Bullet speed km per hour. Pneumatic bullet speed. What is a chronograph

The speed of a bullet is one of the most important characteristics of a weapon. Its value depends on a number of factors. These include the mass of the bullet, the length of the weapon barrel and the energy transferred to the bullet, which depends on the mass of the powder charge. Moving along the bore under the influence of powder gases, the bullet reaches maximum speed a few centimeters from the muzzle. This speed is called the initial speed and is indicated in the characteristics of the weapon. Naturally, each weapon model will have its own bullet speed. In this regard, it is possible to answer the question at what speed a bullet flies only by grading small arms according to their categories.

Pistols, revolvers, submachine guns

This category of weapon is characterized by a short barrel (it is often called short-barreled). It uses, as a rule, pistol cartridges equipped with a relatively small charge of gunpowder. Due to this, starting speed the bullet is relatively small and averages 300-500 m/s. Thus, the initial speed of a bullet in a Makarov pistol (PM) is 315 m/s, in a TT pistol – 420 m/s.

Assault rifles, machine guns

In this category of weapons, the so-called intermediate cartridge is mainly used. The initial speed of a bullet can reach an average of 700-1000 m/s. For example, the initial speed of a bullet in a Kalashnikov assault rifle is 720 m/s.

Rifles, sniper rifles, machine guns

Such weapons use reinforced ammunition, and this factor has a decisive influence on how fast the bullet travels. Its value can reach 1500 m/s. Thus, the initial bullet speed of the famous Mosin rifle of the 1891/30 model. was equal to 865 m/s, the bullet speed in the Dragunov sniper rifle is 830 m/s, and the Kalashnikov light machine gun (RPK) fires bullets with an initial speed of 960 m/s.

A combat cartridge for small arms consists of a bullet, a powder charge, a cartridge case and a primer (Diagram 107).

Diagram 107. Live cartridge

Sleeve designed to connect all the elements of the cartridge together, to prevent the breakthrough of powder gases during a shot (obturation) and to preserve the charge.

The sleeve has a barrel, a slope, a body and a bottom (see diagram 107). At the bottom of the sleeve there is a capsule socket with a partition, an anvil and seed holes (diagram 108). The anvil protrudes into the capsule socket, which is made from the outer surface of the bottom of the sleeve. On the anvil, the striker breaks the percussion composition of the primer to ignite it; through the seed holes, the flame from the primer penetrates to the powder charge.

Capsule is intended to ignite a powder charge and is a cup-cap, at the bottom of which an impact composition is pressed, covered with a foil circle (see diagram 107). To ignite gunpowder, so-called initiating substances are used, which are highly sensitive and explode from mechanical impact.

The cap, which serves to assemble the capsule elements, is inserted into the capsule socket with some interference in order to eliminate the breakthrough of gases between its walls and the walls of the capsule socket. The bottom of the cap is made strong enough so that it does not penetrate through the firing pin and does not break through due to the pressure of the powder gases. The capsule cap is made of brass.

The impact composition ensures trouble-free ignition of the powder charge. To prepare the shock composition, mercury fulminate, potassium chlorate and antimonium are used.

Mercury fulminate Hg(ONC) 2 is the initiating substance in the shock composition. The advantages of mercury fulminate: preservation of its qualities during long-term storage, reliability of action, ease of ignition and comparative safety. Disadvantages: intensive interaction with the metal of the barrel, which increases corrosion of the barrel bore, amalgamation (coating with mercury) of the primer cap, which leads to its spontaneous cracking and breakthrough of powder gases. To eliminate the last drawback, the inner surface of the cap is varnished.

Potassium chlorate KClO 3 is an oxidizing agent in the shock composition, ensures complete combustion of the components, increases the combustion temperature of the shock composition and facilitates the ignition of gunpowder. It is a colorless crystalline powder.

Antimonium Sb 2 S 3 is flammable in the shock composition. It is a black powder.

The percussion composition of the rifle cartridge primer contains: mercury fulminate 16%, potassium chlorate 55.5% and antimony 28.5%.

The foil circle protects the primer composition from destruction during shock to the cartridges (during transportation, feeding) and from moisture. The foil circle is varnished with shellac-rosin varnish.

The capsule is pressed into the capsule sockets in such a way that the foil covering the capsule composition lies without tension on the anvil (Diagram 109).

Diagram 108. Diagram of a capsule socket with a capsule:

1 - anvil

Diagram 109. Capsule:

1 - cap; 2 - shock composition; 3 - foil circle

The burning rate of smokeless powder and the quality of the shot largely depend on the quality of the primer. The capsule must produce a flame of a certain length, temperature and duration of action. These qualities are combined with the term “flame force”. But capsules, even of very good quality, may not provide the necessary flame force if the striker strikes poorly. For a full-fledged flash, the impact energy should be 0.14 kg m. The impact mechanisms of modern sniper rifles have this energy. But for the full ignition of the combat substance of the primer, the shape and size of the striker are also important. With a normal striker and a strong mainspring of a cleaned percussion mechanism, the flame force of the primer is constant and ensures stable ignition of the powder charge. When rusty, dirty, worn out trigger the energy of impact on the primer will be different, if contaminated, the output of the firing pin for impact will be small, therefore, the flame force will be different (diagram 110), the combustion of gunpowder will be heterogeneous, the pressure in the barrel will change from shot to shot (more - less - more), and don’t be surprised if an uncleaned weapon suddenly produces noticeable “breaks” up and down.

Scheme 110. Flame force of identical primers in different conditions:

A - striker of the correct shape and size with the required impact energy;

B - very sharp and thin striker;

B - striker of normal shape with low impact energy

Powder charge intended to generate gases that eject the bullet from the barrel. The source of energy when fired is the so-called propellant powder, which has an explosive transformation with a relatively slow increase in pressure, which makes it possible to use them for throwing bullets and projectiles. In modern practice rifled barrels Only smokeless powders are used, which are divided into pyroxylin and nitroglycerin powder.

Pyroxylin powder is made by dissolving a mixture (in certain proportions) of wet pyroxylin in an alcohol-ether solvent.

Nitroglycerin powder is made from a mixture (in certain proportions) of pyroxylin with nitroglycerin.

The following are added to smokeless gunpowder: a stabilizer - to protect the gunpowder from decomposition, a phlegmatizer - to slow down the burning rate and graphite - to achieve flowability and eliminate the sticking of gunpowder grains.

Pyroxylin powders are used mainly in ammunition for small arms, nitroglycerin, as more powerful, in artillery systems and grenade launchers.

When the powder grain burns, its area decreases all the time, and the pressure inside the barrel decreases accordingly. To equalize the working pressure of the gases and ensure a more or less constant combustion area of ​​the grain, powder grains are made with internal cavities, namely in the form of a hollow tube or ring. The grains of such gunpowder burn simultaneously from both the inner and outer surfaces. The decrease in the outer burning surface is compensated by an increase in the inner burning surface, so that the total area remains constant.

The powder charge of a rifle cartridge weighing 3.25 g burns out in approximately 0.0012 s when fired. When a charge burns, about 3 calories of heat are released and about 3 liters of gases are formed, the temperature of which at the moment of firing is 2400-2900 ° C. The gases, being highly heated, exert high pressure (up to 2900 kg/cm2) and eject a bullet from the barrel at a speed of over 800 m/s. The total volume of hot powder gases from the combustion of the powder charge of a rifle cartridge is approximately 1200 times greater in volume than there was gunpowder before the shot.

A shot from a small arms occurs in the following order: from the strike of the firing pin on the primer of a live cartridge locked in the chamber, its initiating substance, sandwiched between the sting of the firing pin and the anvil of the cartridge case, ignites, this flame is ejected through the priming holes to the powder charge and covers the grains of gunpowder. The entire charge of gunpowder ignites almost simultaneously. Formed by the combustion of gunpowder a large number of gases creates high pressure on the bottom of the bullet and the walls of the cartridge case. This gas pressure creates a stretch across the width of the walls of the cartridge case (while maintaining their elastic deformation), and the cartridge case is pressed tightly against the walls of the chamber, preventing, like a seal, the breakthrough of powder gases back to the bolt.

As a result of the gas pressure on the bottom of the bullet, it moves from its place and crashes into the rifling. Rotating along the rifling, the bullet moves along the barrel with continuously increasing speed and is ejected in the direction of the axis of the barrel.

The gas pressure on the opposite walls of the barrel and chamber also causes their slight elastic deformation and is mutually balanced. The pressure of gases on the bottom of the cartridge case locked by the bolt causes the weapon to move backward. This phenomenon is called recoil. According to the laws of mechanics, recoil increases with increasing powder charge, bullet weight and with decreasing dead weight of the weapon.

In all countries, they are trying very hard to make ammunition High Quality. Despite this, from time to time there are manufacturing defects or ammunition deteriorates due to improper storage. Sometimes, after hitting the primer with the firing pin, the shot does not follow or it occurs with some delay. In the first case there is a misfire, in the second there is a prolonged shot. The cause of a misfire is most often dampness of the percussion composition of the primer or powder charge, as well as a weak impact of the firing pin on the primer. Therefore, it is necessary to protect ammunition from moisture and keep the weapon in good condition.

A prolonged shot is a consequence of the slow development of the ignition process of the powder charge. Therefore, after a misfire, you should not immediately open the shutter. Usually, after a misfire, five to six seconds are counted and only after that the shutter is opened.

When a powder charge is burned, only 25-30% of the released energy is spent as useful work on ejecting the bullet. Up to 20% of the energy of the powder charge is used to perform secondary work - cutting into the rifling and overcoming the friction of the bullet when moving along the bore, heating the walls of the barrel, the cartridge case and the bullet, moving moving parts in automatic weapons, releasing the gaseous and unburned part of the gunpowder. About 40% of the energy is not used and is lost after the bullet leaves the barrel.

The task of the powder charge and barrel is to accelerate the bullet to the required flight speed and give it lethal combat energy. This process has its own characteristics and occurs in several periods.

