Scientist Einstein. Albert Einstein - the most interesting facts about the great genius

One of the most famous personalities the first half of the 20th century was Albert Einstein. This great scientist achieved a lot in his life, becoming not only a Nobel laureate, but also radically changing scientific ideas about the Universe.

He has written about 300 scientific works on physics and about 150 books and articles in various fields of knowledge.

Born in 1879 in Germany, he lived for 76 years, dying on April 18, 1955 in the United States, where he worked for the last 15 years of his life.

Some of Einstein's contemporaries said that communicating with him was like the fourth dimension. Of course, she is often surrounded by a halo of glory and various legends. That is why there are often cases when certain moments from their enthusiastic fans are deliberately exaggerated.

We are offering to you Interesting Facts from the life of Albert Einstein.

Photo from 1947

As we said at the beginning, Albert Einstein was extremely famous. Therefore, when random passers-by stopped him on the street, asking in a jubilant voice if it was him, the scientist often said: “No, sorry, they always confuse me with Einstein!”

One day he was asked what the speed of sound is. To this the great physicist replied: “I do not have the habit of remembering things that can easily be found in a book.”

It is curious that little Albert developed very slowly as a child. His parents were worried that he would be retarded, since he began to speak tolerably only at the age of 7. It is believed that he had a form of autism, possibly Asperger's Syndrome.

Einstein's great love for music is well known. He learned to play the violin as a child and carried it with him all his life.

One day, while reading a newspaper, the scientist came across an article that talked about whole family died due to a leak of sulfur dioxide from a faulty refrigerator. Deciding that this was a mess, Albert Einstein, together with his former student, invented a refrigerator with a different, safer principle of operation. The invention was called “Einstein’s Refrigerator.”

It is known that the great physicist had an active civic position. He was an ardent supporter of the civil rights movement and declared that Jews in Germany and blacks in America had equal rights. “Ultimately, we are all human,” he said.

Albert Einstein was a convinced man and spoke out strongly against all Nazism.

Surely everyone has seen the photograph where the scientist sticks out his tongue. An interesting fact is that this photo was taken on the eve of his 72nd birthday. Tired of cameras, Albert Einstein stuck out his tongue at another request to smile. Now all over the world this photograph is not only known, but also interpreted by everyone in their own way, giving it a metaphysical meaning.

The fact is that when signing one of the photographs with his tongue hanging out, the genius said that his gesture was addressed to all of humanity. How can we do without metaphysics! By the way, contemporaries always emphasized the scientist’s subtle humor and ability to make witty jokes.

It is known that Einstein was Jewish by nationality. So, in 1952, when the state of Israel was just beginning to form into a full-fledged power, the great scientist was offered the presidency. Of course, the physicist flatly refused such a high post, citing the fact that he was a scientist and did not have enough experience to govern the country.

On the eve of his death, he was offered to undergo surgery, but he refused, saying that “artificial prolongation of life makes no sense.” In general, all the visitors who came to see the dying genius noted his absolute calm, and even cheerful mood. He expected death as an ordinary natural phenomenon, such as rain. In this it is somewhat reminiscent of .

An interesting fact is that last words Albert Einstein is unknown. He spoke them in German, which his American nurse did not know.

Taking advantage of his incredible popularity, the scientist for some time charged one dollar for each autograph. He donated the proceeds to charity.

After one scientific dialogue with his colleagues, Albert Einstein said: “God does not play dice.” To which Niels Bohr objected: “Stop telling God what to do!”

Interestingly, the scientist never considered himself an atheist. But he also did not believe in a personal God. It is certain that he stated that he preferred humility corresponding to the weakness of our intellectual awareness. Apparently, until his death he never decided on this concept, remaining a humble questioner.

There is a misconception that Albert Einstein was not very good at . In fact, at the age of 15 he had already mastered differential and integral calculus.

Einstein at 14

Having received a check for $1,500 from the Rockefeller Foundation, the great physicist used it as a bookmark for a book. But, alas, he lost this book.

In general, there were legends about his absent-mindedness. One day Einstein was riding on a Berlin tram and was thinking intently about something. The conductor, who did not recognize him, received the wrong amount for the ticket and corrected him. And indeed, rummaging in his pocket, the great scientist discovered the missing coins and paid. “It’s okay, grandpa,” said the conductor, “you just need to learn arithmetic.”

Interestingly, Albert Einstein never wore socks. He did not give any special explanations about this, but even at the most formal events his shoes were worn on bare feet.

It sounds incredible, but Einstein's brain was stolen. After his death in 1955, pathologist Thomas Harvey removed the scientist's brain and took photographs of it from different angles. Then, cutting the brain into many small pieces, he sent them to various laboratories for 40 years to be examined by the best neurologists in the world.

It is noteworthy that the scientist, during his lifetime, agreed to have his brain examined after his death. But he did not consent to the theft of Thomas Harvey!

In general, the will of the brilliant physicist was to be cremated after death, which was done, but only, as you already guessed, without a brain. Even during his lifetime, Einstein was an ardent opponent of any cult of personality, so he did not want his grave to become a place of pilgrimage. His ashes were scattered to the wind.

An interesting fact is that Albert Einstein became interested in science as a child. When he was 5 years old, he fell ill with something. His father, to calm him down, showed him a compass. Little Albert was amazed that the arrow constantly pointed in one direction, no matter how he turned this mysterious device. He decided that there was some force that made the arrow behave this way. By the way, after the scientist became famous throughout the world, this story was often told.

Albert Einstein was very fond of the “Maxims” of the outstanding French thinker and political figure François de La Rochefoucauld. He re-read them constantly.

In general, in literature, the genius of physics preferred Bertolt Brecht.

Einstein at the Patent Office (1905)

At the age of 17, Albert Einstein wanted to enter the Swiss Higher Technical School in Zurich. However, he only passed the math exam and failed all the others. For this reason, he had to go to a vocational school. A year later, he still managed to pass the required exams.

When radicals took the rector and several professors hostage in 1914, Albert Einstein, along with Max Born, went to negotiate. They managed to find mutual language with the rioters, and the situation was resolved peacefully. From this we can conclude that the scientist was not a timid person.

By the way, here it is extremely rare photo master. We'll do without any comments - just admire the genius!

Albert Einstein at a lecture

Another interesting fact that not everyone knows. Einstein was nominated for the first time Nobel Prize in 1910 for the theory of relativity. However, the committee found her evidence insufficient. Further, every year (!), except 1911 and 1915, he was recommended for this prestigious award by various physicists.

And only in November 1922 he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for 1921. A diplomatic way out of the awkward situation was found. Einstein was awarded the prize not for the theory of relativity, but for the theory of the photoelectric effect, although the text of the decision included a postscript: “... and for other work in the field of theoretical physics.”

As a result, we see that one of the greatest physicists, considered to be, was awarded only the tenth time. Why is this such a stretch? Very fertile ground for lovers of conspiracy theories.

Did you know that Master Yoda's face from the movie " star Wars» based on images of Einstein? The facial expressions of a genius were used as a prototype.

Despite the fact that the scientist died back in 1955, he confidently occupies 7th place in the “” list. Annual income from sales of Baby Einstein products is more than $10 million.

There is a common belief that Albert Einstein was a vegetarian. But this is not true. In principle, he supported this movement, but he himself began to follow a vegetarian diet about a year before his death.

