. Some of these cultures are connected with the ancestors of the south. some of the Tun-gu-so-man-chur peoples. More north memory-ni-ki (Lakh-tin-skaya, Okhotsk-skaya, Ust-bel-skaya and other cults) are from the branches-le-niy-mi- yah-tah-skoy cult-tu-ry, which are in the middle. 1st millennium BC e. dos-ti-ga-yut Chu-cat-ki and, interacting with pa-leo-es-ki-mo-sa-mi, teach-st-vu-yut in form-mi- ro-va-nii of the ancient-ne-be-rin-go-sea culture. About the presence of iron incisors, evidence is given before everything is done with their help in the mouth -n-on-n-n-ch-n-ki bone gar-pu-nov.

On the territory of Ko-rei, from-go-to-le-tion of guns made of stone is pre-ob-la-da-lo on the pro-heavy-same-bron-zo-vo- th century and na-cha-la Zh. century, from metal-la de-la-li in the main. weapons, certain types of Ukrainian weapons, etc. Distribution from the same to the gray. 1st millennium BC e., when there were warehouses here for the Cho-son association; More recent history of these cultures is connected with China. for wars, for-mi-ro-va-ni-em and development of local states (Ko-gu-ryo, etc.). On the Japanese islands, the same elk appeared and a lot of races appeared during the development of Yayoi cultures, within the framework of something swarm in the 2nd century. n. e. tribal unions were formed, and then the state. ob-ra-zo-va-nie Yama. To the South-East. Asia na-cha-lo J. century. the formation of the first states is coming to the era.

Africa. In the middle-earth-sea regions, that means. part of the basin on the Nile, near the Krasno-go metro station Zh. v. pro-is-ho-di-lo on the os-no-ve cult-tour of the bronze-zo-vo-go-ka, within the framework of the qi-vi-li-za-tion (Egypt Ancient, Me-roe), in connection with the appearance of co-lo-nii from Phi-nikia, the color of Kar-fa-ge-na; to the end 1st millennium BC e. Middle-earth Africa has become part of Rome. im-peri-rii.

Particularly beneficial development is more south. the culture is from the day of the Bronze Age. Pro-nik-no-ve-nie metal-lur-giya zhe-le-za to the south of Sa-kha-ra, part of the research is connected with influence -no-em Me-roe. More and more ar-gu-men speak out in favor of other points of view, according to which an important role in this game is played -rez Sa-haru. So-you-could-have-been “do-ro-gi ko-les-nits”, re-con-st-rui-ru-my on the rock-image-bra-zhe-ni-pits , they could have passed through Fetz-tsan, as well as where the ancient state of Ga-na was formed, etc. In a number of cases Cha-ev pro-iz-le-za could-have-to-be-in-specialty-li-zir. districts, you can live in them, and the blacksmiths can create locks with -society; communities of different eco-no-mich. specialization and level of development with-sed-st-vo-va-li. All this, as well as a weak ar-heo-lo-gich. the study of the con-ti-nen-ta de-la-yut our idea of the development of life here. very gi-po-te-tic.

In the West Af-ri-ke ancient sv-de-tel-st-va about-from-water-st-va-iron-de-li-de-li (2nd half of the 1st millennium BC AD) are connected with the Nok culture, its connection with synchronic and later cults It’s not clear in many ways, but not later than the 1st floor. 1st millennium AD e. the same thing was known throughout the West. Af-ri-ke. One-on-one, even on the memorials associated with the state. ob-ra-zo-va-niya-mi kon. 1st thousand - 1st half. 2nd millennium AD e. (Ig-bo-Uk-wu, Ife, Ben-nin, etc.), from-de-liy from the same-le-for not-much, in a co-lo-ni-al-ny per-ri- It was one of the imported items.

To the east on-be-re-zhie Af-ri-ki to Zh. from the cult-tu-ry of Aza-niy, and in their from-no-she-niy there is information about them-from-the-same-le-za. An important stage in the history of the region is associated with the development of trade villages with the participation of immigrants from the south zap. Asia, first of all mu-sul-man (such as Kil-va, Mo-ga-di-sho, etc.); centers for pro-iz-vo-st-vu same-le-za-ves-ny for this time-me-nor by letters. and ar-heo-lo-gich. is-exactly-no-cam.

In Bas-sey-not Kon-go, ext. district Vost. Af-ri-ki and the southern races are connected with the cult-tu-ra-mi, at-over-le-zha-schi-mi tra-di-tion “ke-ra-mi-ki with a curved bottom” (“pit-koy at the bottom”, etc.) and tra-di-tion-mi close to it. Na-cha-lo metal-lur-gyi in the department. the places of these regions are from different places in the 1st half. (not later than se-re-di-ny) 1st millennium AD e. Mi-gran-you from these lands, pro-yat-but, for the first time brought the same le-zo to the South. Af-ri-ku. A number of “empires” in the basin of the Zam-bezi and Kon-go rivers (Zim-bab-ve, Ki-ta-ra, etc.) were connected we are with the ex-port of gold, layered bones, etc.

A new stage in the history of Af-ri-ki south of Sa-kha-ra is associated with the appearance of Europeans. co-lo-niy.

Additional literature:

Mon-gait A.L. Archeo-logia of Western Europe. M., 1973-1974. Book 1-2;

Coghlan H. H. Notes on prehistoric and early iron in the Old World. Oxf., 1977;

Waldbaum J. C. From bronze to iron. Gott., 1978;

The coming of the age of iron. New Haven; L., 1980;

Iron Age of Africa. M., 1982;

Archeo-logia of Trans-Russian Asia. M., 1986;

Steppe of the European part of the USSR in the ski-fo-sar-mat-time. M., 1989;

Tylecote R. F. A history of metallurgy. 2nd ed. L., 1992;

Steppe in the Asian part of the USSR in ski-fo-sar-mat-time. M., 1992;

Shchu-kin M. B. On the ru-be-same er. St. Petersburg, 1994;

Essays on the history of ancient le-zo-o-ra-bot-ki in Eastern Europe. M., 1997;

Collis J. The European Iron Age. 2nd ed. L., 1998;

Yal-cin Ü. Early iron metallurgy in Anatolia // Anatolian Studies. 1999. Vol. 49;

Kan-to-ro-vich A. R., Kuz-mi-nykh S. V. Early Iron Age // BRE. M., 2004. T.: Russia; Tro-its-kaya T. N., No-vi-kov A. V. Archeo-logy of the Western Siberian Plain. No-vo-Sib., 2004.

Illustrations:

Iron knives from a burial near Mount Olympus. 11th-8th centuries BC e. Ar-heo-lo-gi-che-sky museum (Di-on, Greece). BRE Archive;

BRE Archive;

A sword in a sheath with an anthropomorphic hilt. Iron, bronze. La Tène culture (2nd half of the 1st millennium BC). Met-ro-po-li-ten-mu-zey (New York). BRE Archive;

Pa-rad-ny battle-howl from Kur-ga-na Ke-ler-mes-1 (Ku-ban). Zhe-le-zo, gold-lo-something. Con. 7 - beginning 6th centuries BC e. Er-mi-tazh (St. Petersburg). BRE Archive;

Iron-on-tip-of-an-arrow, in-cru-sti-ro-van-ny gold-lo-tom and silver-rum, from Kur-ga-na Ar-zhan-2 (Tuva). 7th century BC e. Er-mi-tazh (St. Petersburg). BRE Archive;

Iron-de-lia from Mo-gil-ni-ka Bar-sov-sky III (Sur-gut-Ob region). 6-2/1 centuries BC e. (according to V.A. Bor-zu-no-vu, Yu. P. Che-mya-ki-nu). BRE Archive.

archaeological era from which the use of objects made from iron ore begins. The earliest iron-making furnaces, dating back to the 1st half. II millennium BC discovered in Western Georgia. In Eastern Europe and the Eurasian steppe and forest-steppe, the beginning of the era coincides with the time of the formation of early nomadic formations of the Scythian and Saka types (approximately VIII-VII centuries BC). In Africa it came immediately after the Stone Age (there is no Bronze Age). In America, the beginning of the Iron Age is associated with European colonization. It began in Asia and Europe almost simultaneously. Often, only the first stage of the Iron Age is called the Early Iron Age, the boundary of which is the final stages of the era of the Great Migration of Peoples (IV-VI centuries AD). In general, the Iron Age includes the entire Middle Ages, and based on the definition, this era continues to this day.