The preliminary period lasts from the start of combustion of the powder charge until the bullet casing is completely inserted into the rifling of the barrel. During this period, gas pressure is created in the barrel bore, which is necessary to move the bullet from its place and overcome the resistance of its shell to cut into the rifling of the barrel. This pressure is called boost pressure, it reaches 250-500 kg/cm 2 depending on the geometry of the rifling, the weight of the bullet and the hardness of its shell. The combustion of the powder charge in this period occurs in a constant volume, the shell cuts into the rifling instantly, and the movement of the bullet along the barrel begins immediately when the boost pressure is reached in the barrel bore. The gunpowder still continues to burn at this time.

The first, or main, period lasts from the beginning of the bullet’s movement until the complete combustion of the powder charge. During this period, the combustion of gunpowder occurs in a rapidly changing volume. At the beginning of the period, when the speed of the bullet moving along the bore is not yet high, the amount of gases grows faster than the volume of space between the bottom of the bullet and the bottom of the cartridge case (bullet space), the gas pressure quickly increases and reaches its highest value - 2800-3000 kg/cm 2 (see diagrams 111, 112). This pressure is called maximum pressure. It is created in small arms when a bullet travels 4-6 cm. Then, due to the rapid increase in the speed of the bullet, the volume of the bullet space increases faster than the influx new gases, the pressure in the barrel begins to drop and by the end of the period it reaches approximately 3/4 of the desired initial bullet speed. The powder charge burns out shortly before the bullet leaves the barrel.

Diagram 111. Change in gas pressure and increase in bullet speed in the barrel of a rifle of the 1891-1930 model.

Diagram 112. Change in gas pressure and bullet speed in the barrel of a small-caliber rifle

The second period lasts from the moment the powder charge is completely burned until the bullet leaves the barrel. With the beginning of this period, the influx of powder gases stops, however, highly compressed and heated gases continue to expand and, continuing to exert pressure on the bullet, increase its speed. The pressure drop in the second period occurs quite quickly and at the muzzle of the rifle is 570-600 kg/cm 2 .

The third period, or the period of aftereffect of gases, lasts from the moment the bullet leaves the barrel until the moment the action of the powder gases on the bullet ceases. During this period, powder gases flowing from the barrel at a speed of 1200-2000 m/s continue to act on the bullet and impart additional speed to it. The bullet reaches its highest, maximum speed at the end of the third period at a distance of several tens of centimeters from the muzzle of the barrel. This period ends at the moment when the pressure of the powder gases at the bottom of the bullet is balanced by air resistance.

Which practical significance has all of the above? Look at the 111 chart for the 7.62mm rifle. Based on the data in this graph, it becomes clear why it makes practically no sense to make the length of a rifle barrel more than 65 cm. If it is made longer, the bullet speed increases very slightly, and the dimensions of the weapon pointlessly increase. It becomes clear why a three-line carbine with a barrel length of 47 cm and a bullet speed of 820 m/s has almost the same combat qualities as a three-line rifle with a barrel length of 67 cm and an initial bullet speed of 865 m/s.

A similar picture is observed for small-caliber rifles (diagram 112) and especially for weapons chambered for the 7.62-mm automatic cartridge of the 1943 model.

The length of the rifled part of the AKM assault rifle barrel is only 37 cm with an initial bullet speed of 715 m/s. Length of the rifled part of the barrel light machine gun A Kalashnikov firing the same cartridges is 54 cm, 17 cm longer, and the bullet accelerates slightly - the initial bullet speed is 745 m/s. But for rifles and machine guns the barrel has to be made longer for greater accuracy of combat and to lengthen the aiming line. These parameters provide increased shooting accuracy.

Initial speed is one of the most important characteristics of the combat properties of a weapon. As the initial speed increases, the bullet's flight range, direct shot range, lethal and penetrating effect of the bullet increases, and the influence of external conditions on its flight decreases. In particular, the faster the bullet flies, the less it is blown to the side by the wind. The initial velocity of the bullet must be indicated in the shooting tables and in the combat characteristics of the weapon.

The magnitude of the muzzle velocity depends on the length of the barrel, the weight of the bullet, the weight, temperature and humidity of the powder charge, the shape and size of the powder grains and the loading density.

The longer the barrel, the longer the powder gases act on the bullet and the greater (within known technical limits, see earlier) the initial velocity.

With a constant barrel length and constant weight of the powder charge, the lower the bullet weight, the greater the initial velocity.

A change in the weight of the powder charge leads to a change in the amount of powder gases, and, consequently, to a change in the maximum pressure in the barrel bore and the initial velocity of the bullet. The more gunpowder, the greater the pressure and the more the bullet accelerates down the barrel.

The length of the barrel and the weight of the powder charge are balanced according to the above graphs (diagrams 111, 112) of internal fire processes in a rifle barrel when designing and arranging weapons to the most rational dimensions.

As the external temperature increases, the burning rate of the gunpowder increases, and therefore the maximum pressure and initial velocity increase. As the external temperature decreases, the initial speed decreases. In addition, when the outside temperature changes, the temperature of the barrel also changes, and more or less heat is needed to warm it up. And this, in turn, affects the change in pressure in the barrel and, accordingly, the initial speed of the bullet.

One of the old snipers in the author’s memory carried a dozen rifle cartridges under his arm in a specially made bandolier. When asked why this matters, the elderly instructor replied, “Very great importance. Now you and I were both shooting at 300 meters, but your spread went up and down vertically, but mine did not. Because the gunpowder in my cartridges was warmed to 36 degrees under my arm, and yours in my pouch froze to minus 15 (it was winter). You shot your rifle in the fall at plus 15, a total difference of 30 degrees. You shoot with rapid fire, and your barrel gets hot, so your first bullets go lower, and your second bullets go higher. And I always shoot with gunpowder at the same temperature, so everything flies as it should.”

An increase (decrease) in the initial speed causes an increase (decrease) in the firing range. The differences in these values ​​are so significant that in the practice of hunting shooting from smoothbore rifles, summer and winter barrels are used different lengths(winter trunks are usually 7-8 cm longer than summer ones) to achieve the same shot range. In sniper practice, range corrections must be made for air temperature according to the corresponding tables (see earlier).

As the humidity of the powder charge increases, its burning rate decreases and, accordingly, the pressure in the barrel and the initial velocity drop.

The burning rate of gunpowder is directly proportional to the pressure surrounding it. In the open air, the burning speed of smokeless rifle powder is approximately 1 m/s, and in the confined space of the chamber and barrel, due to increased pressure, the burning speed of the gunpowder increases and reaches several tens of meters per second.

The ratio of the weight of the charge to the volume of the cartridge case with the bullet inserted (charge combustion chamber) is called the loading density. The more the gunpowder is “rammed” in the case, which happens when there is an overdose of gunpowder or a deep seating of the bullet, the more the pressure and combustion rate increase. This sometimes leads to a sharp increase in pressure and even detonation of the powder charge, which can lead to rupture of the barrel. The loading density is made according to complex engineering calculations and for a domestic rifle cartridge is equal to 0.813 kg/dm3. As the loading density decreases, the burning rate decreases and the time it takes for the bullet to travel through the barrel increases, which, paradoxically, leads to rapid overheating of the weapon. For all these reasons, reload live ammunition prohibited!

The capsule charge in side-fire cartridges is pressed from the inside into the rim of the cartridge case (the so-called Flaubert cartridge), and the striker strikes for firing accordingly not in the center, but along the rim of the bottom of the cartridge case. For small-caliber cartridges with a solid lead shellless bullet, the powder charge is very insignificant and with a low loading density (powder is poured up to half the volume of the cartridge case). The pressure of the powder gases is insignificant and ejects a bullet with an initial speed of 290-330 m/s. This is done because more pressure can strip the soft lead bullet from the rifling. For sporting purposes and biathlon, the above bullet speed is quite enough. But at low external air temperatures and even a slight lack of gunpowder, the pressure in a small-caliber barrel can drop sharply; when the pressure drops, the gunpowder stops burning, and there are often cases when, at minus 20°C and below, bullets simply get stuck inside the barrel. Therefore, in winter, at subzero temperatures, it is recommended to use high-power “Extra” or “Biathlon” cartridges.

The bullet is a striking element. Its flight range depends on the specific gravity of the material from which it is made.

In addition, this material must be plastic for cutting into the rifling of the barrel. This material is lead, which has been used to make bullets for several centuries. But a soft lead bullet, with an increase in the powder charge and pressure in the barrel, breaks off the rifling. The initial speed of a solid lead bullet from a Berdan rifle did not exceed 420-430 m/s, and this was the limit for a lead bullet. Therefore, they began to enclose a lead bullet in a shell made of a more durable material, or rather, they began to pour molten lead into this durable shell. Such bullets used to be called double-layer. With a two-layer device, the bullet retained as much weight as possible and had a relatively strong shell.

The bullet casing, made of a material stronger than the lead that filled it, prevented the bullet from breaking off the rifling under strong pressures inside the barrel and made it possible to sharply increase the initial speed of the bullet. Moreover, with a strong shell, the bullet deformed less when hitting the target and this improved its penetrating (piercing) effect.

Bullets consisting of a dense shell and a soft core (lead filling) appeared in the 70s of the 19th century following the invention of smokeless powder, which provided increased operating pressure in the barrel. This was a breakthrough in the development of firearms, which made it possible in 1884 to create the world's first and very successful famous Maxim machine gun. The jacketed bullet provided increased survivability of rifled barrels. The fact is that soft lead “enveloped” the walls of the barrel and clogged the rifling, which sooner or later caused the barrels to swell. To prevent this from happening, lead bullets were wrapped in salted thick paper, but this still did not help much. In modern small-caliber weapons that fire unsheathed lead bullets, in order to avoid enveloping the lead, the bullets are coated with special technical lard.

The material from which the bullet casing is made must be plastic enough so that the bullet can cut into the rifling, and strong enough so that the bullet does not break off when moving along the rifling. In addition, the material of the bullet shell should have the lowest possible coefficient of friction in order to wear out the barrel walls less and be resistant to rust.

All these requirements are most fully met by cupronickel - an alloy of 78.5-80% copper and 21.5-20% nickel. Bullets with nickel silver jackets have proven themselves in service better than any other. But cupronickel was very expensive to mass produce ammunition.

Bullets with nickel silver jackets were produced in pre-revolutionary Russia. During the First World War, in the absence of nickel, bullet casings were forced to be made of brass. IN civil war both red and white made ammunition from whatever they could find. The author had occasion to see cartridges produced in those years with bullet casings made of brass, thick copper and mild steel.