Einstein's personal life

In 1903, Albert Einstein married his classmate Mileva Maric, who was 4 years older than him.

The year before they had a baby illegitimate daughter. However, due to financial difficulties, the young father insisted on giving the child to Mileva’s wealthy but childless relatives, who themselves wanted this. In general, it must be said that the physicist did his best to hide this dark story. Therefore, there is no detailed information about this daughter. Some biographers believe that she died in childhood.

Albert Einstein and Mileva Maric (first wife)

When Albert Einstein's scientific career began, success and travel around the world took a toll on his relationship with Mileva. They were on the verge of divorce, but then, nevertheless, they agreed on one strange contract. Einstein invited his wife to continue living together, provided that she agreed to his demands:

1. Keep his clothes and room (especially his desk) clean.
2. Bring breakfast, lunch and dinner to your room regularly.
3. Complete renunciation of marital relations.
4. Stop talking when he asks.
5. Leave his room upon request.

Surprisingly, the wife agreed to these conditions, humiliating for any woman, and they lived together for some time. Although Mileva Maric still couldn’t stand it later constant betrayals husband and after 16 years life together They've divorced.

It is interesting that two years before his first marriage he wrote to his beloved:

“...I have lost my mind, I am dying, I am burning with love and desire. The pillow you sleep on is a hundred times happier than my heart! You come to me at night, but, unfortunately, only in a dream...”

But then everything went according to Dostoevsky: “From love to hate there is one step.” The feelings quickly cooled down and were a burden for both.

By the way, before the divorce, Einstein promised that if he received the Nobel Prize (and this happened in 1922), he would give it all to Mileva. The divorce took place, but he did not give the money received from the Nobel Committee to his ex-wife, but only allowed her to use the interest from it.

In total, they had three children: two legitimate sons and one illegitimate daughter, which we have already talked about. Einstein's youngest son Eduard had great abilities. But as a student, he suffered a severe nervous breakdown, as a result of which he was diagnosed with schizophrenia. Having been admitted to a psychiatric hospital at the age of 21, he spent most life, dying at 55 years old. Albert Einstein himself could not come to terms with the idea that he had a mentally ill son. There are letters in which he complains that it would be better if he had never been born.

Mileva Maric (first wife) and Einstein's two sons

Einstein had an extremely bad relationship with his eldest son Hans. And until the death of the scientist. Biographers believe that this is directly related to the fact that he did not give the Nobel Prize to his wife, as promised, but only the interest. Hans is the only successor to the Einstein family, although his father bequeathed an extremely small inheritance to him.

It is important to emphasize here that after the divorce, Mileva Maric suffered from depression for a long time and was treated by various psychoanalysts. Albert Einstein felt guilty about her all his life.

However, the great physicist was a real ladies' man. After divorcing his first wife, he literally immediately married his cousin (on his mother’s side) Elsa. During this marriage, he had many mistresses, which Elsa knew very well. Moreover, they spoke freely on this topic. Apparently, the official status of the wife of a world-famous scientist was enough for Elsa.

Albert Einstein and Elsa (second wife)

This second wife of Albert Einstein was also divorced, had two daughters and, like the physicist’s first wife, was three years older than her scientist husband. Despite the fact that they did not have children together, they lived together until Elsa's death in 1936.

An interesting fact is that Einstein initially considered marrying Elsa’s daughter, who was 18 years younger than him. However, she did not agree, so she had to marry her mother.

Stories from the life of Einstein

Stories from the lives of great people are always extremely interesting. Although, to be objective, any person in this sense is of enormous interest. It’s just that more attention is always paid to outstanding representatives of humanity. We are pleased to idealize the image of a genius, attributing to him supernatural actions, words and phrases.

Count to three

One day Albert Einstein was at a party. Knowing that the great scientist was fond of playing the violin, the owners asked him to play together with the composer Hans Eisler, who was present here. After preparations, they tried to play.

However, Einstein just couldn’t keep up with the beat, and no matter how hard they tried, they couldn’t even play the introduction properly. Then Eisler rose from the piano and said:

“I don’t understand why the whole world considers a man great who can’t count to three!”

Brilliant violinist

They say that Albert Einstein once performed at a charity concert together with the famous cellist Grigory Pyatigorsky. There was a journalist in the hall who was supposed to write a report about the concert. Turning to one of the listeners and pointing to Einstein, he asked in a whisper:

- Do you know the name of this man with a mustache and a violin?

- What are you talking about! - the lady exclaimed. - After all, this is the great Einstein himself!

Embarrassed, the journalist thanked her and began frantically writing something in his notebook. The next day, an article appeared in the newspaper that an outstanding composer and incomparable violin virtuoso named Einstein, who eclipsed Pyatigorsky himself with his skill, performed at the concert.

This amused Einstein so much, who was already very fond of humor, that he cut out this note and, on occasion, said to his friends:

- Do you think I'm a scientist? This is a deep misconception! I'm actually a famous violinist!

Great Thoughts

Another interesting case is that of a journalist who asked Einstein where he wrote down his great thoughts. To this the scientist replied, looking at the reporter’s thick diary:

“Young man, truly great thoughts come so rarely that they are not at all difficult to remember!”

Time and eternity

Once an American journalist, attacking the famous physicist, asked him what the difference between time and eternity was. To this Albert Einstein replied:

“If I had time to explain this to you, an eternity would pass before you could understand it.”

Two celebrities

In the first half of the 20th century, only two people were truly global celebrities: Einstein and Charlie Chaplin. After the release of the film “Gold Rush,” the scientist wrote a telegram to the comedian with the following content:

“I admire your film, which is understandable to the whole world. You will undoubtedly become a great man."

To which Chaplin replied:

“I admire you even more! Your theory of relativity is incomprehensible to anyone in the world, and yet you have become a great man.”

It doesn't matter

We have already written about Albert Einstein’s absent-mindedness. But here is another example from his life.

One day, walking down the street and thinking about the meaning of life and global problems humanity, he met his old friend, whom he automatically invited to dinner:

- Come this evening, Professor Stimson will be our guest.

- But I am Stimson! – the interlocutor exclaimed.

“It doesn’t matter, come anyway,” Einstein said absentmindedly.

Colleague

One day, while walking along the corridor of Princeton University, Albert Einstein met a young physicist who had no merit to science except an uncontrolled ego. Having caught up with the famous scientist, the young man tapped him familiarly on the shoulder and asked:

- How are you, colleague?

“How,” Einstein was surprised, “do you also suffer from rheumatism?”

He really couldn't be denied a sense of humor!

Everything except money

One journalist asked Einstein's wife what she thought of her great husband.

“Oh, my husband is a real genius,” answered the wife, “he knows how to do absolutely everything except money!”

Einstein Quotes

Do you think all that simple? Yes, it's simple. But not at all like that.

Anyone who wants to see the results of their labor immediately should become a shoemaker.

Theory is when everything is known, but nothing works. Practice is when everything works, but no one knows why. We combine theory and practice: nothing works... and no one knows why!

There are only two infinite things: the Universe and stupidity. Although I'm not sure about the Universe.

Everyone knows that this is impossible. But then comes an ignorant person who doesn’t know this - he makes a discovery.

I don’t know with what weapons the third world war will be fought, but the fourth will be fought with sticks and stones.

Only a fool needs order - genius rules over chaos.

There are only two ways to live life. The first is as if miracles do not exist. The second one is like there are only miracles all around.

Education is what remains after everything learned at school is forgotten.