The discovery of iron and the invention of the metallurgical process was quite complex. If copper and tin are found in nature in their pure form, then iron is found only in chemical compounds, mainly with oxygen, as well as with other elements. No matter how long you keep iron ore in the fire, it will not melt, and this path of “accidental” discovery, possible for copper, tin and some other metals, is excluded for iron. Brown, loose stone, such as iron ore, was not suitable for making tools by beating. Finally, even reduced iron melts at a very high temperature - more than 1500 degrees. All this is an almost insurmountable obstacle to a more or less satisfactory hypothesis of the history of the discovery of iron.

There is no doubt that the discovery of iron was prepared by several millennia of development of copper metallurgy. Particularly important was the invention of bellows for blowing air into smelting furnaces. Such bellows were used in non-ferrous metallurgy, increasing the flow of oxygen into the forge, which not only increased its temperature, but also created conditions for a successful chemical reaction of metal reduction. A metallurgical furnace, even a primitive one, is a kind of chemical retort in which not so much physical as chemical processes occur. Such a stove was made of stone and coated with clay (or it was made of clay alone) on a massive clay or stone base. The thickness of the furnace walls reached 20 cm. The height of the furnace shaft was about 1 m. Its diameter was the same. In the front wall of the furnace at the bottom level there was a hole through which the coal loaded into the shaft was set on fire, and through it the kritsa was taken out. Archaeologists use the Old Russian name for a furnace for “cooking” iron - “domnitsa”. The process itself is called cheese making. This term emphasizes the importance of blowing air into a furnace filled with iron ore and coal.

At cheese-making process more than half of the iron was lost in slag, which led to the abandonment of this method at the end of the Middle Ages. However, for almost three thousand years this method was the only way to obtain iron.

Unlike bronze objects, iron objects could not be made by casting; they were forged. By the time iron metallurgy was discovered, the forging process had a thousand-year history. They forged on a metal stand - an anvil. A piece of iron was first heated in a forge, and then the blacksmith, holding it with tongs on an anvil, hit the place with a small hammer-handle, where his assistant then struck the iron, hitting the iron with a heavy hammer-sledgehammer.

Iron is mentioned for the first time in correspondence Egyptian pharaoh with the Hittite king, preserved in the archives of the 14th century. BC e. in Amarna (Egypt). From this time, small iron products have reached us in Mesopotamia, Egypt and the Aegean world.

For some time, iron was a very expensive material, used to make jewelry and ceremonial weapons. In particular, a gold bracelet with iron inlay and a whole series of iron objects were found in the tomb of Pharaoh Tutankhamun. Iron inlays are also known in other places.

On the territory of the USSR, iron first appeared in Transcaucasia.

Iron things began to quickly replace bronze ones, since iron, unlike copper and tin, is found almost everywhere. Iron ores occur both in mountainous regions and in swamps, not only deep underground, but also on its surface. Nowadays bog ore is of no industrial interest, but in ancient times it was important. Thus, countries that held a monopoly position in the production of bronze lost their monopoly on the production of metal. With the discovery of iron, countries poor in copper ores quickly overtook the countries that were advanced in the Bronze Age.

The archaeological era from which the use of objects made from iron ore begins. The earliest iron-making furnaces, dating back to the 1st half. II millennium BC discovered in Western Georgia. In Eastern Europe and the Eurasian steppe and forest-steppe, the beginning of the era coincides with the time of the formation of early nomadic formations of the Scythian and Saka types (approximately VIII-VII centuries BC). In Africa it came immediately after the Stone Age (there is no Bronze Age). In America, the beginning of the Iron Age is associated with European colonization. It began in Asia and Europe almost simultaneously. Often, only the first stage of the Iron Age is called the Early Iron Age, the boundary of which is the final stages of the era of the Great Migration of Peoples (IV-VI centuries AD). In general, the Iron Age includes the entire Middle Ages, and based on the definition, this era continues to this day.

Iron was first mentioned in the correspondence of the Egyptian pharaoh with the Hittite king, preserved in the archives of the 14th century. BC e. in Amarna (Egypt). From this time, small iron products have reached us in Mesopotamia, Egypt and the Aegean world.

On the territory of the USSR, iron first appeared in Transcaucasia.

Scythians

Scythians - exoethnonym Greek origin, applied to a group of peoples living in Eastern Europe, Central Asia and Siberia in antiquity. The ancient Greeks called the country where the Scythians lived Scythia.

Nowadays, Scythians in the narrow sense are usually understood as Iranian-speaking nomads who in the past occupied the territories of Ukraine, Moldova, Southern Russia, Kazakhstan and parts of Siberia. This does not exclude a different ethnicity of some of the tribes, which ancient authors also called Scythians.

Information about the Scythians comes mainly from the writings of ancient authors (especially Herodotus’s “History”) and archaeological excavations in the lands from the lower Danube to Siberia and Altai. The Scythian-Sarmatian language, as well as the Alan language derived from it, were part of the northeastern branch of the Iranian languages and were probably the ancestor of the modern Ossetian language, as indicated by hundreds of Scythian personal names, names of tribes, and rivers preserved in Greek records.

Later, starting from the era of the Great Migration of Peoples, the word “Scythians” was used in Greek (Byzantine) sources to name all the peoples of completely different origins who inhabited the Eurasian steppes and the northern Black Sea region: in sources of the 3rd-4th centuries AD “Scythians” are often called and German-speaking Goths, in later Byzantine sources they were called Scythians Eastern Slavs- Rus', Turkic-speaking Khazars and Pechenegs, as well as Alans related to the ancient Iranian-speaking Scythians.

Emergence. The underlying basis of early Indo-European, including Scythian, culture is being actively studied by supporters of the Kurgan hypothesis. Archaeologists date the formation of the relatively generally recognized Scythian culture to the 7th century BC. e. (Arzhan burial mounds). At the same time, there are two main approaches to interpreting its occurrence. According to one, based on the so-called “third legend” of Herodotus, the Scythians came from the east, expelling what can archaeologically be interpreted as coming from the lower reaches of the Syr Darya, from Tuva or some other areas of Central Asia (see Pazyryk culture).

Another approach, which can also be based on the legends recorded by Herodotus, suggests that the Scythians had by that time lived in the Northern Black Sea region for at least several centuries, having separated from the successors of the Timber-frame culture.

Maria Gimbutas and the scientists of her circle attribute the appearance of the Scythian ancestors (horse domestication cultures) to 5 - 4 thousand BC. e. According to other versions, these ancestors are associated with other cultures. They also appear to be the descendants of the bearers of the Timber Frame culture of the Bronze Age, who advanced from the 14th century. BC e. from the Volga region to the west. Others believe that the main core of the Scythians emerged thousands of years ago from Central Asia or Siberia and mixed with the population of the Northern Black Sea region (including the territory of Ukraine). The ideas of Marija Gimbutas extend in the direction of further research into the origins of the Scythians.