In the Soviet Union, bullets with cupronickel jackets were produced until 1930. In 1930, instead of cupronickel, low-carbon mild steel clad (coated) with tombac began to be used for the manufacture of jackets. Thus, the bullet shell became bimetallic.

Tompak is an alloy of 89-91% copper and 9-11% zinc. Its thickness in the bimetallic bullet casing is 4-6% of the shell wall thickness. The bimetallic bullet casing with a tombak coating generally satisfied the requirements, although it was somewhat inferior to cupronickel casings.

Due to the fact that the production of tombak coating requires scarce non-ferrous metals, before the war the USSR mastered the production of shells from cold-rolled low-carbon steels. These shells were coated with a thin layer of copper or brass using an electrolytic or contact method.

The core material in modern bullets is soft enough to facilitate insertion of the bullet into the rifling and has a fairly high melting point. For this, an alloy of lead and antimony is used in a ratio of 98-99% lead and 1-2% antimony. The admixture of antimony makes the lead core somewhat stronger and increases its melting point.

The bullet described above, which has a jacket and a lead core (filling), is called ordinary. Among ordinary bullets there are solid ones, for example the French solid tombac bullet (diagram 113), the French elongated solid aluminum bullet (4 in diagram 114), as well as lightweight ones with a steel core. The appearance of a steel core in ordinary bullets is caused by the requirement to reduce the cost of bullet design by reducing the amount of lead and reducing the deformation of the bullet in order to increase penetration. Between the bullet jacket and the steel core there is a lead jacket to facilitate cutting into the rifling.

Scheme 113 French solid tombak bullet

Scheme 114. Ordinary bullets:

1 - domestic light, 2 - German light; 3 - domestic heavy; 4 - French solid; 5 - domestic with a steel core; 6 - German with a steel core; 7 - English; 8 - Japanese A - ring groove - knurling for fastening the bullet in the sleeve

Old-made bullets are still in use today. There are light bullets of the 1908 model with a cupronickel silver jacket without an annular knurling to secure the bullet in the case (diagram 115) and a light bullet of the 1908-1930 model. with a steel shell clad with tombak, having an annular knurling for better fastening of the bullet in the cartridge case when assembling the cartridge (A in diagram 114).

Diagram 115. Light bullet of the 1908 model without knurling

The materials from which the bullet jacket is made wear the barrel differently. The main cause of barrel wear is mechanical abrasion, and therefore the harder the bullet jacket, the more intense the wear. Practice has shown that when shooting from the same type of weapon with bullets with different casings, manufactured at different times in different factories, the survivability of the barrel is different. When firing a bullet with a steel jacket, not clad with tombac, wartime release, barrel wear increases sharply. An uncoated steel shell tends to rust, which sharply reduces shooting accuracy. Such bullets were fired by the Germans in the last months of World War II.

The design of the bullet distinguishes between the head, leading and tail parts (diagram 116).

Diagram 116. functional parts of the 1930 model bullet:

A - head, B - leading, C - tail streamlined

The head of a modern rifle bullet has an elongated conical shape. The faster the bullet speed, the

its head part should be longer. This situation is dictated by the laws of aerodynamics. The elongated conical nose of the bullet has less aerodynamic drag when flying in the air. For example, the ogive blunt-pointed bullet of the three-line rifle of the first model produced before 1908 gave a 42% reduction in speed on the path from 25 to 225 m, and the pointed bullet of the 1908 model on the same path - only 18%. In modern bullets, the length of the bullet head is selected in the range from 2.5 to 3.5 weapon calibers. The leading part of the bullet cuts into the rifling.

The purpose of the leading part is to give the bullet a reliable direction and rotational movement, and also tightly fill the grooves of the rifling of the barrel in order to eliminate the possibility of breakthrough of powder gases. For this reason, the thickness of the bullets is made with a larger diameter than the nominal caliber of the weapon (Table 38).

Table 38

Data on 7.62 mm rifle cartridges produced in the USSR at different times

As a rule, the leading part of the bullet is cylindrical; sometimes, for smooth cutting, the leading part of the bullet is given a slight taper. For best direction movement of the bullet along the bore and to reduce the likelihood of failure from the rifling, it is more advantageous to have a longer leading part, and moreover, with its longer length, the accuracy of the battle increases. But as the length of the leading part of the bullet increases, the force required to insert the bullet into the rifling increases. This can lead to transverse rupture of the shell. In terms of barrel survivability, protecting the casing from rupture and ensuring better air flow during flight, a shorter leading part is more advantageous.

A long leading part wears out the barrel more intensively than a short leading part. When firing the old Russian blunt-pointed bullet with a longer leading part, the survivability of the barrels was half as much as when firing the new pointed bullet of the 1908 model with a shorter leading part. In modern practice, the accepted limits for the length of the leading part are from 1 to 1.5 caliber sizes.

From the point of view of shooting accuracy, it is unprofitable to take the length of the leading part less than one diameter of the barrel bore along the rifling grooves. Bullets of shorter length than the bore diameter along the rifling give greater spread.

In addition, reducing the length of the leading part leads to the possibility of it breaking off the rifling, causing the bullet to fly incorrectly in the air and deteriorating its seal. When the leading part of the bullet is short, gaps are formed between the bullet and the bottom of the rifling groove. In these gaps with high speed hot powder gases rush in with solid particles of unburnt powder, which literally “lick” the metal and dramatically increase barrel wear. A bullet that does not travel tightly along the barrel, but “walks” along the rifling, gradually “breaks” the barrel and worsens the quality of its further operation.

The rational relationship between the length of the leading part of the bullet and the diameter of the bore along the rifling grooves is also selected depending on the material of the bullet casing. Bullets with a jacket material that is softer than steel may have a leading length slightly greater than the rifling diameter of the barrel. This value can be no more than 0.02 caliber in rifling.

Fastening the bullet to the case is carried out by rolling or crimping the barrel of the case into the annular knurling of the bullet, which is usually done closer to the front end of the leading part. The muzzle of knurled steel cases will not “remove chips” and deform the chamber when a cartridge is fed into it.

A lot depends on how the bullet is mounted in the case. With a weak fastening, boost pressure does not develop; with a very dense fastening, the gunpowder burns in a constant volume of the cartridge case, which causes a sharp jump in the maximum pressure in the barrel, up to rupture. When shooting cartridges with different bullet rolls, there will always be a scatter of bullets in height.

The tail of the bullet can be flat (like the light bullet of the 1908 model) or streamlined (like the heavy bullet of the 1930 model) (see diagram 116).

At supersonic bullet flight speeds, when the main cause of air resistance is the formation of air compaction in front of the warhead, bullets with an elongated pointed nose are advantageous. A rarefied space is formed behind the bottom of the bullet, resulting in a pressure difference between the head and bottom parts. This difference determines the air resistance to the flight of the bullet. The larger the diameter of the bottom of the bullet, the larger the rarefied space, and, naturally, the smaller the diameter of the bottom, the smaller this space is also. Therefore, the bullets are given a streamlined cone-shaped shank, and the bottom of the bullet is left as small in diameter as possible, but sufficient to fill it with lead.

It is known from external ballistics that at a bullet speed greater than the speed of sound, the shape of the tail of the bullet has a comparatively smaller effect on air resistance than the head of the bullet. At a high initial bullet speed at firing distances of 400-450 m, the overall aerodynamic pattern of air resistance for bullets with both a flat and a streamlined tail is approximately the same (A, B in diagram 117).

Diagram 117. Ballistics of bullets of different shapes at different speeds:

A - ballistics of a bullet with a cone-shaped shank at high speeds;

B - ballistics of a bullet without a cone-shaped shank at high and low speeds;

B - ballistics of a bullet with a tapered shank at low speeds:

1 - wave of compressed air; 2 - separation of the boundary layer; 3 - sparse space

The influence of the shape of the tail on the magnitude of the air resistance force increases with decreasing bullet speed. The tail part in the form of a truncated cone gives the bullet a more streamlined shape, due to which at low speeds the area of ​​rarefied space and air turbulence behind the bottom of the flying bullet is reduced (B in Diagram 117). The turbulence and the presence of an area of ​​low pressure behind the bullet lead to a rapid loss of bullet speed.

The tapered tail is more suitable for heavy bullets used for long-range shooting, since at the end of the long-range flight the bullet speed is low. In modern bullets, the length of the tail conical part lies in the range of 0.5-1 caliber.

The total length of the bullet is limited by the conditions of its stability during flight. With normal rifling steepness, bullet stability in flight is ensured if its length is no more than 5.5 calibers. Bullet longer length will fly at the limit of stability and even with natural turbulence in air flows it can go head over heels.

The lateral load of a bullet is the ratio of bullet weight to area cross section its cylindrical part.

a n = q/S n (g/cm 2),

where q is the weight of the bullet in grams;

S n is the cross-sectional area of ​​the bullet in cm 2 .

The greater the weight of a bullet for the same caliber, the greater its lateral load. Depending on the magnitude of the lateral load, light and heavy bullets are distinguished. Ordinary bullets that have a normal caliber (see below) with a lateral load of more than 25 g/cm 2 and a weight of more than 10 g are called heavy, and normal caliber bullets with a weight of less than 10 g and a lateral load of less than 22 g/cm 2 are called lungs (Table 39).

Table 39

Basic data of the light bullet of the 1908 model and the heavy bullet of the 1930 model.

High lateral load bullets have a lower muzzle velocity than light bullets for the same maximum barrel pressure. Therefore, at short firing ranges, a light bullet gives a flatter trajectory than a heavy bullet (Diagram 118). However, as the lateral load increases, the acceleration of the air resistance force decreases. And since the acceleration force of air resistance acts in the direction opposite to the speed of the bullet, bullets with a greater lateral load slowly lose speed under the influence of air resistance. So, for example, a domestic heavy bullet at a distance of more than 400 m has a flatter trajectory than a light bullet (see diagram 118).

Diagram 118. Trajectories of light and heavy bullets when firing at different ranges

It is also important that the heavy bullet has a conical shank and its aerodynamics are low speeds more advanced than the aerodynamics of a light bullet (see earlier).

For all these reasons, when reaching a distance of 500 m, the light bullet of the 1908 model begins to slow down, but the heavy one does not (Table 40).