We are all geniuses. But if you judge a fish by its ability to climb a tree, it will live its whole life thinking it is stupid.

Only those who make absurd attempts will be able to achieve the impossible.

The greater my fame, the more stupid I become; and this is undoubtedly the general rule.

Imagination is more important than knowledge. Knowledge is limited, while imagination embraces the whole world, stimulating progress, giving rise to evolution.

You will never solve a problem if you think the same way as those who created it.

If the theory of relativity is confirmed, the Germans will say that I am a German, and the French will say that I am a citizen of the world; but if my theory is refuted, the French will declare me a German, and the Germans a Jew.

Mathematics is the only perfect method for fooling yourself.

Through coincidences, God maintains anonymity.

The only thing that prevents me from studying is the education I received.

I survived two wars, two wives and...

I never think about the future. It comes soon enough on its own.

It can take you from point A to point B, and your imagination can take you anywhere.

Never memorize anything you can find in a book.

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A well-known figure in the world of natural sciences, Albert Einstein (life: 1879-1955) is known even to humanists who do not like exact subjects, because the man’s surname has become a household name for people with incredible mental abilities.

Einstein is the founder of physics in its modern sense: the great scientist is the founder of the theory of relativity and the author of more than three hundred scientific works. Albert is also known as a publicist and public figure, who is an honorary doctor from about twenty higher educational institutions in the world. This man is attractive because of his ambiguity: the facts say that, despite his incredible intelligence, he was clueless in solving everyday issues, which makes him an interesting figure in the eyes of the public.

Childhood and youth

The biography of the great scientist begins with the small German city of Ulm, located on the Danube River - this is the place where Albert was born on March 14, 1879 in a poor family of Jewish origin.

The father of the brilliant physicist Herman was engaged in the production of filling mattresses with feather stuffing, but soon Albert’s family moved to the city of Munich. Hermann, together with Jacob, his brother, started a small company selling electrical equipment, which at first developed successfully, but soon could not withstand the competition of large companies.

As a child, Albert was considered a narrow-minded child, for example, he did not speak until three years old. Parents were even afraid that their child would never learn to pronounce words when, at the age of 7, Albert could barely move his lips, trying to repeat memorized phrases. Also, the scientist’s mother Paulina was afraid that the child had a congenital deformity: the boy had a large back of the head that protruded strongly forward, and Einstein’s grandmother constantly repeated that her grandson was fat.

Albert had little contact with his peers and liked solitude more, for example, building houses of cards. From an early age, the great physicist showed a negative attitude towards war: he hated the noisy game of toy soldiers, because it personifies a bloody war. Einstein’s attitude towards war did not change throughout his later life: he actively opposed bloodshed and nuclear weapons.

A vivid memory of the genius is the compass that Albert received from his father at the age of five. Then the boy was sick, and Herman showed him an object that interested the child: what’s surprising is that the arrow of the device showed the same direction. This small object aroused incredible interest in young Einstein.

Little Albert was often taught by his uncle Jacob, who from childhood instilled in his nephew a love for the exact mathematical sciences. They read textbooks on geometry and mathematics together, and solving a problem on their own was always a joy for the young genius. However, Einstein’s mother Paulina had a negative attitude towards such activities and believed that for a five-year-old child, love for the exact sciences would not turn out to be anything good. But it was clear that this man would make great discoveries in the future.

Albert Einstein with his sister

It is also known that Albert was interested in religion from childhood; he believed that it was impossible to begin to study the universe without understanding God. The future scientist watched the clergy with trepidation and did not understand why the higher biblical mind did not stop the wars. When the boy was 12 years old, his religious belief was lost due to the study scientific books. Einstein became a believer that the Bible was a highly developed system for controlling youth.

After graduating from school, Albert enters the Munich gymnasium. His teachers considered him mentally retarded due to the same speech impediment. Einstein studied only those subjects that interested him, ignoring history, literature and the German language. WITH German language he had special problems: the teacher told Albert to his face that he would not graduate from school.

Albert Einstein at age 14

Einstein hated going to school and believed that the teachers themselves did not know much, but instead imagined themselves as upstarts who were allowed to do everything. Because of such judgments, young Albert constantly entered into arguments with them, so he developed a reputation as not only a backward student, but also a poor student.

Without graduating from high school, 16-year-old Albert and his family move to sunny Italy, to Milan. In the hope of enrolling at ETH Zurich, the future scientist sets off from Italy to Sweden on foot. Einstein managed to show decent results in the exact sciences in the exam, but Albert completely failed the humanities. But the rector of the technical school appreciated the teenager’s outstanding abilities and advised him to enter the Aarau school in Switzerland, which, by the way, was considered far from the best. And Einstein was not considered a genius at all at this school.

The best students of Aarau left to receive higher education in the German capital, but in Berlin the abilities of the graduates were poorly rated. Albert found out the texts of the problems that the director's favorites couldn't solve and solved them. After which the satisfied future scientist came to Schneider’s office, showing him the solved problems. Albert angered the head of the school by saying that he was unfairly choosing students for competitions.

After successfully completing his studies, Albert enters the educational institution of his dreams - the Zurich school. However, the relationship with the professor of the department, Weber, was bad for the young genius: the two physicists constantly fought and argued.

Beginning of a scientific career

Due to disagreements with professors at the institute, Albert's path to science was closed. He passed the exams well, but not perfectly, the professors refused the student a scientific career. Einstein worked with interest at the scientific department of the Polytechnic Institute; Weber said that his student was a smart guy, but did not take criticism.

At the age of 22, Albert received a teaching diploma in mathematics and physics. But because of the same quarrels with teachers, Einstein could not find a job, spending two years in a painful search for permanent income. Albert lived poorly and could not even buy food. The scientist's friends helped him get a job at the patent office, where he worked for quite a long time.

In 1904, Albert began collaborating with the journal Annals of Physics, gaining authority in the publication, and in 1905 the scientist published his own scientific works. But a revolution in the world of science was made by three articles of the great physicist:

• To the electrodynamics of moving bodies, which became the basis of the theory of relativity;
• The work that laid the foundation for quantum theory;
• A scientific article that made a discovery in statistical physics about Brownian motion.

Theory of relativity

Einstein's theory of relativity radically changed scientific physical concepts, which were previously based on Newtonian mechanics, which existed for about two hundred years. But only a few could fully understand the theory of relativity developed by Albert Einstein, so educational institutions They teach only the special theory of relativity, which is part of the general theory. SRT speaks of the dependence of space and time on speed: the higher the speed of a body’s movement, the more both dimensions and time are distorted.

According to STR, time travel is possible by overcoming the speed of light, therefore, based on the impossibility of such travel, a restriction has been introduced: the speed of any object cannot exceed the speed of light. For small speeds, space and time are not distorted, so the classical laws of mechanics are applied here, and high speeds, for which the distortion is noticeable, are called relativistic. And this is only a small part of both the special and general theories of Einstein’s entire movement.

Nobel Prize

Albert Einstein was nominated for the Nobel Prize more than once, but this award bypassed the scientist for about 12 years because of his new and not everyone understood views on exact science. However, the committee decided to compromise and nominate Albert for his work on the theory of the photoelectric effect, for which the scientist was awarded the prize. All because this invention is not so revolutionary, unlike general relativity, for which Albert, in fact, was preparing a speech.