Grain farming was of considerable importance. The Scythians produced grain for export, in particular to Greek cities, and through them to the Greek metropolis. Grain production required the use of slave labor. The bones of murdered slaves often accompany the burials of Scythian slave owners. The custom of killing people during the burial of masters is known in all countries and is characteristic of the era of the emergence of the slave economy. There are known cases of slaves being blinded, which does not agree with the assumption of patriarchal slavery among the Scythians. Agricultural tools, in particular sickles, are found at Scythian settlements, but arable tools are extremely rare; they were probably all wooden and did not have iron parts. The fact that the Scythians had arable farming is judged not so much by the finds of these tools, but by the amount of grain produced by the Scythians, which would have been many times less if the land had been cultivated with a hoe.

Fortified settlements appeared relatively late, at the turn of the 5th and 4th centuries. BC e., when the Scythians had sufficiently developed crafts and trade.

According to Herodotus, the royal Scythians were dominant - the easternmost of the Scythian tribes, bordering the Don with the Sauromatians, also occupied the steppe Crimea. To the west of them lived the Scythian nomads, and even further west, on the left bank of the Dnieper, the Scythian farmers. On the right bank of the Dnieper, in the basin of the Southern Bug, near the city of Olbia, lived the Callipids, or Hellenic-Scythians, to the north of them - the Alazons, and even further to the north - the Scythian ploughmen, and Herodotus points to agriculture as differences from the Scythians the last three tribes and clarifies that if the Callipids and Alazons grow and eat bread, then the Scythian plowmen grow bread for sale.

The Scythians already fully owned the production of ferrous metal. Other types of production are also represented: bone carving, pottery, weaving. But only metallurgy has so far reached the level of craftsmanship.

There are two lines of fortifications on the Kamensky settlement: external and internal. Archaeologists call the inner part the acropolis by analogy with the corresponding division of Greek cities. The remains of stone dwellings of the Scythian nobility have been traced on the acropolis. Row dwellings were mainly above-ground houses. Their walls sometimes consisted of pillars, the bases of which were dug into specially dug grooves along the contour of the dwelling. There are also semi-dugout dwellings.

The oldest Scythian arrows are flat, often with a spike on the sleeve. They are all socketed, that is, they have a special tube into which the arrow shaft is inserted. Classic Scythian arrows are also socketed, they resemble a trihedral pyramid, or three-bladed - the ribs of the pyramid seem to have developed into blades. The arrows are made of bronze, which has finally won its place in the production of arrows.

Scythian ceramics were made without the help of a potter's wheel, although in the Greek colonies neighboring the Scythians the wheel was widely used. Scythian vessels are flat-bottomed and varied in shape. Scythian bronze cauldrons up to a meter high, which had a long and thin leg and two vertical handles, became widespread.

Scythian art is well known mainly from objects from burials. It is characterized by the depiction of animals in certain poses and with exaggeratedly noticeable paws, eyes, claws, horns, ears, etc. Ungulates (deer, goat) were depicted with bent legs, cat predators - curled up in a ring. Scythian art presents strong or fast and sensitive animals, which corresponds to the Scythian’s desire to overtake, hit, and be always ready. It is noted that some images are associated with certain Scythian deities. The figures of these animals seemed to protect their owner from harm. But the style was not only sacred, but also decorative. The claws, tails and shoulder blades of predators were often shaped like the head of a bird of prey; sometimes full images of animals were placed in these places. This artistic style was called animal style in archeology. In early times in the Volga region, animal ornaments were evenly distributed between representatives of the nobility and ordinary people. In the IV-III centuries. BC e. the animal style is degenerating, and objects with similar ornaments are presented mainly in graves. The Scythian burials are the most famous and best studied. The Scythians buried their dead in pits or catacombs, under mounds. lah nobles. In the area of the Dnieper rapids there are the famous Scythian burial mounds. In the royal burial mounds of the Scythians, gold vessels, artistic items made of gold, and expensive weapons are found. Thus, a new phenomenon is observed in the Scythian mounds - a strong property stratification. There are small and huge mounds, some burials without things, others with huge amounts of gold.

IRON AGE, an era of human history, identified on the basis of archaeological data and characterized by the leading role of products made of iron and its derivatives (cast iron and steel). As a rule, the Iron Age replaced the Bronze Age. The beginning of the Iron Age in different regions dates back to different times, and the dating of this process is approximate. An indicator of the beginning of the Iron Age is the regular use of ore iron for the manufacture of tools and weapons, the spread of ferrous metallurgy and blacksmithing; the massive use of iron products signifies a special stage of development already within the Iron Age, in some cultures separated from the beginning of the Iron Age by several centuries. The end of the Iron Age is often considered the onset of a technological era associated with industrial revolution, or extend it to the present day.

The widespread introduction of iron made it possible to produce mass series of labor tools, which was reflected in the improvement and further spread of agriculture (especially in forest areas, on difficult-to-cultivate soils, etc.), progress in construction, crafts (in particular, saws appeared, files, hinged tools, etc.), mining of metals and other raw materials, manufacturing of wheeled vehicles, etc. The development of production and transport led to the expansion of trade and the appearance of coins. The use of massive iron weapons had a significant impact on progress in military affairs. In many societies, all this contributed to the decomposition of primitive relations, the emergence of statehood, and inclusion in the circle of civilizations, the oldest of which are much older than the Iron Age and had a level of development that surpassed many societies of the Iron Age period.

There are early and late Iron Ages. For many cultures, primarily European, the border between them is usually attributed to the era of the collapse of ancient civilization and the onset of the Middle Ages; a number of archaeologists correlate the end of the Early Iron Age with the beginning of the influence of Roman culture on many peoples of Europe in the 1st century BC - 1st century AD. In addition, different regions have their own internal periodization of the Iron Age.

The concept of “Iron Age” is used primarily for the study of primitive societies. Processes associated with the formation and development of statehood, the formation of modern peoples, as a rule, are considered not so much within the framework of archaeological cultures and “centuries”, but in the context of the history of the corresponding states and ethnic groups. It is with them that many archaeological cultures of the late Iron Age correlate

Distribution of ferrous metallurgy and metalworking. The most ancient center of iron metallurgy was the region of Asia Minor, the Eastern Mediterranean, and Transcaucasia (2nd half of the 2nd millennium BC). Evidence of the widespread use of iron appears in texts from the mid-2nd millennium. The message of the Hittite king to Pharaoh Ramesses II with a message about the dispatch of a ship loaded with iron (late 14th - early 13th century) is indicative. A significant number of iron products were found at archaeological sites of the 14-12th century of the New Hittite Kingdom; steel has been known in Palestine since the 12th century, in Cyprus - since the 10th century. One of the oldest finds of a metallurgical forge dates back to the turn of the 2nd and 1st millennia (Kvemo-Bolnisi, the territory of modern Georgia), slag - in the layers of the archaic period of Miletus. At the turn of the 2nd - 1st millennia, the Iron Age began in Mesopotamia and Iran; Thus, during excavations of the palace of Sargon II in Khorsabad (4th quarter of the 8th century), about 160 tons of iron were discovered, mainly in the form of krits (probably tribute from subject territories). Perhaps from Iran at the beginning of the 1st millennium, ferrous metallurgy spread to India (where the beginning of widespread use of iron is attributed to the 8th or 7th/6th centuries), in the 8th century - in Central Asia. In the steppes of Asia, iron became widespread no earlier than the 6th/5th century.

Through the Greek cities of Asia Minor, ironworking skills spread at the end of the 2nd millennium to the Aegean Islands and around the 10th century to mainland Greece, where trade krits and iron swords in burials have been known since that time. In Western and Central Europe, the Iron Age began in the 8th-7th centuries, in Southwestern Europe - in the 7th-6th centuries, in Britain - in the 5th-4th centuries, in Scandinavia - actually at the turn of eras.