Table 40

Bullet flight time, s

Practice has established that heavy bullets at distances of 400 m provide more compact combat and have a stronger effect on the target than light bullets. Among rifles and machine guns, the maximum flight range of a heavy bullet is 5000 m, and a light bullet is 3800.

For ordinary infantry rifles, which are usually fired by poorly trained shooters at distances up to 400 m, shooting with light bullets will be practical, because at this distance the trajectory of a light bullet will be more flat, and therefore more effective. But for snipers and machine gunners, who need to reach the target at 800 m (and for machine gunners further), it is more expedient and effective to shoot with heavy bullets.

To better understand the process, we will give a ballistic interpretation of diagram 118. In order for a heavy bullet to hit the same point as a light one when shooting at a distance of 200 m, it must be given a larger elevation angle when fired, that is, “raise” the trajectory by almost one or two centimeters .

If a rifle is sighted with light bullets at a distance of 200 m, heavy bullets at the end of the distance will go one and a half to two centimeters lower (if the scope is set to shoot light bullets). But at a distance of 400 m, the speed of a light bullet already drops faster than the speed of a heavy bullet, which has a more advanced aerodynamic shape. Therefore, at a distance of 400-500 m, the trajectories and impact points of both bullets coincide. At longer distances, a light bullet loses speed even more than a heavy one. At a shooting distance of 600 m, a light bullet hits the same point as a heavy one if it is given a larger elevation angle when fired. That is, now you need to raise the trajectory when firing a light bullet. Therefore, when shooting from a rifle loaded with heavy bullets at a distance of 600 m, light bullets will go lower (actually by 5-7 cm). Heavy bullets at firing ranges over 400-500 m have a flatter trajectory and greater accuracy, so they are more preferable for shooting at distant targets.

The light bullet of the 1908 model has a lateral load of 21.2 g/cm 2 . heavy bullet of the 1930 model - 25.9 g/cm 2 (Table 39).

The 1930 model bullet was made heavier by an elongated nose and a cone-shaped tail (b in diagram 119). Light bullet model 1908-1930. has a conical recess in the tail part - The presence of this internal cone (and in diagram 119) creates favorable conditions for obturation of powder gases, since the tail part of the bullet expands in diameter due to gas pressure and is pressed tightly against the walls of the barrel bore.

Scheme 119. Light and heavy bullets:

a - light bullet; b - heavy bullet:

1 - shell: 2 - core

This circumstance allows you to increase the service life of the barrel, because a light bullet cuts well into the rifling, presses against them and receives rotational movement even with a very small rifling height. Thus, the internal hollow cone of a light bullet, with its lower mass and inertia, increases the survivability of the barrels.

For the same reason, shooting with a light bullet from old rifles with worn barrels is more accurate and effective than shooting with heavy bullets. A heavy bullet, when passing through an old barrel, is “combed” by the uneven shells from rust and heat, like a file, decreases in diameter and when leaving the barrel begins to “walk” in it. A light bullet is constantly expanded to the sides by its conical skirt and, while working in the barrel, is pressed against its inner walls.

Remember: shooting with a light bullet doubles the survivability of barrels. With the new barrels, the quality of fire (accuracy) is better when shooting with a heavy bullet. With old, worn-out barrels, the best shooting quality is obtained when shooting with a light bullet with an internal cone of the tail.

Light bullets have the advantage of a flat trajectory up to a range of 400-500 m. Starting from a range of 400-500 m and more, a heavy bullet has advantages in all respects (bullet energy is greater, dispersion is less and the trajectory is flatter). Heavy bullets are deflected less by deflection and wind, as much less as they weigh more than a light bullet (by about 1/4). At distances over 400 m, the probability of a hit when shooting with a heavy bullet is three times greater than when shooting with a light bullet.

When zeroing at a distance of 100 m, heavy bullets go 1-2 cm lower than light ones.

The nose (top) of the heavy bullet of the 1930 model is painted yellow. The light bullet of the 1908 model does not have any special distinctive marks.

The defeat of a live open target when hit is determined by the lethality of the bullet. The lethality of a bullet is characterized by the live force of the impact, that is, the energy at the moment of meeting the target. Bullet energy E depends on the ballistic properties of the weapon and is calculated by the formula:

E = (g x v 2)/S

where g is the weight of the bullet;

v is the speed of the bullet at the target;

S - free fall acceleration.

The greater the weight of the bullet and the greater its initial speed, the greater the energy of the bullet. Accordingly, the greater the bullet speed at the target, the greater the bullet energy. The greater the bullet's speed at the target, the more perfect its ballistic qualities, determined by the shape of the bullet and its streamlining. To inflict damage that incapacitates a person, a bullet energy of 8 kg m is sufficient, and to inflict the same damage on a pack animal, energy of about 20 kg m is required. Bullets of modern army small arms of 7.62 mm caliber retain lethality almost up to maximum distance flight. Small-caliber sporting bullets lose speed and energy very quickly. In practice, such a small-caliber bullet loses its guaranteed lethality at a distance of more than 150 m (Table 41).

Table 41

Ballistic data of a small-caliber bullet 5.6 mm

When shooting at normal sighting distances, bullets of all types of military small arms have a multiple reserve of energy. For example, when shooting a heavy bullet from sniper rifle at a distance of 2 km, the energy of the bullet at the target is 27 kg m.

The effect of a bullet on living targets depends not only on the energy of the bullet. Of great importance are factors such as "lateral action", the ability of the bullet to deform, the speed and shape of the bullet. “Lateral action” - a blow to the sides - is characterized not only by the size of the wound itself, but also by the size of the affected tissue adjacent to the wound. From this point of view, pointed long bullets have a greater “lateral” effect due to the fact that a long bullet with a light head begins to “tumble” when it hits living tissue. The so-called “tumbling” bullets with a displaced center of gravity were known at the end of the last century and were repeatedly prohibited international conventions due to the monstrous impact: a bullet tumbling through the body leaves behind a channel about five centimeters in diameter, filled with crushed minced meat. In general military practice, the attitude towards them is ambivalent - these bullets, of course, kill outright, but in flight they go to the limit of stability and often begin to tumble even from strong gusts of wind. In addition, the penetration effect on the target with tumbling bullets leaves much to be desired. For example, when such a bullet is fired through a wooden door, the tumbling bullet makes a huge hole in the door, and this is where its energy is exhausted. The target behind this door has a chance to survive.

The bullet's ability to deform increases the affected area. When unsheathed lead bullets enter the tissue of a living organism, they are deformed in the front part and cause very serious injuries. In hunting practice, so-called expansive unfolding semi-jacketed bullets are used to shoot large animals from rifled weapons. The leading part of these bullets and a little of the head part are enclosed in a shell, and the nose is left weakened, sometimes the lead fill just “peeks out” from the jacket, sometimes this fill is covered with a cap, sometimes a counter body is made in the head part (Diagram 120). These bullets sometimes break apart when they hit the target and were therefore called burst bullets in the old days (a misnomer). The first examples of such bullets were made in the 70s of the 19th century in the Dum-Dum arsenal near Calcutta, and therefore the name Dum-Dum stuck to semi-jacketed bullets of various calibers. In military practice, such bullets with a soft nose are not used due to their low penetration effect.

Diagram 120. Unfolding bullets:

1 - company "Rose"; 2 and 3 - Western companies

The lethal effect of a bullet is greatly influenced by its speed. Humans are 80% water. An ordinary pointed rifle bullet, when it hits a living organism, causes a so-called hydrodynamic shock, the pressure from which is transmitted in all directions, causing general shock and severe destruction around the bullet. However, the hydrodynamic effect manifests itself when shooting at living targets at a bullet speed of at least 700 m/s.

Along with the lethal effect, there is also the so-called “stopping effect” of the bullet. The stopping effect is the ability of a bullet, when it hits the most important organs, to quickly disrupt the functions of the enemy’s body so that he cannot provide active resistance. A normal stopping action should instantly disable and immobilize a living target. The stopping effect is of great importance at point-blank combat distances and increases with the caliber of the weapon. Therefore, pistol and revolver calibers are usually made larger than rifle calibers.

For sniper shooting, usually performed at medium distances (up to 600 m), the stopping effect of the bullet is not particularly important.

When conducting combat operations, it is impossible to do without special bullets - armor-piercing, incendiary, tracer, etc.

Cartridges with armor-piercing bullets designed to defeat the enemy behind armored shelters. Armor-piercing bullets differ from ordinary bullets in the presence of an armor core of high strength and hardness. Between the shell and the core there is usually a soft lead jacket, which makes it easier for the bullet to cut into the rifling and protects the bore from intense wear. Sometimes armor-piercing bullets do not have a special jacket. Then the shell, being the body of the bullet, is made of soft material. This is how the French armor-piercing bullet (3 in diagram 121) is constructed, consisting of a tombak body and a steel armor-piercing core. The nose of the armor-piercing bullet is painted black.

Scheme 121. Armor-piercing bullets:

1- domestic; 2 - Spanish; 3 - French

It is usually advantageous to combine the armor-piercing effect of bullets with other types of action: incendiary and tracer. Therefore, the armor-piercing core is found in armor-piercing incendiary and armor-piercing incendiary tracer bullets.

Tracer bullets are designed for target designation and fire adjustment when firing up to 1000 m. Such bullets are filled with a tracer composition, which, for uniform combustion, is pressed in several stages under very high pressure to avoid destruction of the composition when fired, burning it on a large surface and destruction of the bullet in flight ( and on the diagram 122). In the shell of domestically produced tracer bullets, a core made of an alloy of lead and antimony is placed in front, and in the back there is a cup with a tracer compound pressed into several layers

Scheme 122. Tracer bullets:

a - T-30 bullet (USSR); b - SPGA bullet (England); in - bullet T (France)

To avoid destruction of the compressed tracer composition in the bullet and disruption of its normal combustion, tracer bullets usually do not have a knurling (groove) on the side surface for pressing the cartridge case neck into it. Fastening of tracer bullets in the cartridge case is ensured, as a rule, by seating them in the barrel with tension.

When fired, the flame from the powder charge ignites the tracer composition of the bullet, which, burning during the flight of the bullet, gives a bright luminous trail, clearly visible both day and night. Depending on the time of manufacture and the use of various components in the manufacture of the tracer composition, the glow of the tracer can be green, yellow, orange and crimson.