However, at the time the scientist received a telegram from the nomination committee, the scientist was in Japan, so they decided to present him with the award in 1922 for 1921. However, there are rumors that Albert knew long before the trip that he would be nominated. But the scientist decided not to stay in Stockholm at such a crucial moment.

Personal life

The life of the great scientist is covered with interesting facts: Albert Einstein is a strange man. It is known that he did not like to wear socks, and also hated brushing his teeth. In addition, he had a poor memory for simple things, such as telephone numbers.

Albert married Mileva Maric at the age of 26. Despite the 11-year marriage, the couple soon had disagreements about family life, rumored to be due to the fact that Albert was still a womanizer and had about ten passions. However, he offered his wife a contract of cohabitation, according to which she had to comply with certain conditions, for example, periodically wash things. But the contract between Mileva and Albert did not provide for any love relationship: the former spouses even slept separately. The genius had children from his first marriage: the youngest son died while in a psychiatric hospital, and the scientist did not have a good relationship with the eldest.

After divorcing Mileva, the scientist married Elsa Leventhal, his cousin. However, he was also interested in Elsa’s daughter, who did not have mutual feelings for a man who was 18 years older than her.

Many who knew the scientist noted that he was an unusually kind person, ready to lend a helping hand and admit mistakes.

Cause of death and memory

In the spring of 1955, during a walk, Einstein and his friend had a simple conversation about life and death, during which the 76-year-old scientist said that death is also a relief.

On April 13, Albert’s condition worsened sharply: doctors diagnosed an aortic aneurysm, but the scientist refused to operate. Albert was in the hospital, where he suddenly became ill. He whispered words in his native language, but the nurse could not understand them. The woman approached the patient’s bed, but Einstein had already died from a hemorrhage in the abdominal cavity on April 18, 1955. All his friends spoke of him as a meek and very kind person. This was a bitter loss for the entire scientific world.

Quotes

Quotes from the physicist about philosophy and life are a subject for separate discussion. Einstein formed his own and independent view of life, which more than one generation agrees with.

• There are only two ways to live life. The first is as if miracles do not exist. The second one is like there are only miracles all around.
• If you want to lead happy life, you should be attached to the goal, not to people or things.
• Logic can take you from point A to point B, and imagination can take you anywhere...
• If the theory of relativity is confirmed, the Germans will say that I am a German, and the French will say that I am a citizen of the world; but if my theory is refuted, the French will declare me a German, and the Germans a Jew.
• If a cluttered desk means a cluttered mind, then what does an empty desk mean?
• People cause me seasickness, not the sea. But I'm afraid science has not yet found a cure for this disease.
• Education is what remains after everything learned at school is forgotten.
• We are all geniuses. But if you judge a fish by its ability to climb a tree, it will live its whole life thinking it is stupid.
• The only thing that prevents me from studying is the education I received.
• Strive not to achieve success, but to ensure that your life has meaning.

Hans Albert Einstein is the second son of one of the greatest physicists of the first half of the twentieth century - Albert Einstein, who radically changed the understanding of science about the Universe.

Father

Albert Einstein was born on March 15, 1879 into a Jewish family living at that time in the small German town of Ulm. He was owned by a company that stuffed pillows and mattresses with feathers. Albert's mother was the daughter of a famous maize seller in the town.

In 1880, Einstein's family moved to Munich. Here Albert's father, together with his brother Jacob, opened a small business selling electrical equipment. In Munich, Albert's sister Maria was born. In the same city, the boy went to school for the first time. It was attended by Catholic children. According to the scientist’s recollections, at the age of 13 he abandoned his religious beliefs and joined science. Everything that was said in the Bible no longer seemed plausible to him. He began to develop as a person who was skeptical of everything, including authorities.

The most vivid impressions of childhood, which remained with Albert for the rest of his life, were the compass and Euclid’s work “Principles”.

His mother insisted that the future Nobel laureate study music. Albert began playing the violin and became interested in it. The passion for music remained with him throughout his life. Already in his mature years, while in the USA, the scientist even gave a concert to emigrants who came from Germany. He performed a Mozart composition on the violin.

In 1894, the Einstein family moved to the small town of Pavia near Milan. Our own production was also moved here from Munich.

In 1895, the future scientist came to Switzerland. In this country, he wanted to go to school to become a physics teacher. However, Albert failed his botany tests. Then the young genius went to study at a school in the town of Aarau. Here he became interested in studying Maxwell's electromagnetic theory.

The next place of study of the future Nobel laureate was the Polytechnic of Zurich. Here he met the mathematician Grossman. Here he also met his future wife, Mileva Maric.

Albert Einstein received a diploma from the Polytechnic in 1900, but could not find a permanent job in his specialty. In order to survive and feed his family, the future Nobel laureate had to become an employee of a patent agency. In his free time, he never stopped studying scientific problems.

In 1903, Albert's father died. In the same year, he legalized his relationship with Mileva Maric.

Hitler's rise to power forced Albert to leave Germany. He moved to America, where he became a professor. He died in 1955. The cause of his death was an aortic aneurysm.

Mother

Mileva Maric is the first wife of Albert Einstein. She was of Serbian nationality, born in Hungary. This is the only girl who studied at the Zurich Polytechnic School.

Mileva Maric was three and a half years older than Albert Einstein. However, this did not stop their love. Soon after they met, the young people began to live in a civil marriage. For the people around them, such an alliance seemed somewhat strange. After all, young Einstein was distinguished by amazing charm, attractiveness and ease of communication. In contrast, Mileva was ugly. Her short figure was spoiled by stoop and lameness, which arose after suffering bone tuberculosis. But at the same time, Mileva was a very talented mathematician and had a deep intellect. And the lack of excessive respect for various authorities in her character finally brought her closer to Albert.

In addition, the young people both loved music and good food. It is also important that Mileva was an excellent hostess. It is quite possible that Einstein subconsciously sought a woman who could relieve him of the burden of everyday problems. After all, according to the recollections of friends, as a student, Albert was unable to concentrate on everyday worries. Mileva, in contrast, was a practical person, which reminded Einstein of his mother.

Hans's parents' wedding

Einstein did not hide his civil marriage. His parents also knew about him. But they did not give their son permission to get married. Albert's mother considered Mileva repulsive and ugly, and his father wanted only a girl of Jewish nationality as his daughter-in-law.

Everything changed after Herman Einstein became terminally ill. Saying goodbye to his son, he still blessed his marriage. And on January 6, 1903, the young couple became husband and wife, legitimizing their relationship in Bern.

First child

Hans Albert Einstein never saw his sister. She was born in 1902, when her parents were in a civil marriage. An illegitimate child could spoil scientific career young genius. And therefore, being pregnant, Mileva went to her parents. Here in Hungary she gave birth to a daughter, Lieserl. To ensure that no one found out about the illegitimate baby, the girl was immediately given to foster parents to raise.

Mileva pledged to never look for her daughter or meet with her. According to some reports, the girl did not live very long. While still a baby, she fell ill with fulminant scarlet fever and died. Einstein never saw his daughter and never told anyone about her.

Son of a genius

On May 14, 1904, Hans was born as a boy and began in Bern. His happy father rushed through the streets of this city, who, having learned about the birth of his son, ran as fast as he could to kiss his wife and baby.

Einstein's first son was very loved by his parents. According to the recollections of the great scientist’s friends, they often saw Albert, who in one hand held sheets of work covered with writing along and across, and with the other, rocked a stroller with a sleeping baby.