In the Northern Black Sea region, the Northern Caucasus and the southern taiga Volga-Kama region, the period of primary iron development ended in the 9th-8th centuries; Along with things made in the local tradition, products created in the Transcaucasian tradition of steel production (cementation) are known here. The beginning of the Iron Age proper in the regions of Eastern Europe indicated and influenced by them dates back to the 8th-7th centuries. Then the number of iron objects increased significantly, the methods of their production were enriched with the skills of molding forging (with the help of special crimpers and dies), lap welding and the stacking method. In the Urals and Siberia, the Iron Age came earliest (by the middle of the 1st millennium BC) in the steppe, forest-steppe and mountain forest regions. In the taiga and the Far East and in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium BC, the Bronze Age actually continued, but the population was closely related to the Iron Age cultures (excluding the northern part of the taiga and the tundra).

In China, the development of ferrous metallurgy proceeded separately. Due to the high level of bronze foundry production, the Iron Age did not begin here until the mid-1st millennium BC, although iron ore was known long before that. Chinese craftsmen were the first to begin purposefully producing cast iron and, using its fusibility, produced many products not by forging, but by casting. In China, the practice of producing malleable iron from cast iron by reducing the carbon content arose. In Korea, the Iron Age began in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium BC, in Japan - around the 3rd-2nd century, in Indochina and Indonesia - at the turn of the era or a little later.

In Africa, the Iron Age was established first in the Mediterranean (by the 6th century). In the middle of the 1st millennium BC it began in Nubia and Sudan, in several areas of West Africa; in the East - at the turn of eras; in the South - closer to the middle of the 1st millennium AD. In several areas of Africa, America, Australia and the islands Pacific Ocean The Iron Age came with the arrival of Europeans.

The most important cultures of the early Iron Age beyond civilizations

Due to its widespread use and comparative ease of development iron ores bronze casting centers gradually lost their monopoly on metal production. Many previously backward regions began to catch up with the old cultural centers in terms of technological and socio-economic level. The zoning of the ecumene changed accordingly. If for the early metal era an important culture-forming factor was belonging to a metallurgical province or to a zone of its influence, then in the Iron Age the role of ethnolinguistic, economic, cultural and other ties intensified in the formation of cultural and historical communities. The widespread distribution of effective iron weapons contributed to the involvement of many communities in predatory and conquest wars, accompanied by mass migrations. All this led to fundamental changes in the ethnocultural and military-political landscape.

In some cases, based on linguistic data and written sources, we can talk about the dominance within certain cultural and historical communities of the Iron Age of one or a group of peoples with similar languages, sometimes even linking a group of archaeological sites with a specific people. However, written sources for many regions are scarce or absent, and not for all communities it is possible to obtain data that allows them to be correlated with the linguistic classification of peoples. It should be borne in mind that the speakers of many languages, perhaps even entire families of languages, did not leave direct linguistic descendants, and therefore their relationship to known ethnolinguistic communities is hypothetical.

Southern, Western, Central Europe and the southern Baltic region. After the collapse of the Cretan-Mycenaean civilization, the beginning of the Iron Age in Ancient Greece coincided with the temporary decline of the “Dark Ages”. Subsequently, the widespread introduction of iron contributed to a new rise in the economy and society, leading to the formation of ancient civilization. On the territory of Italy, at the beginning of the Iron Age, many archaeological cultures are distinguished (some of them formed in the Bronze Age); in the north-west - Golasecca, correlated with part of the Ligurians; in the middle reaches of the Po River - Terramar, in the northeast - Este, comparable to the Veneti; in the northern and central parts of the Apennine Peninsula - Villanova and others, in Campania and Calabria - “pit burials”, the monuments of Apulia are associated with the Mesans (close to the Illyrians). In Sicily the culture of Pantalica and others is known, in Sardinia and Corsica - Nuraghe.

On the Iberian Peninsula there were large centers for the extraction of non-ferrous metals, which led to the long-term predominance of bronze products (Tartessus culture, etc.). In the early Iron Age, waves of migrations of different nature and intensity were recorded here, and monuments appeared that reflected local and introduced traditions. Based on some of these traditions, the culture of the Iberian tribes was formed. The originality of traditions was preserved to the greatest extent in the Atlantic regions (“fortification culture”, etc.).

The development of Mediterranean cultures was strongly influenced by Phoenician and Greek colonization, the flowering of culture and expansion of the Etruscans, and the invasions of the Celts; later the Mediterranean Sea became internal to the Roman Empire (see Ancient Rome).

In a large part of Western and Central Europe The transition to the Iron Age took place during the Hallstatt era. The Hallstatt cultural area is divided into many cultures and cultural groups. Some of them in the eastern zone are correlated with groups of Illyrians, in the western zone - with the Celts. In one of the regions of the western zone, the La Tène culture was formed, which then spread over a vast territory during the expansion and influence of the Celts. Their achievements in metallurgy and metalworking, borrowed by their northern and eastern neighbors, determined the dominance of iron products. The La Tène era defines a special period of European history (about 5-1 centuries BC), its finale is associated with the expansion of Rome (for the territories north of the La Tène culture, this era is also called “pre-Roman”, “early Iron Age”, etc. ).

A sword in a sheath with an anthropomorphic hilt. Iron, bronze. La Tène culture (2nd half of the 1st millennium BC). Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York).

In the Balkans, east of the Illyrians, and north to the Dniester, there were cultures associated with the Thracians (their influence reached the Dnieper, the Northern Black Sea region, up to the Bosporan state). To designate the community of these cultures at the end of the Bronze Age and the beginning of the Iron Age, the term “Thracian Hallstatt” is used. Around the middle of the 1st millennium BC, the originality of the “Thracian” cultures of the northern zone intensified, where associations of the Getae, then the Dacians, formed in southern zone Thracian tribes came into close contact with the Greeks, groups of Scythians, Celts, and others who moved here, and then were annexed to the Roman Empire.

At the end of the Bronze Age in Southern Scandinavia and partly to the south, a decline in culture was recorded, and a new rise was associated with the spread and widespread use of iron. Many Iron Age cultures north of the Celts cannot be correlated with known groups of peoples; It is more reliable to compare the formation of the Germans or a significant part of them with the Jastorf culture. To the east of its area and the upper reaches of the Elbe to the Vistula basin, the transition to the Iron Age took place within the framework of the Lusatian culture, in the later stages of which the originality of local groups intensified. On the basis of one of them, the Pomeranian culture was formed, which spread in the middle of the 1st millennium BC to large parts of the Lusatian area. Towards the end of the La Tène era, the Oksyw culture was formed in Polish Pomerania, and to the south - the Przeworsk culture. In the new era (within the 1st-4th centuries AD), called the “Roman Imperial”, “provincial Roman influences”, etc., to the northeast of the borders of the Empire, various associations of Germans became the leading force.

From the Masurian Lake District, parts of Mazovia and Podlasie to the lower reaches of the Pregolia, the so-called Western Baltic mound culture is distinguished in the La Tène period. Its relationship with subsequent crops for a number of regions is controversial. In Roman times, cultures associated with peoples classified as Balts were recorded here, including the Galindas (see Bogachev culture), Sudavians (Sudins), Estii, comparable to the Sambian-Natang culture, etc., but the formation of the majority famous peoples Western and eastern (“Summer-Lithuanian”) Balts date back to the 2nd half of the 1st millennium AD, that is, the late Iron Age.

Steppes of Eurasia, forest zone and tundra of Eastern Europe and Siberia. By the beginning of the Iron Age, nomadic cattle breeding had developed in the steppe belt of Eurasia, stretching from the Middle Danube to Mongolia. Mobility and organization, along with the mass availability of effective (including iron) weapons and equipment, became the reason for the military-political significance of nomadic associations, which often extended power to neighboring settled tribes and were a serious threat to states from the Mediterranean to the Far East.