The most practical is a crimson glow, clearly visible both at night and during the day.

A feature of tracer bullets is that the weight of the bullet changes and the center of gravity moves as the tracer burns out. Changes in weight and longitudinal displacement of the center of gravity do not have a harmful effect on the flight pattern of the bullet. But the lateral displacement of the center of gravity, caused by unilateral burnout of the tracer composition, makes the bullet dynamically unbalanced and causes a significant increase in dispersion. In addition, when the tracer burns, chemically aggressive combustion products are released, which have a destructive effect on the bore. When firing a machine gun, this does not matter. But the sniper’s selective and accurate barrel must be protected. Therefore, do not overuse tracer shooting from a sniper rifle. Moreover, the accuracy of firing tracer bullets from the best barrel leaves much to be desired. Moreover, a tracer bullet with a loss of weight from the combustion of the tracer quickly loses its penetration ability and at a distance of 200 m no longer even penetrates a helmet. The nose of the tracer bullet is painted green color.

Incendiary bullets were fired before and during World War II. initial period. These bullets were intended to destroy flammable targets. In their designs incendiary composition it was most often placed in the head of the bullet and was triggered (ignited) when the bullet hit the target (Diagram 123). Some incendiary bullets, for example the French one (and in the diagram 123), ignited in the barrel from the powder gases. The author has seen such bullets fired during forensic shooting. The spectacle was very impressive: beautiful yellow-orange balls the size of a soccer ball were leaving the shooter across the range. But there was absolutely no combat effect from this fireworks. Incendiary bullets, which appeared at the end of the First World War to combat enemy plywood-canvas airplanes, turned out to be ineffective against all-metal aircraft. French, Polish, Japanese, and Spanish incendiary bullets did not have the necessary penetration ability and were not able to penetrate and set fire even to a railway tank. The situation was not saved even by the fact that the incendiary composition was subsequently placed inside a durable steel case. The nose of the incendiary bullet is painted red.

Diagram 123. Incendiary bullets:

a - French bullet Ph: 1 - shell, 2 - phosphorus, 3, 4 and 5 - bottom part, 6 - fusible plug; b - Spanish bullet P 1 - core, 2 - point, 3 - heavy body, 4 - incendiary composition (phosphorus); c - German SPr bullet 1 - casing, 2 - incendiary composition (phosphorus), 3 - bottom part; 4 - low-melting plug; g - English SA bullet: 1 - casing, 2 - incendiary composition, 3 - bottom part; 4 - fusible plug

Due to their low penetration, incendiary bullets quickly began to be replaced from combat use by armor-piercing incendiary bullets, which usually had a tungsten carbide or steel armor-piercing core. The combination of incendiary and armor-piercing action turned out to be very advantageous. The designs of armor-piercing incendiary bullets during World War II were different in different countries (Diagram 124). Usually the incendiary composition was still located in the head of the bullet - this way it worked more reliably, but did not ignite as well. Not all of the igniting substance penetrated after the armor-piercing core into the hole it created. To avoid this drawback, it is more advantageous to place the incendiary composition behind the armor-piercing core, but in this case the sensitivity of the bullet’s ignition to action against weak barriers is reduced. The Germans solved this problem in an original way; they placed the incendiary composition around the armor-piercing core (4 in diagram 124, diagram 125).

Scheme 124 Armor-piercing incendiary bullets:

1 - domestic, 2 - Italian; 3 - English; 4 - German

Diagram 125. Armor-piercing incendiary bullet RtK 7.92 caliber (German)

The head of armor-piercing incendiary bullets is painted black with a red belt.

Armor-piercing incendiary-tracer bullets have simultaneously armor-piercing, incendiary and tracer effects. They consist of the same elements: shell, armor-piercing core, tracer and incendiary composition (Diagram 126). The presence of a tracer in these bullets significantly increases their incendiary effect. The nose of the armor-piercing incendiary tracer bullet is painted purple and red.

Scheme 126. Armor-piercing incendiary-tracer bullets:

1 - domestic BZT-30;

2 - Italian

Before World War II, the armies of some countries (in particular, the USSR and Germany) used so-called sighting-incendiary bullets. In theory, they were supposed to give a bright flash the moment they met even the plywood shield of an ordinary target. These bullets had the same design both in the USSR and in Germany. The principle of their operation was usually based on the fact that the firing pin, located on the axis of the bullet and intended to puncture the primer, was held in place by mutually closed counterweights when traveling. These counterweights, when fired and the bullet rotated by centrifugal force, diverged to the sides, releasing or cocking the firing pin. When meeting the target and decelerating the bullet, the striker pierced the primer, which ignited the incendiary composition, giving a very bright flash. Once upon a time in DOSAAF, where all cartridge "rabble" unnecessary in the army were given for training purposes, the author fired such cartridges manufactured in 1919 (!). The cartridges had a brass sleeve and a brass bullet casing, the gunpowder detonated from old age and the weapon hit hard in the shoulder. At a distance of 300 m, flashes from these bullets were visible to the naked eye on a bright sunny day. These bullets were essentially explosive, because they actually exploded into fragments when they hit the plywood shield. This created a hole into which one could stick a fist. According to eyewitnesses, hitting a living target with such bullets had dire consequences. This ammunition was prohibited by the Geneva Convention and was not produced during the Second World War, of course, not for humanitarian reasons, but because of the high cost of production. Old stocks of cartridges with such bullets were put to use. Such bullets are unsuitable for sniper shooting due to large (very large) dispersion. The nose of the sighting-incendiary bullet, just like that of a regular incendiary bullet, is painted red. These were the same famous explosive bullets that were not advertised either here or in Germany. Their device is presented in diagrams 127, 128.

Diagram 127. Explosive bullets:

a - remote bullet (Germany); b - impact bullet (Germany); c - impact bullet (Spain)

Scheme 128. Explosive bullets of inertial action:

1 - shell; 2 - explosive;

3 - capsule; 4 - fuse; 5 - drummer

The types of special bullets described above are used in all small arms cartridges, not excluding even pistol cartridges if they are used for firing from submachine guns.

Domestic bullets are assigned the following designations: P - pistol; L - ordinary light rifle; PS - ordinary with a steel core; T-30, T-44, T-45, T-46 - tracers; B-32, BZ - armor-piercing incendiary; BZT - armor-piercing incendiary tracer; PZ - sighting and incendiary; 3 - incendiary.

These markings can be used to determine the type of ammunition in the ammo box.

At present, the most practical and proven light ordinary bullets, tracer and armor-piercing incendiary, remain in combat use.

In the NZ warehouses there are still quite large reserves of cartridges with all the types of bullets described above, and from time to time these cartridges are supplied both for target practice and for combat use. When galvanized, military rifle cartridges can be stored for 70-80 years without losing their combat qualities.

Small-caliber bulk sporting and hunting cartridges produced in the USSR could be stored for 4-5 years without changing their combat qualities. After this period, the accuracy of the battle in height began to change due to the uneven combustion of gunpowder in different cartridges. After 7-8 years of storage, the number of misfires sharply increased in such cartridges due to the decomposition of the primer composition. After 10-12 years of storage, many batches of these cartridges became unusable.

Targeted small-caliber cartridges, manufactured with very high quality and meticulousness, stored in sealed packages and galvanized, did not lose their quality during storage periods of 20 years or more. But small-caliber cartridges should not be stored for a long time, because they are not designed for long storage periods.

In all countries of the world, they try to make cartridges for rifled firearms of the highest quality possible. You can't fool classical mechanics. For example, a slight change in bullet weight from the calculated one does not have a significant effect on shooting accuracy at short distances, but with increasing range it makes itself felt quite strongly. When the weight of an ordinary light rifle bullet changes by 1% (Vinit - 865 m/s), the deviation of the trajectory in height at a distance of 500 m will be 0.012 m, at 1200 m - 0.262 m, at 1500 m - 0.75 m.

In sniper practice, a lot depends on the quality of the bullet.

The height of a bullet's trajectory is affected not only by its weight, but also by the initial speed of the bullet and the geometry of its streamlining. The initial speed of the bullet, in turn, is influenced by the size of the powder charge and the material of the shell: different materials provide different friction between the bullet and the walls of the barrel.

Balancing the bullet is extremely important. If the center of gravity does not coincide with the geometric axis, then the spread of bullets increases, and therefore the accuracy of shooting decreases. This is often observed when shooting bullets with various mechanical non-uniform fillings.

The smaller the deviations in shape, weight and geometric dimensions in the manufacture of a bullet of a given design, the better the shooting accuracy, all other things being equal.

In addition, it must be borne in mind that rust on the bullet casing, nicks, scratches and other types of deformation have a very unfavorable effect on the flight of the bullet in the air and lead to deterioration in shooting accuracy.

The maximum pressure of the powder gases ejecting the bullet is influenced by the initial force pressure cutting the bullet into the rifling, which in turn depends on how tightly the bullet is pressed into the cartridge case and fixed in it by crimping the barrel using the annular knurling. For different liner materials, this force will be different. A bullet, planted obliquely in the case, will follow the rifling in an “oblique” manner, will be unstable in flight and will certainly deviate from the given direction. Therefore, cartridges from old releases must be carefully inspected, selected and rejected if errors are detected.

The best accuracy of fire is provided by ordinary bullets, the shell of which is filled with lead without any other filling. When shooting at a living target, special bullets are not needed.

As you have already seen, rifle ammunition, identical in appearance and intended for the same weapon, is not the same. Over the course of several decades, they were manufactured at different factories, from various materials, V different conditions, with continuously changing situational requirements, with bullets of different designs, different weights, different filling with lead, different diameters (see Table 38) and different quality of workmanship.

The same cartridges have different bullet trajectories and different firing patterns. When shooting from a machine gun, this does not matter - plus or minus 20 cm above or below. But this is not suitable for sniper shooting. The “rabble” of various cartridges, even the best ones, does not provide accurate, consistent and uniform shooting.

Therefore, the sniper selects exactly for his barrel (the barrel is also different, see below) the same cartridges, from the same series, from the same factory, from the same year of manufacture and, even better, from the same box. Different batches of cartridges differ from each other in trajectory height. Therefore, sniper weapons need to be re-shot for different batches of cartridges.