The fate of the second son

In 1910, another boy was born into the Einstein family - Edward. He had excellent musical abilities. However, the scientist’s second son was very sickly, and at the age of 20, after suffering a nervous breakdown, he was diagnosed with schizophrenia. At one time, Edward Einstein was under the care of his mother. But a little later, Mileva placed her son in a psychiatric hospital.

Albert Einstein, who by this time had already divorced his wife, was not at all surprised by the illness of his son, who was affectionately called “Tetel” or “Tete.” The fact is that Mileva’s sister suffered from schizophrenia. Eduard Einstein also often behaved in such a way that clearly indicated the presence of the disease in him too. However, the eldest son of the great scientist had a slightly different opinion. Hans Albert Einstein believed that the final destruction of his brother’s psyche occurred due to the popular treatment using electric shock at that time.

Albert Einstein moved to the USA a year after his Tete was admitted to a psychiatric hospital. And from then on, communication with his sons was limited only to letters. His father sent rare but very sincere messages to Edward. In one of them, for example, the scientist compared people to the sea, saying that they can be either friendly and welcoming or complex and stormy.

After the death of his mother in 1948, Edward Einstein was in a village near Zurich, where he was under the care of Dr. Heinrich Miley. Tete lived with a local pastor and gradually began to make contact with people. Edward even began to earn extra money by writing addresses on envelopes on instructions from one of the local companies.

However, after some time, the guardian moved his ward to the widow of a lawyer who lived on the outskirts of Zurich. It made it worse mental condition Edward. In 1954, the great scientist refused all contacts with youngest son. He explained his action by the belief that the correspondence was painful for both.

In 1965, Edward died. According to one of the researchers, he was ruined by his love for his neighbors, which turned out to be an unbearable burden for him.

Divorce of parents

Since 1912, relations between Albert and Mileva became more than tense. The reason for this was the scientist’s passion for his cousin Elsa Leventhal. In 1914, Maric left with her children for Zurich, having received from her husband an obligation certified by a notary for annual family support in the amount of 5,600 Reichsmarks. The couple filed an official divorce on February 14, 1919.

An agreement was concluded between Einstein and Maric. It provided for the transfer to the ex-wife of the monetary portion of the Nobel Prize expected by the scientist. Financial resources, which Albert Einstein would have received, the children were to take into their trust. Maric was left to receive interest.

Life after parents' divorce

In June 1919, the scientist arrived in Zurich, where he spent time with his children. Albert Einstein's son Hans went with his father on a sailing trip on Lake Constance, and with Eduard the great naturalist visited Arosa, where the boy was treated at a sanatorium.

Mileva and her sons lived in extremely cramped circumstances. However, in 1922, after her ex-husband received the Nobel Prize, she purchased three houses in Zurich. Maric moved to live in one of them with her sons, and the other two served as long-term investments. However, everything changed after Edward was given a terrible diagnosis. Mileva had to sell two houses. All funds went to pay for his son’s treatment at the University Hospital of Zurich. In order not to lose the main house, the woman transferred the rights to its ownership to her ex-husband, who fulfilled his obligations to transfer funds to support the former family.

Career of the eldest son of the great scientist

Hans Albert Einstein decided to follow in the footsteps of his parents. To do this, he received a diploma from the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, located in Zurich, from which he completed his studies in 1926. Then, for four years, he worked as a designer on a project for a bridge being built in Dortmund. Already in 1936, Hans Albert defended his doctoral dissertation, receiving an academic degree for it.

Emigration

After Albert Einstein left Germany to escape an anti-Semitic threat, he advised his eldest son to do the same. In 1938, Hans Albert Einstein left Switzerland and moved to Greenville, South Carolina. Here he worked as a hydraulic engineer in the Department Agriculture USA. His responsibilities included studying sediments. Work in the Department lasted from 1938 to 1943.

Since 1947, Hans Albert Einstein has been an associate professor at the California University of Hydraulics at Berkeley. But his career did not end there. Somewhat later, he became an honorary professor at the same university.

Being a highly qualified specialist in his field, Hans Albert traveled extensively around the world. He constantly took part in hydraulic engineering conferences at various levels even after 1971, when he had already retired. Hans Albert Einstein was at one of these symposia in Woodshole (Massachusetts) in 1973, where he died of a heart attack on July 26.

Awards

For his work in the field of hydraulics and the study of bottom sediments, Hans Albert was awarded:

Guggenheim Fellowships (in 1953);

Scientific awards from the American Society of Civil Engineers (1959 and 1960);

Certificate of Merit from the US Department of Agriculture (in 1971);

Reward University of California(in 1971);

Certificate of recognition for more than 20 years of distinguished and dedicated service from the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (in 1972).

Personal life

After his parents' divorce, Hans Albert's relationship with his father became more than strained. The son accused the great scientist of putting Mileva in an extremely difficult financial situation by giving her only interest from the Nobel Prize she received.

The differences between son and father became even deeper after the great scientist opposed Hans' marriage to Freda Knecht. The girl was three years older than the guy. Moreover, according to Einstein Sr., there was nothing attractive about her. The scientist cursed such a union, accusing Frida of treachery and persecution of his son. After unsuccessful attempts to quarrel between the young people, Albert Einstein began to beg them not to have children, so as not to complicate, in his opinion, the inevitable divorce.

Reconciliation between father and son did not occur even during their life in the USA. They were always apart. After the death of the great scientist, his son was left with practically nothing as an inheritance.

Despite the quarrel with his father, Hans Albert Einstein still married Frieda Knecht in 1927. His personal life was successful. He was together with this woman until her death in 1958. Having been widowed, he married again. His wife was Elizabeth Roboz.

Hans and Frida had three children of their own. However, only one of them survived to adulthood. Bernhard Caesar Einstein (07/10/1930 - 09/30/2008) was a physicist engineer. The couple also had an adopted daughter, Evelyn. She died in 2011 in extreme poverty.

Hans Albert was an avid sailor. He often went on excursions to San Francisco with his colleagues and his family. The son of the great scientist was interested in photography. He also gave his scientific lectures using a slide show he created with his own hands. Just like his father, Hans loved music and knew how to play the flute and piano. This is mentioned on his tombstone.

Albert Einstein is a great German theoretical physicist who made a huge contribution to the development of physics and was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1921. His legacy includes more than 300 works on physics, 150 books, several theories that were of great importance for modern science.

early years

The future great physicist was born into an ordinary Jewish family in southern Germany in 1879. Having moved to Munich, Albert began studying at a local Catholic school. At the age of 12, he realized that what is written in the Bible cannot be true, science cannot confirm it. From an early age he began to play the violin, and he had this love of music throughout his life.
In 1895, he tried to enter the Technical School, passed mathematics brilliantly, but failed botany and French. The following year, he nevertheless entered the school at the pedagogical faculty.