The European steppes from the middle or late 9th to the early 7th century BC were dominated by a community with which, according to some researchers, the Cimmerians are associated. The forest-steppe tribes (Chernolesskaya culture, Bondarikha culture, etc.) were in close contact with it.

By the 7th century BC, from the Danube region to Mongolia, the “Scythian-Siberian world” was formed, within which the Scythian archaeological culture, the Sauromatian archaeological culture, the Sako-Massaget culture circle, the Pazyryk culture, the Uyuk culture, the Tagar culture (the only one that preserved the production of high-quality bronze items) and others, to varying degrees correlated with the Scythians and the peoples of “Herodotus” Scythia, Sauromatians, Sakas, Massagetae, Yuezhi, Wusuns, etc. Representatives of this community were predominantly Caucasians, probably a significant part of them spoke Iranian languages.

In close contact with the “Cimmerian” and “Scythian” communities were the tribes of the Crimea and different high level metalworking population of the North Caucasus, southern taiga Volga-Kama (Kizilkoba culture, Meotian archaeological culture, Koban culture, Ananyin culture). The influence of the “Cimmerian” and Scythian cultures on the population of the Middle and Lower Danube region is significant. Therefore, the distinguished “Cimmerian” (aka “Pre-Scythian”) and “Scythian” eras are used in the study of not only steppe cultures.

Iron arrowhead inlaid with gold and silver, from the Arzhan-2 mound (Tuva). 7th century BC. Hermitage (St. Petersburg).

In the 4th-3rd centuries BC in the steppes of Europe, Kazakhstan and the Southern Trans-Urals, the Scythian and Sauromatian ones were replaced by Sarmatian archaeological cultures, defining the era, divided into early, middle, late periods and lasting until the 4th century AD. A significant influence of Sarmatian cultures can be traced in the North Caucasus, which reflects both the resettlement of part of the steppe population and the transformation of local cultures under its influence. The Sarmatians penetrated far into the forest-steppe regions - from the Dnieper region to Northern Kazakhstan, in various forms of contact with the local population. Large stationary settlements and craft centers east of the Middle Danube are associated with the Sarmatians of the Alföld. Partly continuing the traditions of the previous era, largely Sarmatized and Hellenized, the so-called Late Scythian culture was preserved in the lower reaches of the Dnieper and in the Crimea, where a kingdom arose with its capital in Scythian Naples; part of the Scythians, according to written sources, concentrated on the Lower Danube; A number of researchers also classify some groups of monuments in the Eastern European forest-steppe as “Late Scythian”.

In Central Asia and Southern Siberia, the end of the era of the "Scythian-Siberian world" is associated with the rise of the Xiongnu unification at the end of the 3rd century BC under Maodun. Although it collapsed in the mid-1st century BC, the southern Xiongnu fell into the orbit of Chinese influence, and the northern Xiongnu were finally defeated by the mid-2nd century AD, the “Xiongnu” era was extended until the mid-1st millennium AD. Monuments associated with the Xiongnu (Xiongnu) are known in a significant part of Transbaikalia (for example, the Ivolginsky archaeological complex, Ilmovaya Pad), Mongolia, and steppe Manchuria and indicate the complex ethnocultural composition of this association. Along with the penetration of the Xiongnu, the development of local traditions continued in Southern Siberia [in Tuva - the Shumrak culture, in Khakassia - the Tesin type (or stage) and the Tashtyk culture, etc.]. The ethnic and military-political history of Central Asia in the Iron Age is largely based on information from Chinese written sources. One can trace the rise of one or several associations of nomads that extended power over vast areas, their disintegration, absorption by subsequent ones, etc. (Donghu, Tabgachi, Jurans, etc.). The complexity of the composition of these associations, poor knowledge of a number of regions of Central Asia, dating difficulties, etc. make their comparison with archaeological sites still very hypothetical.

The next era in the history of the steppes of Asia and Europe is associated with the dominance of speakers of Turkic languages, the formation of the Turkic Khaganate, and other medieval military-political associations and states that replaced it.

The cultures of the settled population of the forest-steppe of Eastern Europe, the Urals, and Siberia were often included in the “Scythian-Siberian,” “Sarmatian,” “Hunnic” “worlds,” but could form cultural communities with forest tribes or form their own cultural areas.

In the forest zone of the Upper Poneman and Podvina, Dnieper and Poochye traditions of the Bronze Age, the culture of hatched ceramics continued; on the basis of predominantly local cultures, the Dnieper-Dvina culture and the Dyakovo culture were formed. In the early stages of their development, iron, although common, did not become the dominant raw material; The monuments of this circle were characterized by archaeologists as “bone-bearing fortifications” based on the massive finds of bone artifacts at the main excavation sites - fortifications. The massive use of iron here begins around the end of the 1st millennium BC, when changes occur in other areas of culture and migrations are noted. Therefore, for example, in relation to the Hatched Pottery and Dyakovo cultures, researchers distinguish the corresponding “early” and “late” cultures as different formations.

In origin and appearance, the early Dyakovo culture is close to the Gorodets culture adjacent to the east. By the turn of the era, there is a significant expansion of its range to the south and north, to the taiga regions of the Vetluga River. Around the turn of the era, the population moved into its range from beyond the Volga; From Sura to Ryazan Poochye, cultural groups associated with the tradition of St. Andrew's Kurgan are formed. On their basis, the cultures of the late Iron Age, associated with the speakers of the Finno-Volgian languages, developed.

The southern zone of the forest Dnieper region was occupied by the Milograd culture and the Yukhnov culture, in which one can trace significant influence Scythian culture and La Tène. Several waves of migrations from the Vistula-Oder region led to the appearance of the Pomeranian and Przeworsk cultures in Volyn, and the formation of the Zarubintsy culture in most of the south of the forest and forest-steppe Dnieper region. It, along with the Oksyw, Przeworsk, Pojanesti-Lukashevo culture, is singled out in the circle of “Latenized” ones, noting the special influence of the Laten culture. In the 1st century AD, the Zarubintsy culture experienced a collapse, but on the basis of its traditions, with the participation of the more northern population, monuments of the late Zarubintsy horizon were formed, which formed the basis of the Kiev culture, which determined the cultural appearance of the forest and part of the forest-steppe Dnieper region in the 3-4 centuries AD. Based on the Volyn monuments of the Przeworsk culture, the Zubretsk culture was formed in the 1st century AD.

Researchers associate the formation of the Slavs with cultures that adopted the components of the Pomeranian culture, primarily along the so-called Zarubinets line.

In the middle of the 3rd century AD, the Chernyakhov culture developed from the Lower Danube to the Seversky Donets, in which the Wielbar culture played a significant role, the spread of which to the southeast is associated with the migrations of the Goths and Gepids. The collapse of socio-political structures correlated with the Chernyakhov culture under the blows of the Huns at the end of the 4th century AD marked the beginning of a new era in the history of Europe - the Great Migration.

In northeastern Europe, the beginning of the Iron Age is associated with the Ananyino cultural and historical region. In the territory of northwestern Russia and part of Finland, cultures are widespread in which the components of Ananyino and textile ceramics cultures are intertwined with local ones (Luukonsari-Kudoma, late Kargopol culture, late White Sea culture, etc.). In the basins of the Pechora, Vychegda, Mezen rivers, Northern Dvina monuments appear in the ceramics of which the development of the comb ornamental tradition associated with the Lebyazh culture continued, while new ornamental motifs indicate interaction with the Kama and Trans-Ural population groups.