The penetrating effect of a bullet is characterized by the depth of its penetration into an obstacle of a certain density. The live force of a bullet at the moment of its meeting with an obstacle significantly affects the depth of penetration. But besides this, the penetrating effect of a bullet depends on a number of other factors, for example, on the caliber, weight, shape and design of the bullet, as well as on the properties of the medium being pierced and on the angle of impact. The meeting angle is the angle between the tangent to the trajectory at the meeting point and the tangent to the surface of the target (obstacle) at the same point. The best result is obtained with a meeting angle of 90°. Diagram 129 shows the meeting angle for the case of a vertical obstacle.

Diagram 129. Meeting angle

To determine the penetrating effect of a bullet, they use the measurement of its penetration into a package made up of dry pine boards, each 2.5 cm thick, with gaps between them equal to the thickness of the board. When shooting at such a package, a light bullet from a sniper rifle penetrates: from a distance of 100 m - up to 36 boards, from a distance of 500 m - up to 18 boards, from a distance of 1000 m - up to 8 boards, from a distance of 2000 m - up to 3 boards

The penetrating effect of a bullet depends not only on the properties of the weapon and bullet, but also on the properties of the barrier being pierced. A light rifle bullet of the 1908 model penetrates at a distance of up to 2000 m:

Iron plate 12 mm,

Steel plate up to 6 mm,

A layer of gravel or crushed stone up to 12 cm,

A layer of sand or earth up to 70 cm,

Layer of soft clay up to 80 cm,

Peat layer up to 2.80 m,

Layer of compacted snow up to 3.5 m,

Straw layer up to 4 m,

brick wall up to 15-20 cm,

Wall made of oak wood up to 70 cm,

A wall of pine tree up to 85 cm.

The penetrating effect of a bullet depends on the firing distance and the angle of impact. For example, an armor-piercing bullet of the 1930 model, when hit along the normal (P90°), penetrates armor 7 mm thick from a distance of 400 m without failure, from a distance of 800 m - less than half, at a distance of 1000 m the armor does not penetrate at all, when the trajectory deviates from the normal by 15° from a distance of 400 m, through holes in 7 mm armor are obtained in 60% of cases, and when deviating from the normal by 30°, already from a distance of 250 m the bullet does not penetrate the armor at all.

An armor-piercing bullet of 7.62 mm caliber penetrates:

Penetrating effect of a 5.6 mm bullet from a small-caliber side-fire sports cartridge (initial bullet speed 330 m/s, distance 50 m):

A heavy plate armor vest from the time of the Great Patriotic War, worn on two padded jackets, holds a light rifle bullet even when fired at point-blank range.

The window glass is shattered by a rifle bullet. The fact is that glass particles, acting like emery, when they meet the narrow nose of a rifle bullet, instantly “scrape off” the shell from it. The remaining fragments of the bullet fly along a changed unpredictable trajectory and do not guarantee hitting the target behind the glass. This phenomenon is observed when shooting from rifles and machine guns with ammunition with pointed bullets. The narrow nose of the bullet at high speed suddenly takes on a large abrasive load and is instantly destroyed. This phenomenon is not observed with blunt pistol bullets and revolver bullets flying at low subsonic speeds.

Therefore, when shooting at targets located behind glass, it is recommended to shoot either armor-piercing bullets or bullets with a steel core (with a silver nose).

A helmet can be penetrated by all types of bullets, except tracers, at a distance of up to 800 m.

With the loss of bullet speed, its penetrating effect decreases (Table 42):

Table 42

Loss of speed of a 7.62 mm bullet

ATTENTION. Tracer bullets, due to the burnout of the tracer composition, quickly lose mass, and with it their penetrating ability. At a distance of 200 m, a tracer bullet does not even penetrate a helmet.

The initial speed of sports small-caliber cartridges with lead bullets of various batches and types ranges from 280-350 m/s. The initial speed of Western small-caliber cartridges with shell and semi-jacket bullets of various batches ranges from 380 to 550 m/s.

When sniping, the most preferable are two types of cartridges, specially designed for use in real combat conditions. The first of them is called “sniper” (photo 195). These cartridges are manufactured with special care, not only with a uniform weight of powder charge and bullets of the same mass, but also with very precise adherence to the geometric shape of the bullet, a special soft case material, and a thicker layer of tombak coating. "Sniper" cartridges have a very high accuracy of fire, not inferior to the accuracy of special target sporting cartridges of the same caliber with a brass sleeve. The bullet of the sniper cartridge is not painted in any way to avoid changing the weight balance. These cartridges are specifically designed to defeat enemy personnel. Look at the longitudinal section of the bullet of this ammunition (photo 196). There is a void in the head of the bullet, and the hollow nose of the bullet acts as a ballistic fairing tip. This is followed by a steel core and only then a lead fill. The center of gravity of such a bullet is slightly shifted back. When it hits dense tissue (bone), such a bullet turns sideways, goes somersaults, then falls apart into the head (steel) and tail (lead) parts, which move inside the target independently and unpredictably, leaving the enemy no chance of survival. Hunters said that such ammunition successfully brought down even large animals.

Photo 195. “Sniper” cartridge on a fragment of packaging

Photo 196. Longitudinal section of a sniper cartridge bullet

1 - empty ballistic tip; 2 - steel core; 3 - lead filling; 4 - core bevel; 5 - hollow shank

Thanks to the steel core, sniper cartridge bullets have armor penetration 25-30% higher than conventional light bullets. Bullets of this type of ammunition have the streamlined shape of a heavy bullet of the 1930 g model, but the weight is equal to the weight of a light bullet - 9.9 g due to the steel core and the void in the tail section. This was specifically conceived by the developers to give a light bullet the useful qualities of a heavy bullet. Therefore, the flight trajectory of a bullet from sniper cartridges corresponds to Table. 8 exceeding the average trajectories given in this manual and the manual for the SVD rifle.

As already mentioned, the bullets of “sniper” cartridges are not marked with anything (photo 197). The paper packages of this ammunition are labeled “sniper.”

Photo 197. Bullet of the "sniper" cartridge

The second type of ammunition intended for sniper shooting has a bullet with a steel core, the head of which is painted silver (photo 198). They are called that - bullets with a silver nose (bullet weight 9.6 g).

Photo 198. Bullet with a “silver” nose for shooting at lightly armored targets

The steel core of this bullet occupies most of its volume (photo 199).

Photo 199. Cross-sectional view of a bullet for shooting at lightly armored targets:

1 - lead filling, 2 - steel core; 3 - lead jacket between the steel core and the shell

At the head of the bullet there is a lead filling for greater stability of the bullet in flight. Such ammunition is intended for sniper work against lightly armored and fortified targets. A bullet with a core marked “silver nose” penetrates:

The longitudinal section shows that the cored bullets have the streamlined shape of a heavy bullet with a tapered shank. But these bullets belong to the light category (weight 9.6 g) due to the steel core, which is lighter than a lead one of the same volume. The ballistics of these bullets and the accuracy of the fire are practically the same as those of sniper cartridges, and when firing them you should be guided by the same table of exceeding the average trajectories for the SVD rifle.

The two types of ammunition described above were developed in relation to the SVD rifle, but their ballistics practically correspond to the table. 9 exceeding the average trajectories for a three-line rifle of the 1891-1930 model, given in this manual.

Specialized cartridges of 7.62 mm caliber “sniper” and “silver nose”, intended specifically for sniper shooting, are light in weight and lateral load, while having the same perfect aerodynamic shape as heavy bullets of the 1930 model, so their trajectory at a distance of up to 500 m it corresponds to the trajectory of a light bullet, and at a distance from 500 to 1300 m it corresponds to the trajectory of a heavy bullet. Therefore, in the table of exceeding average trajectories for the SVD rifle, ballistic data are indicated for firing a light bullet, namely: “sniper”, “silver nose” cartridges and gross machine-gun rifle cartridges with a steel core.

The bullets of "sniper" cartridges are made light for increased effect on a living target. The speed of a light bullet is faster than that of a heavy one. As is already known, a bullet hitting a living target at a speed of 700 m/s or higher causes a hydraulic shock and associated physiological shock, instantly incapacitating the target. This effect of a light bullet from a sniper cartridge on a target is maintained almost up to 400-500 m; after this distance, the speed of the bullet is reduced by air resistance, but the damaging effect of the bullet from the “sniper” cartridge does not decrease at all. Why? Take a close look at the longitudinal cut of this bullet. the steel core in the head part has a slightly noticeable bevel with the right side up (see photo 196). This creates, although insignificant, an excess of mass on one side of the bullet head. When rotating, this counterweight moves the nose of the bullet more and more to the side and it acquires an increasingly unstable horizontal position. Therefore, the further the distance to the target, the more unstable the bullet becomes when approaching it. At shooting distances beyond 400-500 m, a bullet from sniper cartridges, even when hitting soft tissue, turns sideways and, if it does not fall apart, begins to tumble, leaving behind minced meat.

With all this, the bullet of the “sniper” cartridge holds up very well in the wind (as they say, “stands in the wind”) and is guaranteed to maintain a stable position in flight at a shooting distance of 200 m.

The accuracy of the sniper cartridges can be considered absolute. All failures that occur when working with these cartridges can only be explained by reduced quality of the barrel or shooter errors. The unique ballistic data of the above-described ammunition and its increased effect on the target caused noticeable confusion among the NATO military during the recent Balkan conflicts.

In real combat practice, it is not always necessary to shoot ammunition manufactured and intended specifically for sniper shooting. Sometimes you have to shoot with what you have. Zinc-plated cartridges made in the pre-war, war and post-war times (1936-1956) often have an incorrect “oblique” fit of the bullet in the cartridge case. These are the so-called “crooked” cartridges, in which the bullet is slightly deflected to the side from the common axis of the cartridge case and the bullet. Such a “crooked” bullet landing is noticeable to the eye. Even the uneven depth of the bullet in the cartridge case is noticeable to the eye: very often the bullets are planted either too deep or protrude excessively.

Bullets with an “oblique” landing will also go down the barrel in an “oblique” manner, and therefore they will not provide shooting accuracy. Bullets with uneven seating will produce uneven pressure in the barrel and indicate vertical dispersion. By visual inspection, such cartridges are rejected and given to machine gunners. Of course, gross cartridges with light bullets of the 1908-1930 model. will have a much greater spread than sniper or sport-target ones, but in war it’s better than nothing.