Scientific activity

In 1900, Albert Einstein graduated from college and received a diploma as a teacher of physics and mathematics. The following year, he received Swiss citizenship, finally raising the required amount. But then he had serious problems with money and even had to go hungry for several days, which hit his liver hard, from which he suffered for the rest of his life.
But despite this, he continued to study physics, and in 1901 his first article was published. But in 1902 he was helped to find an excellent job with a salary of 3,500 francs a year, that is, a little less than 300 francs a month.
In January 1903, Einstein married a girl he had met while studying. 1905 became a year of revolution for all of science and for Einstein himself. This year, three of his articles were published, making an immense contribution to science. These are the theory of relativity, quantum theory and Brownian motion.
These works brought him worldwide fame, and the following year he received a doctorate in physics. In 1911, he headed the department of physics at the German University. In 1913 he became a professor at the prestigious University of Berlin. In 1919 he divorced his wife.
In 1922 he received the Nobel Prize. It is interesting that he had been nominated for it several times before, almost from the beginning of his scientific career, except for a couple of years.
Albert Einstein also traveled around the world and gave lectures at the most famous universities. Because of Nazism in Germany, the great physicist left his country forever and received citizenship in the United States. Almost instantly he became one of the most famous people in this country.
The scientist always advocated peace and was an ardent opponent of any manifestations of violence, especially war. Einstein himself, as a person, was very kind, friendly, always joyfully communicated with all his fans, answered all letters, even children's.
It is interesting that, being a very rich man, he never bought himself a TV or a car.
He opposed most vehemently nuclear war and even in his last letter he begged all his friends to prevent the possibility of its beginning. In 1955, his health deteriorated greatly, at which time he wrote that his role on Earth was completed.
The great physicist died on April 18, 1955. Before his death, he refused a magnificent funeral; his ashes were scattered among twelve friends.

Biography

Albert Einstein (German: Albert Einstein, IPA [ˈalbɐt ˈaɪ̯nʃtaɪ̯n] (i); March 14, 1879, Ulm, Württemberg, Germany - April 18, 1955, Princeton, New Jersey, USA) - theoretical physicist, one of the founders of modern theoretical physics , winner of the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics, public figure and humanist. Lived in Germany (1879-1893, 1914-1933), Switzerland (1893-1914) and the USA (1933-1955). Honorary doctor of about 20 leading universities in the world, member of many Academies of Sciences, including foreign honorary member of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1926).

(1905).
Within its framework is the law of the relationship between mass and energy: E=mc^2.
General theory of relativity (1907-1916).
Quantum theory of the photoelectric effect.
Quantum theory of heat capacity.
Quantum statistics of Bose - Einstein.
Statistical theory of Brownian motion, which laid the foundations of the theory of fluctuations.
Theory of stimulated emission.
Theory of light scattering by thermodynamic fluctuations in a medium.

He also predicted "quantum teleportation" and predicted and measured the Einstein-de Haas gyromagnetic effect. Since 1933, he worked on problems of cosmology and unified field theory. He actively opposed war, against the use of nuclear weapons, for humanism, respect for human rights, and mutual understanding between peoples.

Einstein played a decisive role in popularizing and introducing new physical concepts and theories into scientific circulation. First of all, this relates to a revision of the understanding of the physical essence of space and time and to the construction of a new theory of gravity to replace the Newtonian one. Einstein also, together with Planck, laid the foundations of quantum theory. These concepts, repeatedly confirmed by experiments, form the foundation of modern physics.

early years

Albert Einstein was born on March 14, 1879 in the southern German city of Ulm, into a poor Jewish family.

Father, Hermann Einstein (1847-1902), was at that time a co-owner of a small enterprise producing feather stuffing for mattresses and feather beds. Mother, Pauline Einstein (née Koch, 1858-1920), came from the family of wealthy corn merchant Julius Derzbacher (he changed his surname to Koch in 1842) and Yetta Bernheimer. In the summer of 1880, the family moved to Munich, where Hermann Einstein, together with his brother Jacob, founded a small trading company electrical equipment. Born in Munich younger sister Alberta Maria (Maya, 1881-1951).

Elementary education Albert Einstein received from a local Catholic school. According to his own recollections, as a child he experienced a state of deep religiosity, which ended at the age of 12. Through reading popular science books, he became convinced that much of what is stated in the Bible cannot be true, and the state is deliberately deceiving the younger generation. All this made him a freethinker and forever gave rise to a skeptical attitude towards authorities. Of his childhood experiences, Einstein later recalled as the most powerful: the compass, Euclid's Principia, and (around 1889) Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason. In addition, on the initiative of his mother, he began playing the violin at the age of six. Einstein's passion for music continued throughout his life. Already in the USA in Princeton, in 1934 Albert Einstein gave a charity concert, where he performed Mozart’s works on the violin for the benefit of scientists and cultural figures who emigrated from Nazi Germany.

At the gymnasium (now the Albert Einstein Gymnasium in Munich) he was not among the first students (with the exception of mathematics and Latin). Albert Einstein was disgusted by Albert Einstein's deep-rooted system of rote learning (which he later said was detrimental to the spirit of learning and creative thinking), as well as the authoritarian attitude of teachers towards students, and he often got into arguments with his teachers.

In 1894, the Einsteins moved from Munich to the Italian city of Pavia, near Milan, where the brothers Hermann and Jacob moved their company. Albert himself remained with relatives in Munich for some more time to complete all six classes of the gymnasium. Having never received his matriculation certificate, he joined his family in Pavia in 1895.

In the fall of 1895, Albert Einstein arrived in Switzerland to take the entrance exams to the Higher Technical School (Polytechnic) in Zurich and, upon graduation, become a physics teacher. Having shown himself brilliantly in the mathematics exam, he at the same time failed the exams in botany and French, which did not allow him to enter the Zurich Polytechnic. However, the school director advised young man enter the final year of school in Aarau (Switzerland) to receive a certificate and repeat admission.

At the cantonal school of Aarau, Albert Einstein devoted his free time to studying Maxwell's electromagnetic theory. In September 1896, he successfully passed all final exams at school, with the exception of the French language exam, and received a certificate, and in October 1896 he was admitted to the Polytechnic at the Faculty of Pedagogy. Here he became friends with a fellow student, mathematician Marcel Grossman (1878-1936), and also met a Serbian medical student, Mileva Maric (4 years older than him), who later became his wife. That same year, Einstein renounced his German citizenship. To obtain Swiss citizenship, it was necessary to pay 1000 Swiss francs, but the disastrous financial situation his family allowed him to do this only 5 years later. This year, his father’s enterprise finally went bankrupt; Einstein’s parents moved to Milan, where Herman Einstein, already without his brother, opened a company selling electrical equipment.

The teaching style and methodology at the Polytechnic differed significantly from the ossified and authoritarian German school, so further education was easier for the young man. He had first-class teachers, including the wonderful geometer Hermann Minkowski (Einstein often missed his lectures, which he later sincerely regretted) and the analyst Adolf Hurwitz.

Beginning of scientific activity

In 1900, Einstein graduated from the Polytechnic with a diploma in teaching mathematics and physics. He passed the exams successfully, but not brilliantly. Many professors highly appreciated the abilities of the student Einstein, but no one wanted to help him continue his scientific career. Einstein himself later recalled:

I was bullied by my professors, who did not like me because of my independence and closed my path to science.

Although the following year, 1901, Einstein received Swiss citizenship, he could not find a permanent place of work until the spring of 1902 - even school teacher. Due to lack of income, he literally starved, not eating for several days in a row. This became the cause of liver disease, from which the scientist suffered for the rest of his life.

Despite the hardships that plagued him in 1900-1902, Einstein found time to further study physics. In 1901, the Berlin Annals of Physics published his first article, “Consequences of the theory of capillarity” (Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen), devoted to the analysis of the forces of attraction between atoms of liquids based on the theory of capillarity.