By the 3rd century BC, on the basis of the Ananino culture, the communities of the Pyanobor culture and the Glyadenovo culture took shape (see Glyadenovo). A number of researchers consider the middle of the 1st millennium AD to be the upper limit of the cultures of the Pyanobor circle; others identify the Mazunin culture, the Azelin culture, etc. for the 3rd-5th centuries. New stage historical development associated with a number of migrations, including the appearance of monuments of the Kharino circle, which led to the formation of medieval cultures associated with speakers of modern Permian languages.

In the mountain forest and taiga regions of the Urals and Western Siberia in the early Iron Age, the cross ceramics culture, the Itkul culture, the comb-pit ceramics culture of the West Siberian circle, the Ust-Poluy culture, the Kulai culture, the Beloyarsk, Novochekinsk, Bogochanovsk, etc. were widespread; in the 4th century BC, the focus on non-ferrous metalworking remained here (a center was associated with the Itkul culture, supplying many areas, including the steppe, with raw materials and copper products); in some cultures, the spread of ferrous metallurgy dates back to the 3rd third of the 1st century millennium BC. This cultural circle is associated with the ancestors of the speakers of part of the modern Ugric languages and Samoyed languages.

Iron items from the Barsovsky III burial ground (Surgut Ob region). 6-2/1 centuries BC (according to V. A. Borzunov, Yu. P. Chemyakin).

To the south was the region of forest-steppe cultures of Western Siberia, the northern periphery of the world of nomads, associated with the southern branch of the Ugrians (Vorobievskaya and Nosilovsko-Baitovskaya cultures; they were replaced by the Sargatskaya culture, Gorokhovskaya culture). In the forest-steppe Ob region in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium BC, the Kizhirovskaya, Staroaleiskaya, Kamenskaya cultures spread, which are sometimes combined into one community. Part of the forest-steppe population was involved in migrations in the mid-1st millennium AD, while another part moved north along the Irtysh (Potchevash culture). Along the Ob River to the south, all the way to Altai, the Kulai culture (Upper Ob culture) spread. The remaining population, associated with the traditions of the Sargat and Kamensk cultures, was Turkified during the Middle Ages.

In the forest cultures of Eastern Siberia (late Ymyyakhtakh culture, Pyasinskaya, Tsepanskaya, Ust-Milskaya, etc.), bronze products are few in number, mostly imported; iron processing appears no earlier than the end of the 1st millennium BC from the Amur region and Primorye. These cultures were left behind by mobile groups of hunters and fishermen - the ancestors of the Yukagir, the northern part of the Tungus-Manchu peoples, the Chukchi, the Koryaks, etc.

Eastern regions of Asia. In the cultures of the Russian Far East, northeast China and Korea, the Bronze Age is not as pronounced as in Siberia or in more southern regions, but already at the turn of the 2nd-1st millennia BC, the development of iron began here within the framework of the Uril culture and Yankovskaya culture, and then the Talakan, Olginskaya, Poltsevskaya culture and other cultures close to them from the territory of China (Wanyanhe, Guntulin, Fenglin) and Korea. Some of these cultures are associated with the ancestors of the southern part of the Tungus-Manchu peoples. More northern monuments (Lakhta, Okhotsk, Ust-Belsk and other cultures) are branches of the Ymyyakhtakh culture, which in the middle of the 1st millennium BC reached Chukotka and, interacting with the Paleo-Eskimos, participated in the formation of the ancient Bering Sea culture. The presence of iron incisors is evidenced, first of all, by the rotating tips of bone harpoons made with their help.

On the territory of Korea, the manufacture of tools from stone prevailed throughout the Bronze Age and the beginning of the Iron Age; metal was used mainly to make weapons, some types of jewelry, etc. The spread of iron dates back to the middle of the 1st millennium BC, when the Joseon unification took shape here; the later history of these cultures is connected with the Chinese conquests, the formation and development of local states (Koguryo, etc.). On the Japanese islands, iron appeared and became widespread during the development of the Yayoi culture, within which tribal unions formed in the 2nd century AD, and then the state formation of Yamato. IN South-East Asia The beginning of the Iron Age coincided with the formation of the first states.

Africa. In the Mediterranean regions, significant parts of the Nile basin, near the Red Sea, the formation of the Iron Age took place on the basis of Bronze Age cultures, within the framework of civilizations (Ancient Egypt, Meroe), in connection with the emergence of colonies from Phenicia, the rise of Carthage; by the end of the 1st millennium BC, Mediterranean Africa became part of the Roman Empire.

A feature of the development of more southern cultures is the absence of the Bronze Age. Some researchers associate the penetration of iron metallurgy south of the Sahara with the influence of Meroe. More and more arguments are being made in favor of another point of view, according to which the routes through the Sahara played an important role in this. These could be “chariot roads” reconstructed from rock carvings; they could pass through Fezzan, as well as where the ancient state of Ghana arose, etc. In some cases, iron production could be concentrated in specialized areas, monopolized by their residents, and blacksmiths could form closed communities; communities of different economic specializations and levels of development coexisted. All this, as well as the poor archaeological knowledge of the continent, make our idea of the development of the Iron Age here very hypothetical.

IN West Africa The oldest evidence of the production of iron products (2nd half of the 1st millennium BC) is associated with the Nok culture, its relationship with synchronous and later cultures is largely unclear, but no later than the 1st half of the 1st millennium AD, iron was known throughout West Africa. However, even on monuments associated with state entities the end of the 1st millennium - the 1st half of the 2nd millennium AD (Igbo-Ukwu, Ife, Benin, etc.), there are few iron products; during the colonial period it was one of the imported items.

On the east coast of Africa, the Azanian cultures date back to the Iron Age, and there is evidence of iron imports for them. An important stage in the history of the region is associated with the development of trading settlements with the participation of people from southwest Asia, primarily Muslims (such as Kilwa, Mogadishu, etc.); iron production centers are known for this time from written and archaeological sources.

In the Congo Basin, the interior of East Africa and further south, the spread of iron is associated with cultures belonging to the tradition of “pottery with a concave bottom” (“a hole in the bottom”, etc.) and traditions close to it. The beginning of metallurgy in certain places of these regions is attributed to different segments of the 1st half (no later than the middle) of the 1st millennium AD. Migrants from these lands probably brought iron to South Africa for the first time. A number of emerging “empires” in the Zambezi and Congo river basins (Zimbabwe, Kitara, etc.) were associated with the export of gold, ivory, etc.

A new stage in the history of sub-Saharan Africa is associated with the emergence of European colonies.

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I. O. Gavritukhin, A. R. Kantorovich, S. V. Kuzminykh.

a period in the development of mankind that began in connection with the manufacture and use of iron tools and weapons. Replaced by the Bronze Age at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. The use of iron contributed to a significant increase in production and the collapse of the primitive communal system.