You can shoot any cartridges that look new and do not have strong abrasions, scratches, dents, or rust on the surface.

Cartridges with abrasions indicate that they were dragged around in pockets and pouches for a very long time and under unknown circumstances. This ammunition may become wet, in which case it may not fire.

Do not use cartridges that have even minor dents on the cartridges. It's not that such ammunition doesn't chamber; if necessary, they can be driven there by force. The fact is that the dent, straightening out under the devilish pressure, hits the chamber wall with great force and can simply tear it apart. Such cases have happened. Do not use cartridges with rusty cartridges and rusty bullets. The rusty bullet casing may fall apart and fragments of the deformed bullet will fly in unpredictable directions. A rusty sleeve can simply rupture. In this case, it happens that the remains of the cartridge case do not just burn to the chamber, but are tightly welded to it. It happens that in this case, when gases rush back, the valve is welded to receiver and, in addition, the shooter receives a strong gas blow to the face with the risk of eye damage.

You cannot use cartridges produced in the first half of the 30s and earlier. Such ammunition often detonates; It happens that in this case the barrel is torn to shreds, tearing off the arrow of the fingers of the left hand.

You cannot carry cartridges in leather pouches and cartridge belts - only in canvas or tarpaulin ones. Contact with skin causes the metal of clad ammunition to become covered with a green coating and rust.

And, of course, you can’t lubricate the ammunition - after that they won’t fire. Due to the force of surface tension, even the thickest lubricant sooner or later penetrates inside the cartridge and envelops the primer and powder charges, which then do not fire. To protect cartridges from moisture, they can be lubricated with a thin layer of lard, and it is recommended to use such ammunition first and quickly.

Do not forget that tracer bullets damage the barrel and at a distance of 200 m (or even less) do not even penetrate a helmet. Use tracer bullets when strictly necessary and for target designation.

If possible, calibrate the cartridges by bullet diameter and select for firing cartridges with bullets that are the same in diameter and seating depth in the case. Snipers of the old formation necessarily weigh gross cartridges (and even target cartridges) and reject those that have deviations in total weight. If possible, you should do the same. With all this you will dramatically increase the accuracy of your barrel.

Always have several rounds of armor-piercing incendiary and tracer ammunition. Combat necessity may require their use under the most unexpected circumstances.

Do not use cartridges in which the primer protrudes above the bottom of the case. When closing the bolt, such a cartridge may fire prematurely.

Do not use cartridges that have corroded or cracked primers. Such a capsule can be pierced by a firing pin.

If there is a misfire and this cartridge is not your last, throw it away without regret. You cannot “click” this cartridge a second time. A strong rifle firing pin can pierce the primer, and the gas stream then hits the shooter's face with the power of a boxer's fist without a glove. Once upon a time, in his youth, the author did not believe in this until he received such a terrible gas slap in the face. The feeling was as if the head had come off and everything else existed on its own.

Very rarely, but still happens quite dangerous phenomenon, called a lingering shot. It happens that lumpy or damp gunpowder does not ignite immediately, but after some time. Therefore, if there is a misfire, never rush to open the shutter immediately. After a misfire, count to ten, and if the shot does not fire, sharply open the bolt and throw out the unfired cartridge. The author witnessed a case when a young cadet, unable to withstand the 5-6 seconds required after a misfire, pulled the bolt towards himself, the cartridge flew out, fell under the instructor’s feet and exploded. No harm done. But if this cartridge were to fire when the bolt was opened, the consequences would be dire.

On my three magnums ("Diana 31", "Gamo Socom Carbine Luxe", "Hatsan Striker") and one "super" ("Hatsan mod 135"), the speeds also fully corresponded to them. Where did all these fantastic numbers of 380-400-470 m/s m/s come from? The secret is in the use for advertising purposes of ultra-light bullets that are not at all designed for such power, but are very fast.

Pre-charged pneumatics (PCP) are no exception. It is clear that by pushing an ultra-light bullet into the drum and working hard with the pump, you can achieve speeds exceeding 400 meters per second, almost at the level of a smooth-bore firearm. However, PCP owners use ammunition that is suitable specifically for their weapon and optimize the pressure (the so-called “plateau”) or set the gearbox to optimal values. Depending on the caliber, the weapon produces from 220 to approximately 320 m/s, and the more powerful it is, the lower the speeds, and the heavier the bullets! In addition, the silencers installed on most modern PCP rifles, like those on firearms, work correctly only at subsonic (up to 330 m/s) speeds.

For hunting, the main thing is the stopping effect of the projectile. That is, with light high-speed bullets it’s good to pierce boards on a dare, but heavy bullets will get stuck in them, transferring all the destructive energy to the mass of the tree. The same is true of living flesh.

In principle, this could have ended here - the truth has been voiced, the culprits have been named. But if you really want to understand the essence of the issue, and most importantly, decide on the characteristics of your particular rifle and select the optimal ammunition for it, then you should continue reading this article. It will be interesting - then I will give examples of calculations of real indicators of air guns.

Formula for calculating energy, speed and mass of a bullet

Now we will conduct a “session of exposing black advertising magic.” To do this, we will resort to help exact sciences- mathematics, physics, as well as more highly specialized ballistics (read the full version of this article and other specialized materials on the peculiarities of shooting and hunting with pneumatics on my website arbalet-airgun.ru).

We will rely on energy (“power”) indicators officially given by rifle manufacturers, which, unlike speed indicators, are completely objective. The fact is that the weapons legislation of most countries is oriented specifically towards them, and such things are not joked about. Secondly, if most people have a good idea of ​​meters per second, then with all sorts of different joules not everything is so smooth. It’s like with car enthusiasts: the maximum speed in km/h (by the way, is also always overestimated) is understandable to any “blonde” but there are already problems with Newton meters of torque.

There is a fundamental formula E = mv 2 /2, where “E” is energy, “m” is mass, and “v” is speed. That is, all these quantities are interrelated and depend on each other. Let's carry out calculations of real performance of air rifles with different energy levels. Of the spring-piston 4.5 mm, we will focus on the license-free version up to 7.5 joules, “magnums” - 20 and 25 joules, as well as “supermagnums” - 30 J. We will consider weapons with pre-pumping (PCP) in three main calibers - 4.5 (.177), 5.5 (.22) and 6.35 (.25) mm; 37, 53 and 60 joules, respectively

So, what bullets do pneumatic manufacturers have in mind when they cite fantastic speed figures for their advertised rifles...

For a shooter, the initial velocity of a bullet (projectile) is perhaps the most important of all quantities considered in internal ballistics.

And indeed, the greatest firing range, the range of a direct shot, depends on this value, i.e. the longest range of direct fire at visible targets, at which the height of the bullet's flight path does not exceed the height of the target, the time it takes the bullet (projectile) to reach the target, the impact of the projectile on the target, and other indicators.

That is why it is necessary to be attentive to the very concept of initial velocity, to the methods of determining it, to how the initial velocity changes when the parameters of internal ballistics change and when shooting conditions change.

When fired from a small weapon, a bullet begins to move faster and faster along the barrel under the influence of powder gases, reaching its maximum speed a few centimeters from the muzzle.

Then, moving by inertia and encountering air resistance, the bullet begins to lose its speed. Consequently, the speed of the bullet changes all the time. Taking this circumstance into account, it is customary to record the speed of a bullet only in certain phases of its movement. Usually the speed of the bullet is recorded as it leaves the barrel.

The speed of the bullet at the muzzle of the barrel at the moment it leaves the barrel is called the initial speed.

The initial speed is taken to be a conditional speed, which is slightly greater than the muzzle and less than the maximum. It is measured by the distance that a bullet could travel in 1 second after leaving the barrel, if neither air resistance nor its gravity acted on it. Since the speed of a bullet at some distance from the muzzle differs little from the speed when it leaves the barrel, in practical calculations it is usually considered that the most higher speed the bullet has at the moment of departure from the barrel, i.e. that the initial speed of the bullet is the greatest (maximum) speed.

The initial speed is determined experimentally with subsequent calculations. The magnitude of the muzzle velocity is indicated in the shooting tables and in the combat characteristics of the weapon.

So, when firing from a 7.62 mm repeating rifle of the Mosin system mod. 1891/30 the initial speed of a light bullet is 865 m/sec, and that of a heavy bullet is 800 m/sec. When firing from a 5.6 mm small-caliber TOZ-8 rifle, the initial bullet speed of various batches of cartridges ranges from 280 to 350 m/sec.

The magnitude of the initial velocity is one of the most important characteristics not only of cartridges, but also of the combat properties of weapons. However, it is impossible to judge the ballistic properties of a weapon by the initial bullet velocity alone. As the initial speed increases, the bullet's flight range, direct shot range, lethal and penetrating effect of the bullet increases, and the influence of external conditions on its flight decreases.

The magnitude of the muzzle velocity depends on the length of the weapon barrel; bullet mass; mass, temperature and humidity of the cartridge powder charge, shape and size of the powder grains and loading density.

The longer the barrel of a small weapon, the longer the time the bullet is exposed to powder gases and the higher the initial velocity of the bullet.

It is also necessary to consider the muzzle velocity of the bullet in combination with its mass. It is very important to know how much energy a bullet has, what work it can do.

It is known from physics that the energy of a moving body depends on its mass and speed of movement. Therefore, the greater the mass of the bullet and the speed of its movement, the greater the kinetic energy of the bullet. With a constant barrel length and constant mass of the powder charge, the smaller the mass of the bullet, the greater the initial velocity. An increase in the mass of the powder charge leads to an increase in the amount of powder gases, and consequently to an increase in the maximum pressure in the barrel bore and an increase in the initial velocity of the bullet. The greater the mass of the powder charge, the greater the maximum pressure and initial velocity of the bullet.

The length of the barrel and the mass of the powder charge increase when designing small arms to the most rational sizes.

As the temperature of the powder charge increases, the burning rate of the powder increases, and therefore the maximum pressure and muzzle velocity of the bullet increase. As the charge temperature decreases, the initial speed decreases. An increase (decrease) in the initial speed causes an increase (decrease) in the range of the bullet. In this regard, when shooting, it is necessary to take into account range corrections for the temperature of the air and charge (the temperature of the charge is approximately equal to the air temperature).