Former classmate Marcel Grossman helped overcome the difficulties, recommending Einstein for the position of third-class expert at the Federal Patent Office for Inventions (Bern) with a salary of 3,500 francs per year (during his student years he lived on 100 francs per month).

Einstein worked at the Patent Office from July 1902 to October 1909, working primarily expert assessment applications for inventions. In 1903 he became a permanent employee of the Bureau. The nature of the work allowed Einstein to devote his free time to research in the field of theoretical physics.

In October 1902, Einstein received news from Italy of his father's illness; Hermann Einstein died a few days after his son's arrival.

On January 6, 1903, Einstein married twenty-seven-year-old Mileva Maric. They had three children.

Since 1904, Einstein collaborated with Germany's leading physics journal, the Annals of Physics, providing abstracts of new papers on thermodynamics for its abstract supplement. Probably, the authority this acquired in the editorial office contributed to his own publications in 1905.

1905 - “Year of Miracles”

The year 1905 went down in the history of physics as the “Year of Miracles” (Latin: Annus Mirabilis). This year, the Annals of Physics published three outstanding papers by Einstein that marked the beginning of a new scientific revolution:

“Towards the electrodynamics of moving bodies” (German: Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper). The theory of relativity begins with this article. “On a heuristic point of view concerning the origin and transformation of light” (German: Über einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichts betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt). One of the works that laid the foundation for quantum theory. “On the motion of particles suspended in a fluid at rest, required by the molecular kinetic theory of heat” (German: Über die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen) - a work devoted to Brownian motion and which significantly advanced statistical physics. Einstein was often asked the question: how did he create the theory of relativity? Half jokingly, half seriously, he answered:

Why did I create the theory of relativity? When I ask myself this question, it seems to me that the reason is as follows. A normal adult does not think about the problem of space and time at all. In his opinion, he had already thought about this problem in childhood. I developed intellectually so slowly that space and time were occupied by my thoughts when I became an adult. Naturally, I could penetrate deeper into the problem than a child with normal inclinations.

Special theory of relativity

Throughout the 19th century, a hypothetical medium, the ether, was considered the material carrier of electromagnetic phenomena. However, by the beginning of the 20th century, it became clear that the properties of this medium are difficult to reconcile with classical physics. On the one hand, the aberration of light suggested the idea that the ether is absolutely motionless, on the other hand, Fizeau’s experiment testified in favor of the hypothesis that the ether is partially carried away by moving matter. Michelson's experiments (1881), however, showed that no “ethereal wind” exists.

In 1892, Lorentz and (independently) George Francis Fitzgerald suggested that the ether is motionless, and the length of any body contracts in the direction of its movement. However, the question remained open as to why the length was reduced in exactly such proportion as to compensate for the “etheric wind” and prevent the existence of the ether from being discovered. At the same time, the question was studied under what coordinate transformations Maxwell's equations are invariant. The correct formulas were first written down by Larmore (1900) and Poincaré (1905), the latter proved their group properties and proposed calling them Lorentz transformations.

Poincaré also gave a generalized formulation of the principle of relativity, which also covered electrodynamics. Nevertheless, he continued to recognize the ether, although he was of the opinion that it would never be discovered. In a report at the physics congress (1900), Poincaré first expressed the idea that the simultaneity of events is not absolute, but represents a conditional agreement (“convention”). It was also suggested that the speed of light is limiting. Thus, at the beginning of the 20th century, there were two incompatible kinematics: classical, with Galilean transformations, and electromagnetic, with Lorentz transformations.

Einstein, thinking on these topics largely independently, suggested that the first is an approximate case of the second for low speeds, and that what was considered the properties of the ether is in fact a manifestation of the objective properties of space and time. Einstein came to the conclusion that it was absurd to invoke the concept of the ether only to prove the impossibility of observing it, and that the root of the problem lay not in dynamics, but deeper - in kinematics. In the above-mentioned seminal article “On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies,” he proposed two postulates: the universal principle of relativity and the constancy of the speed of light; from them one can easily derive the Lorentz contraction, Lorentz transformation formulas, the relativity of simultaneity, the uselessness of the ether, a new formula for adding velocities, the increase of inertia with speed, etc. In another of his articles, which was published at the end of the year, the formula E=mc^ appeared 2, defining the relationship between mass and energy.

Some scientists immediately accepted this theory, which later became known as the “special theory of relativity” (STR); Planck (1906) and Einstein himself (1907) built relativistic dynamics and thermodynamics. Einstein's former teacher, Minkowski, in 1907 presented a mathematical model of the kinematics of the theory of relativity in the form of the geometry of a four-dimensional non-Euclidean world and developed the theory of invariants of this world (the first results in this direction were published by Poincaré in 1905).

However, many scientists considered the “new physics” too revolutionary. She abolished the ether, absolute space and absolute time, revised Newtonian mechanics, which served as the basis of physics for 200 years and was invariably confirmed by observations. Time in the theory of relativity flows differently in different systems reference, inertia and length depend on speed, movement faster than light is impossible, the “twin paradox” arises - all these unusual consequences were unacceptable to the conservative part of the scientific community. The matter was also complicated by the fact that STR did not initially predict any new observable effects, and the experiments of Walter Kaufmann (1905-1909) were interpreted by many as a refutation of the cornerstone of SRT - the principle of relativity (this aspect was finally clarified in favor of STR only in 1914-1916). Some physicists tried to develop alternative theories after 1905 (for example, Ritz in 1908), but later it became clear that these theories were irreparably inconsistent with experiment.

Many prominent physicists remained faithful to classical mechanics and the concept of the ether, among them Lorentz, J. J. Thomson, Lenard, Lodge, Nernst, Wien. At the same time, some of them (for example, Lorentz himself) did not reject the results of the special theory of relativity, but interpreted them in the spirit of Lorentz’s theory, preferring to look at the space-time concept of Einstein-Minkowski as a purely mathematical technique.

The decisive argument in favor of the truth of STR was the experiments to test the General Theory of Relativity (see below). Over time, experimental confirmation of the SRT itself gradually accumulated. Quantum field theory, the theory of accelerators are based on it, it is taken into account in the design and operation of satellite navigation systems (even corrections to the general theory of relativity were needed here), etc.

Quantum theory

To resolve the problem that went down in history as the “Ultraviolet catastrophe” and correspondingly reconcile theory with experiment, Max Planck suggested (1900) that the emission of light by a substance occurs discretely (indivisible portions), and the energy of the emitted portion depends on the frequency of the light. For some time, even its author himself considered this hypothesis as a conventional mathematical technique, but Einstein, in the second of the above-mentioned articles, proposed a far-reaching generalization of it and successfully applied it to explain the properties of the photoelectric effect. Einstein put forward the thesis that not only radiation, but also the propagation and absorption of light are discrete; Later these portions (quanta) were called photons. This thesis allowed him to explain two mysteries of the photoelectric effect: why the photocurrent did not arise at any frequency of light, but only starting from a certain threshold, depending only on the type of metal, and the energy and speed of the emitted electrons depended not on the intensity of the light, but only on its frequency. Einstein's theory of the photoelectric effect corresponded with experimental data with high accuracy, which was later confirmed by Millikan's experiments (1916).

Initially, these views met with misunderstanding by most physicists; even Planck and Einstein had to be convinced of the reality of quanta. Gradually, however, experimental data accumulated that convinced skeptics of the discrete nature of electromagnetic energy. The final point in the debate was the Compton effect (1923).