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IRON AGE

an era in the primitive and early class history of mankind, characterized by the spread of iron metallurgy and the production of iron. guns The idea of three centuries: stone, bronze and iron - arose in the ancient world (Titus Lucretius Carus). The term "J.v." was put into use ca. ser. 19th century Danish archaeologist K. J. Thomsen. The most important research, original. classification and dating of monuments of the late century. in the West Europe produced by M. Gernes, O. Montelius, O. Tischler, M. Reinecke, J. Dechelet, N. Oberg, J. L. Pietsch and J. Kostrzewski; in East Europe - V. A. Gorodtsov, A. A. Spitsyn, Yu. V. Gauthier, P. N. Tretyakov, A. P. Smirnov, Kh. A. Moora, M. I. Artamonov, B. N. Grakov and etc.; in Siberia - S. A. Teploukhov, S. V. Kiselev, S. I. Rudenko and others; in the Caucasus - B. A. Kuftin, B. B. Piotrovsky, E. I. Krupnov and others. The initial period. spread of gas industries survived all countries at different times, however, by the century. Usually only the cultures of primitive tribes that lived outside the territories of the ancient slave owners are included. civilizations that arose back in the Chalcolithic and Bronze Ages (Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, India, China). J.v. compared with previous archaeological eras (Cam. and Bronze Ages) is very short. His chronological borders: from 9-7 centuries. BC e., when many primitive tribes of Europe and Asia developed their own iron metallurgy, and until the time of the emergence of a class society and state among these tribes. Some modern foreign scientists who consider the time of the appearance of letters to be the end of primitive history. sources attribute the end of the Zh. century. Zap. Europe by the 1st century. BC e., when Rome appears. letters sources containing information about Western European. tribes Since to this day iron remains the most important material from which tools are made, modern ones. the era is included in the Life Century, therefore for archaeological. For the periodization of primitive history, the term “early life history” is also used. On the territory Zap. Europe in early life. only its beginning is called (the so-called Hallstatt culture). Despite the fact that iron is the most common metal in the world, it was developed late by man, since it is almost never found in nature in its pure form, is difficult to process, and its ores are difficult to distinguish from various minerals. Initially, meteorite iron became known to mankind. Small objects made of iron (primarily ornaments) are found in the 1st half. 3rd millennium BC e. in Egypt, Mesopotamia and Asia. The method of obtaining iron from ore was discovered in the 2nd millennium BC. e. According to one of the most likely assumptions, the cheese-making process (see below) was first used by tribes subordinate to the Hittites living in the mountains of Armenia (Antitaurus) in the 15th century. BC e. However, it still lasts. For a time, iron remained a rare and very valuable metal. Only after the 11th century. BC e. fairly widespread production of railway began. weapons and tools in Palestine, Syria, Asia, and India. At the same time, iron became famous in southern Europe. In the 11th-10th centuries. BC e. dept. zhel. objects penetrate into the region lying north of the Alps and are found in the steppes of southern Europe. parts of the USSR, but guns began to dominate in these areas only in the 8th-7th centuries. BC e. In the 8th century. BC e. zhel. products are widely distributed in Mesopotamia, Iran and somewhat later in Wed. Asia. The first news of iron in China dates back to the 8th century. BC e., but it spread only in the 5th century. BC e. Iron spread to Indochina and Indonesia at the turn of our era. Apparently, since ancient times, iron metallurgy was known to various tribes of Africa. Undoubtedly, already in the 6th century. BC e. iron was produced in Nubia, Sudan, and Libya. In the 2nd century. BC e. J.v. stepped into the center. region Africa. Some African tribes moved from Kam. century to the Iron Age, bypassing the Bronze Age. In America, Australia and most of the Pacific Islands approx. iron (except meteorite) became known only in the 2nd millennium AD. e. along with the arrival of Europeans in these areas. In contrast to the relatively rare sources of copper and especially tin, iron. ores, however, most often low-grade (brown iron ores, lake, swamp, meadow, etc.), are found almost everywhere. But it is much more difficult to obtain iron from ores than copper. Melting iron, that is, obtaining it in a liquid state, was always inaccessible to ancient metallurgists, since this required a very high temperature (1528°). Iron was obtained in a dough-like state using the cheese-blowing process, which consisted of the restoration of iron. ore with carbon at a temperature of 1100-1350° in special. furnaces with air injection by forging bellows through a nozzle. A kritsa formed at the bottom of the furnace - a lump of porous dough-like iron weighing 1-8 kg, which had to be hammered repeatedly to compact and partially remove (squeeze out) the slag from it. Hot iron is soft, but in ancient times (c. 12th century BC) a method of hardening iron was discovered. products (by immersing them in cold water ) and their cementation (carburization). Ready for blacksmith crafts and intended for trading. iron bars were usually exchanged in Western Asia and Western Asia. Europe bipyramidal shape. Higher mechanical quality of iron, as well as the general availability of iron. ores and the cheapness of the new metal ensured the displacement of bronze by iron, as well as stone, which remained an important material for the production of tools and bronze. century. This did not happen right away. In Europe only in the 2nd half. 1st millennium BC e. iron began to play truly creatures. role as a material for making tools. Technical The revolution caused by the spread of iron greatly expanded man's power over nature. It made it possible to clear large forest areas for crops and to expand and improve irrigation systems. and reclamation structures and overall improvement of land cultivation. The development of crafts, especially blacksmithing and weapons, is accelerating. Wood processing is being improved for the purposes of house construction, the production of vehicles (ships, chariots, etc.), and the manufacture of various utensils. Craftsmen, from shoemakers and masons to miners, also received more advanced tools. By the beginning of our era, everything was basic. types of crafts. and agricultural hand tools (except for screws and articulated scissors), used in Wed. centuries, and partly in modern times, were already in use. The construction of roads has become easier and the military has been improved. technology, exchange expanded, spread as a means of circulating metal. coin. Development produces. The forces associated with the spread of iron over time led to the transformation of entire societies. life. As a result of growth it produces. labor, the surplus product increased, which, in turn, served as an economic a prerequisite for the emergence of exploitation of man by man, the collapse of the tribal system. One of the sources of accumulation of values and growth of property. inequality was expanding during the era of housing. exchange. The possibility of enrichment through exploitation gave rise to wars for the purpose of plunder and enslavement. For the beginning J.v. characterized by a wide distribution of fortifications. During the era of housing. The tribes of Europe and Asia were experiencing the stage of disintegration of the primitive communal system and were on the eve of the emergence of classes. society and state. The transition of part of the means of production into the private property of the ruling minority, the emergence of slavery, the increased stratification of society and the separation of the tribal aristocracy from the main ones. the masses of the population are already features typical of the early classes. society In many tribal societies. the structure of this transition period took on a political so-called form military democracy. J.v. on the territory of the USSR. On the territory USSR iron first appeared in the end. 2nd millennium BC e. In Transcaucasia (Samtavrsky burial ground) and in Southern Europe. parts of the USSR (monuments of the Timber-frame culture). The development of iron in Racha (Western Georgia) dates back to ancient times. The Mossinoiks and Khalibs, who lived in the neighborhood of the Colchians, were famous as metallurgists. However, the widespread use of iron metallurgy in the region. The USSR dates back to the 1st millennium BC. e. A number of archaeological sites are known in Transcaucasia. cultures of the end of the Bronze Age, the flowering of which dates back to the early Zh. century: Central-Transcaucasian. culture with local centers in Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan, Kyzyl-Vank culture (see Kyzyl-Vank), Colchis culture, Urartian culture. To the North Caucasus: Koban culture, Kayakent-Khorochoev culture and Kuban culture. In the Northern steppes. Black Sea region in the 7th century. BC e. - first centuries AD e. lived by Scythian tribes, who created the most developed culture of the