As the humidity of the powder charge increases, its burning rate and the initial velocity of the bullet decrease.

The shape and size of the gunpowder have a significant impact on the burning rate of the powder charge, and therefore on the initial speed of the bullet. They are selected accordingly when designing weapons.

Loading density is the ratio of the mass of the charge to the volume of the cartridge case with the bullet inserted (charge combustion chamber). When the bullet is seated very deeply, the loading density increases significantly, which can lead to a sharp surge in pressure when fired and, as a result, to rupture of the barrel, so such cartridges cannot be used for shooting. As the loading density decreases (increases), the initial bullet speed increases (decreases).

The penetrating effect of a bullet (Tables 1 and 2) is characterized by its kinetic energy (living force). The kinetic energy imparted to the bullet by the powder gases at the moment it leaves the barrel is called muzzle energy. Bullet energy is measured in joules.

Table 1
Penetrating effect of a light bullet from a 7.62 mm sniper repeating rifle
Mosin systems arr. 1891/30 (when shooting at distances up to 100 m)

RIFLE bullets have enormous kinetic energy. Thus, the muzzle energy of a light bullet when fired from a rifle of the 1891/30 model. equal to 3600 J. How great the energy of a bullet is can be seen from the following: to obtain such energy in such a short period of time (not by shooting), a machine with a power of 3000 hp would be required. With.

From all that has been said, it is clear what great practical significance a high initial velocity and the muzzle energy of a bullet, which depends on it, have for shooting. With an increase in the initial speed of the bullet and its muzzle energy, the firing range increases; the bullet trajectory becomes more sloping; the influence of external conditions on the flight of a bullet is significantly reduced; the bullet's penetration effect increases.

At the same time, the magnitude of the initial velocity of the bullet (projectile) is greatly influenced by the wear of the barrel bore. During operation, the barrel of a weapon is subject to significant wear. This is facilitated by a number of reasons of a mechanical, thermal, gas-dynamic and chemical nature.

First of all, when a bullet passes through the bore, due to high friction forces, it rounds the corners of the rifling fields and abrades the inner walls of the bore. In addition, particles of powder gases moving at high speed strike with force the walls of the barrel bore, causing so-called hardening on their surface. This phenomenon consists in the fact that the surface of the bore is covered with a thin crust with fragility gradually developing in it. The elastic deformation of the barrel expansion that occurs during a shot leads to the appearance of small cracks on the inner surface of the metal.

The formation of such cracks is also facilitated by the high temperature of the powder gases, which, due to their very short action, cause partial melting of the surface of the barrel bore. Large stresses arise in the heated layer of metal, which ultimately lead to the appearance and enlargement of these small cracks. The increased fragility of the surface layer of the metal and the presence of cracks on it lead to the fact that the bullet, when passing through the bore, produces metal chips in places of cracks. The wear of the barrel is greatly contributed to by the soot remaining in the bore after the shot. It represents the remains of combustion of the primer composition and gunpowder, as well as metal scraped from the bullet or melted from it, pieces of the cartridge case torn off by gases, etc.

The salts present in soot have the property of absorbing moisture from the air, dissolving in it and forming solutions, which, when reacting with the metal, lead to its corrosion (rusting), the appearance of first a rash and then cavities in the barrel bore. All these factors lead to changes and destruction of the surface of the barrel bore, which entails an increase in its caliber, especially at the bullet entrance, and, naturally, a decrease in its overall strength. Therefore, the noted change in parameters when the barrel wears out leads to a decrease in the initial speed of the bullet (projectile), as well as to a sharp deterioration in the weapon’s engagement, i.e. to the loss of its ballistic qualities.

If in the time of Peter I the initial flight speed of the cannonball reached 200 meters per second, then modern artillery shells fly much faster. The flight speed of a modern projectile in the first second is usually 800-900 meters, and some projectiles fly even faster - at a speed of 1000 or more meters per second. This speed is so high that the projectile, when it flies, is not even visible. Consequently, a modern projectile travels at a speed 40 times the speed of a courier train and 8 times the speed of an airplane.

table 2
Penetrating effect of a bullet from a 5.6 mm small-caliber rifle TOZ-8 (when fired at a distance of up to 25 m)

However, here we are talking about ordinary passenger aircraft and artillery shells flying from average speed.

If we take for comparison, on the one hand, the “slowest” projectile, and on the other, a modern jet aircraft, then the difference will not be so great, and not in favor of the projectile: jet aircraft fly at an average speed of about 900 kilometers per hour , that is, about 250 meters per second, and a very “slow” projectile, for example a 152-mm projectile self-propelled howitzer"Msta" 2 S19, with the smallest charge, flies only 238 meters in the first second.

It turns out that the jet aircraft will not only keep up with such a projectile, but will also outrun it.

A passenger plane flies about 900 kilometers in an hour. How far will a projectile flying several times faster than an airplane fly in an hour? It would seem that the projectile should fly about 4,000 kilometers in an hour.

In fact, however, the entire flight of an artillery shell usually lasts less than a minute, the shell flies 15-20 kilometers and only for some guns more.

What's the matter? What prevents a projectile from flying as long and as far as an airplane flies?

The plane flies for a long time because the propeller pulls or the jet engine pushes it forward all the time. The engine runs for several hours in a row until there is enough fuel. Therefore, the plane can fly continuously for several hours in a row.

The projectile receives a push in the gun channel, and then flies on its own, no force anymore pushes it forward. From a mechanical point of view, a flying projectile will be a body moving by inertia. Such a body, mechanics teaches, must obey very simple law: It should move straight and evenly unless no other force is applied to it.

Does the projectile obey this law, does it move in a straight line?

Let's imagine that a kilometer away from us there is a target, for example, an enemy machine-gun point. Let's try to aim the gun so that its barrel is pointed directly at the machine gun, then we'll fire a shot.

No matter how many times we shoot like this, we will never hit the target: each time the shell will fall to the ground and explode, having flown only 200-300 meters. If we continue our experiments, we will soon come to the following conclusion: in order to hit, we need to point the barrel not at the target, but slightly above it.

It turns out that the projectile does not fly forward in a straight line: it descends in flight. What's the matter? Why does the projectile not fly straight? What force pulls the projectile down?

Artillery scientists of the late 16th and early 17th centuries explained this phenomenon this way: a projectile flying obliquely upward loses strength, like a man climbing a steep mountain. And when the projectile finally loses its power, it will stop for a moment in the air, and then fall down like a stone. The path of a projectile in the air seemed to artillerymen of the 16th century to be as shown in the figure.

Nowadays, all people who have studied physics, knowing the laws discovered by Galileo and Newton, will give a more correct answer: the force of gravity acts on a flying projectile and causes it to fall during its flight. After all, everyone knows that a thrown stone does not fly straight, but describes a curve and, having flown a short distance, falls to the ground. All other things being equal, the stone flies farther, the harder it is thrown, the greater the speed it received at the moment of the throw.

Let's put a weapon in the place of the person throwing the stone, and replace the stone with a projectile; like any flying body, the projectile will be attracted to the ground during flight and, therefore, will move away from the line along which it was thrown; this line is called in artillery the throwing line, and the angle between this line and the horizon of the gun is the throwing angle.

If we assume that the projectile is only affected by gravity during its flight, then under the influence of this force in the first second of flight the projectile will drop approximately 5 meters (more precisely, 4.9 meters), in the second - almost 15 meters (more precisely, by 14.7 meters) and in each subsequent second the falling speed will increase by almost 10 meters per second (more precisely, by 9.8 meters per second). This is the law of free fall of bodies discovered by Galileo.

That’s why the projectile’s flight line—the trajectory—is not straight, but exactly the same as for a thrown stone, similar to an arc.

In addition, one may wonder: is there a connection between the throwing angle and the distance that the projectile flies?

Let's try to fire the gun once with the barrel in a horizontal position, another time with the barrel at a throwing angle of 3 degrees, and a third time with a throwing angle of 6 degrees.

In the first second of flight, the projectile must move down 5 meters from the throwing line. This means that if the gun barrel lies on a machine 1 meter high from the ground and is directed horizontally, then the projectile will have nowhere to go down and will hit the ground before the first second of flight has elapsed. Calculations show that within 6 tenths of a second the projectile will hit the ground.

A projectile thrown at a speed of 600-700 meters per second, with the barrel in a horizontal position, will fly only 300 meters before falling to the ground. Now let's fire a shot at a throwing angle of 3 degrees.

The throwing line will no longer go horizontally, but at an angle of 3 degrees to the horizon.

According to our calculations, a projectile fired at a speed of 600 meters per second should have risen to a height of 30 meters in a second, but gravity will take away 5 meters of rise from it, and in fact the projectile will be at a height of 25 meters above the ground. After 2 seconds, the projectile, if there were no gravity, would have risen to a height of 60 meters, but in fact, gravity will take away another 15 meters in the second second of flight, but only 20 meters. By the end of the second second, the projectile will be at a height of 40 meters. If we continue the calculations, they will show that already at the fourth second the projectile will not only stop rising, but will begin to fall lower and lower. And by the end of the sixth second, having flown 3600 meters, the projectile will fall to the ground.

The calculations for a shot at a throwing angle of 6 degrees are similar to those we just did, but the calculations will take much longer: the projectile will fly for 12 seconds and fly 7200 meters.

Thus, we realized that the greater the throwing angle, the further the projectile flies. But there is a limit to this increase in range: the projectile flies the furthest if it is thrown at an angle of 45 degrees. If you further increase the throwing angle, the projectile will climb higher and higher, but it will fall closer and closer.

It goes without saying that the flight range will depend not only on the throwing angle, but also on the speed: the greater the initial speed of the projectile, the further it will fall, all other things being equal.

For example, if you throw a projectile at an angle of 6 degrees with a speed of not 600, but 170 meters per second, then it will fly not 7200 meters, but only 570.

Consequently, the actual maximum initial velocity of a projectile that can be achieved in a classic artillery gun cannot in principle exceed 2500-3000 m/s, and the actual firing range does not exceed several tens of kilometers. This is the peculiarity of artillery barrel systems (including small arms), which humanity has realized in its quest for cosmic speeds and ranges turned to use reactive principle movements.