early Western century. on the territory THE USSR. Zhel. products were found in abundance in settlements and burial mounds of the Scythian period. Signs of metallurgical products were discovered during excavations of a number of Scythian settlements. The largest amount of iron residues. and blacksmith crafts were found at the Kamensky settlement (5-3 centuries BC) near Nikopol, which was apparently a center of specialists. metallurgical district of ancient Scythia. Zhel. the tools contributed to the widespread development of all kinds of crafts and the spread of arable farming among the local tribes of the Scythian period. The next period after the Scythian period was the early Zh. century. in the steppes of the Black Sea region it is represented by the Sarmatian culture, which dominated here from the 2nd century. BC e. up to 4 c. n. e. In previous times, from the 6th century. BC e. Sarmatians (or Sauromatians) lived between the Don and the Urals. By the 3rd century. n. e. One of the Sarmatian tribes - the Alans - began to play. historical the role and gradually the very name of the Sarmatians was supplanted by the name Alans. By the same time, when the Sarmatian tribes dominated the North. Black Sea region, include those that have spread to the west. regions of the North Black Sea region, Verkh. and Wed. The Dnieper and Transnistria cultures of the “burial fields” (Milograd culture, Zarubinets culture, Chernyakhov culture, etc.). These crops belonged to farmers. tribes, among which, according to some scientists, were the ancestors of the Slavs. Those who lived in the center. and sowing forest areas Europe parts of the USSR, tribes were familiar with iron metallurgy from the 6th-5th centuries. BC e. In the 8th-3rd centuries. BC e. In the Kama region, the Ananino culture was widespread, which was characterized by the coexistence of bronzes. and zhel. guns, with the undoubted superiority of the latter at the end of it. The Ananino culture on the Kama was replaced by the Pyanobor culture, which dates back to the 3rd century. BC e. - 5th century n. e. In Top. The Volga region and in the regions of the Volga-Oka interfluve towards the Zh. century. include the settlements of the Dyakovo culture (mid 1st millennium BC - mid 1st millennium AD), and in the territory. to the south from the middle reaches of the Oka and to the west from the Volga, in the basin. pp. Tsny and Moksha, settlements of the Gorodets culture (7th century BC - 5th century AD), belonging to the ancient Finno-Ugric tribes. In the Upper area There are numerous known areas of the Dnieper region. 6th century fortifications BC e. - 7th century n. e., belonging to the ancient Eastern Baltic tribes, later absorbed by the Slavs. The settlements of the same tribes are known in the southeast. The Baltic states, where along with them there are remnants of culture that belonged to the ancestors of the ancient Est. (Chud) tribes. In South In Siberia and Altai, due to the abundance of copper and tin, bronze developed strongly. industry, for a long time successfully competed with iron. Although products apparently appeared already in the early Mayemirian time (Altai; 7th century BC), iron became widespread only in the middle. 1st millennium BC e. (Tagar culture on the Yenisei, Pazyryk culture (see Pazyryk) in Altai, etc.). Cultures Zh. v. are also represented in other parts of Siberia (in Western Siberia, research by V.N. Chernetsov and others, in the Far East, research by A.P. Okladnikov and others). On the territory Wed. Asia and Kazakhstan until the 8th-7th centuries. BC e. tools and weapons were also made of bronze. The appearance of iron products in agriculture. oases, and in the pastoral steppe can be dated back to the 7th-6th centuries. BC e. Throughout the 1st millennium BC. e. and 1st floor 1st millennium AD e. steppes Wed. Asia and Kazakhstan were populated by numerous people. Sako-Massaget tribes, in whose culture iron became widespread from the Middle Ages. 1st millennium BC e., although bronze products continued to be used among them for a long time. In agricultural In the oases, the time of the appearance of iron coincides with the emergence of the first slave owners. state (Bactria, Khorezm). On the territory North Europe. parts of the USSR, in the taiga and tundra regions of Siberia, iron appears in the first centuries AD. e. J.v. on the territory of the West. Europe is usually divided into 2 periods - Hallstatt (900-400 BC), which is also called. early, or first, Zh. century, and La Tène (400 BC - early AD), which is called. late, or second. The Hallstatt culture was widespread in modern territory. Austria, Yugoslavia, partly Czechoslovakia, where it was created by the ancient Illyrians, and in the territory. South Germany and the Rhine departments of France, where the Celtic tribes lived. The era of the Hallstatt culture includes the closely related cultures of the Thracian tribes in the east. parts of the Balkan Peninsula, the culture of the Etruscan, Ligurian, Italic and other tribes on the Apennine Peninsula, the culture of the beginning of the Jewish century. Iberian Peninsula (Iberians, Turdetanians, Lusitaniians, etc.) and the late Lusatian culture in the basins of pp. Oder and Vistula. The early Hallstatt era is characterized by the coexistence of bronzes. and zhel. tools and weapons and the gradual displacement of bronze. In household In respect, this era is characterized by the growth of agriculture, in social terms - by the collapse of clan relations. All in. Germany, Scandinavia, West. France and England were still in the Bronze Age at this time. From the beginning 4th century The La Tène culture is spreading, characterized by a genuine flowering of yellow. industry. La Tène culture existed until the Roman conquest of Gaul (1st century BC). The area of distribution of the La Tène culture is the lands to the west. from the Rhine to the Atlantic. ocean, along the middle course of the Danube and to the north of it. The La Tène culture is associated with the Celtic tribes, which had large fortifications. cities that were centers of tribes and places of concentration of various crafts. During this era, a class was gradually created among the Celts. slave owner society. Bronze guns are no longer found, but greatest distribution receives iron in Europe during the Roman period. conquests At the beginning of our era, in the areas conquered by Rome, the La Tène culture was replaced by the so-called. provincial rome culture. Iron spread to northern Europe almost 300 years later than to the south. By the end of the European century. belongs to the german culture. tribes living in the territory between Northern M. and pp. Rhine, Danube and Elbe, as well as in the south of the Scandinavian Peninsula, and the culture of the west. Slavs, called the Przeworsk culture (3-2 centuries BC - 4-5 centuries AD). It is believed that the Przeworsk tribes were known to ancient authors under the name of the Wends. All in. countries, the complete dominance of iron came only at the beginning of our era. Lit.: Engels F., The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State, M., 1953; Artsikhovsky A.V., Introduction to Archeology, 3rd ed., M., 1947; World History, vol. 1-2, M., 1955-56; Gernes M., Culture of the Prehistoric Past, trans. from German, part 3, M., 1914; Gorodtsov V. A., Household Archeology, M., 1910; Gauthier Yu. V., The Iron Age in Eastern Europe, M.-L., 1930; Grakov B.N., The oldest finds of iron objects in the European part of the USSR, "CA", 1958, No. 4; Jessen A. A., On the issue of monuments of the VIII - VII centuries. BC e. in the South of the European part of the USSR, in collection: "CA" (vol.) 18, M., 1953; Kiselev S.V., Ancient history of Southern Siberia, (2nd ed.), M., 1951; Clark D.G.D., Prehistoric Europe. Economical essay, trans. from English, M., 1953; Krupnov E.I., Ancient history of the North Caucasus, M., 1960; Lyapushkin I.I., Monuments of the Saltovo-Mayatskaya culture in the river basin. Don, "MIA", 1958, No. 62; his, Dnieper forest-steppe left bank in the Iron Age, "MIA", 1961, No. 104; Mongait A.L., Archeology in the USSR, M., 1955; Niederle L., Slavic antiquities, trans. from Czech., M., 1956; Okladnikov A.P., The distant past of Primorye, Vladivostok, 1959; Essays on the history of the USSR. The primitive communal system and the most ancient states on the territory of the USSR, M., 1956; Monuments of Zarubintsy culture, "MIA", 1959, No. 70; Piotrovsky B.V., Archeology of Transcaucasia from ancient times to 1 thousand BC. e., L., 1949; his, Van Kingdom, M., 1959; Rudenko S.I., Culture of the population of Central Altai in Scythian times, M.-L., 1960; Smirnov A.P., Iron Age of the Chuvash Volga Region, M., 1961; Tretyakov P.N., East Slavic tribes, 2nd ed., M., 1953; Chernetsov V.N., Lower Ob region in 1 thousand AD. e., "MIA", 1957, No. 58; D?chelette J., Manuel d'arch?ologie prehistorique celtique et gallo-romaine, 2 ed., t. 3-4, P., 1927; Johannsen O., Geschichte des Eisens, Dösseldorf, 1953; Moorea H. , Die Eisenzeit in Lettland bis etwa 500 n. Chr., (t.) 1-2, Tartu (Dorpat), 1929-38; Redlich A., Die Minerale im Dienste der Menschheit, Bd 3 - Das Eisen, Prag, 1925; Rickard T. A., Man and metals, v. 1-2, N. Y.-L., 1932. A. L. Mongait. Moscow.

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