In 1907, Einstein published the quantum theory of heat capacity (an old theory at low temperatures strongly disagreed with the experiment). Later (1912) Debye, Born and Karman refined Einstein's theory of heat capacity, and excellent agreement with experiment was achieved.

Brownian motion

In 1827, Robert Brown observed under a microscope and subsequently described the chaotic movement of flower pollen floating in water. Einstein, based on molecular theory, developed a statistical and mathematical model of such movement. Based on his diffusion model, it was possible, among other things, to estimate with good accuracy the size of molecules and their number per unit volume. At the same time, Smoluchowski, whose article was published several months later than Einstein, came to similar conclusions. Einstein presented his work on statistical mechanics, entitled “A New Determination of the Size of Molecules,” to the Polytechnic as a dissertation and in the same 1905 received the title of Doctor of Philosophy (equivalent to a candidate of natural sciences) in physics. The following year, Einstein developed his theory in a new article, “Toward the Theory of Brownian Motion,” and subsequently returned to this topic several times.

Soon (1908), Perrin's measurements completely confirmed the adequacy of Einstein's model, which became the first experimental proof of the molecular kinetic theory, which was subject to active attacks from positivists in those years.

Max Born wrote (1949): “I think that these studies of Einstein, more than all other works, convince physicists of the reality of atoms and molecules, of the validity of the theory of heat and the fundamental role of probability in the laws of nature.” Einstein's work on statistical physics is cited even more often than his work on relativity. The formula he derived for the diffusion coefficient and its relationship with the dispersion of coordinates turned out to be applicable in the most general class of problems: Markov diffusion processes, electrodynamics, etc.

Later, in the article “Toward the Quantum Theory of Radiation” (1917), Einstein, based on statistical considerations, first suggested the existence of a new type of radiation occurring under the influence of external electromagnetic field(“induced emission”). In the early 1950s, a method of amplifying light and radio waves based on the use of stimulated radiation was proposed, and in subsequent years it formed the basis of the theory of lasers.

Bern - Zurich - Prague - Zurich - Berlin (1905-1914)

The work of 1905 brought Einstein, although not immediately, worldwide fame. On April 30, 1905, he sent the text of his doctoral dissertation on the topic “A New Determination of the Size of Molecules” to the University of Zurich. The reviewers were Professors Kleiner and Burkhard. On January 15, 1906, he received his doctorate in physics. He corresponds and meets with the most famous physicists in the world, and Planck in Berlin includes the theory of relativity in his curriculum. In letters he is called “Mr. Professor,” but for another four years (until October 1909) Einstein continued to serve in the Patent Office; in 1906 he was promoted (he became an expert of class II) and his salary was increased. In October 1908, Einstein was invited to read an elective course at the University of Bern, but without any payment. In 1909, he attended a congress of naturalists in Salzburg, where the elite of German physics gathered, and met Planck for the first time; Over the course of 3 years of correspondence, they quickly became close friends and maintained this friendship until the end of their lives.

After the congress, Einstein finally received a paid position as extraordinary professor at the University of Zurich (December 1909), where his old friend Marcel Grossmann taught geometry. The pay was small, especially for a family with two children, and in 1911 Einstein without hesitation accepted an invitation to head the department of physics at the German University in Prague. During this period, Einstein continued to publish a series of papers on thermodynamics, relativity and quantum theory. In Prague, he intensifies research on the theory of gravity, setting the goal of creating a relativistic theory of gravity and fulfilling the long-standing dream of physicists - to exclude Newtonian long-range action from this area.

In 1911, Einstein participated in the First Solvay Congress (Brussels), dedicated to quantum physics. There his only meeting took place with Poincaré, who continued to reject the theory of relativity, although he personally had great respect for Einstein.

A year later, Einstein returned to Zurich, where he became a professor at his native Polytechnic and lectured there on physics. In 1913, he attended the Congress of Naturalists in Vienna, visiting 75-year-old Ernst Mach there; Once upon a time, Mach's criticism of Newtonian mechanics made a huge impression on Einstein and ideologically prepared him for the innovations of the theory of relativity.

At the end of 1913, on the recommendation of Planck and Nernst, Einstein received an invitation to head the physics research institute being created in Berlin; He is also enrolled as a professor at the University of Berlin. In addition to being close to his friend Planck, this position had the advantage that it did not oblige him to be distracted by teaching. He accepted the invitation, and in the pre-war year 1914, the convinced pacifist Einstein arrived in Berlin. Mileva and her children remained in Zurich; their family broke up. In February 1919 they officially divorced.

Citizenship of Switzerland, a neutral country, helped Einstein withstand militaristic pressure after the outbreak of war. He did not sign any “patriotic” appeals; on the contrary, in collaboration with the physiologist Georg Friedrich Nicolai, he compiled the anti-war “Appeal to the Europeans” as a counterweight to the chauvinistic manifesto of the 1993s, and in a letter to Romain Rolland he wrote:

Will future generations thank our Europe, in which three centuries of the most intense cultural work only led to the fact that religious madness was replaced by nationalistic madness? Even scientists from different countries behave as if their brains were amputated.

General Relativity (1915)

Descartes also announced that all processes in the Universe are explained by the local interaction of one type of matter with another, and from the point of view of science, this thesis of short-range interaction was natural. However, Newton's theory of universal gravitation sharply contradicted the thesis of short-range action - in it the force of attraction was transmitted incomprehensibly through completely empty space, and infinitely quickly. Essentially, Newton's model was purely mathematical, without any physical content. Over the course of two centuries, attempts were made to correct the situation and get rid of the mystical long-range action, to fill the theory of gravitation with real physical content - especially since after Maxwell, gravity remained the only refuge of long-range action in physics. The situation became especially unsatisfactory after the approval of the special theory of relativity, since Newton's theory was incompatible with Lorentz transformations. However, before Einstein, no one managed to correct the situation.

Einstein's main idea was simple: the material carrier of gravity is space itself (more precisely, space-time). The fact that gravity can be considered as a manifestation of the properties of the geometry of four-dimensional non-Euclidean space, without involving additional concepts, is a consequence of the fact that all bodies in the gravitational field receive the same acceleration (“Einstein’s principle of equivalence”). Four-dimensional space-time with this approach turns out to be not a “flat and indifferent stage” for material processes, it has physical attributes, and first of all, metric and curvature, which influence these processes and themselves depend on them. If the special theory of relativity is a theory of uncurved space, then the general theory of relativity, as conceived by Einstein, should have considered more general case, space-time with a variable metric (pseudo-Riemannian manifold). The reason for the curvature of space-time is the presence of matter, and the greater its energy, the stronger the curvature. Newton’s theory of gravity is an approximation of the new theory, which is obtained if we take into account only the “curvature of time,” that is, the change in the time component of the metric (the space in this approximation is Euclidean). The propagation of gravitational disturbances, that is, changes in the metric during the movement of gravitating masses, occurs at a finite speed. From this moment on, long-range action disappears from physics.

The mathematical formulation of these ideas was quite labor-intensive and took several years (1907-1915). Einstein had to master tensor analysis and create its four-dimensional pseudo-Riemannian generalization; consultations and collaboration first with Marcel Grossman, who became a co-author of Einstein’s first papers on the tensor theory of gravity, and then with the “king of mathematicians” of those years, David Hilbert. In 1915, the field equations of Einstein's general theory of relativity (GR), generalizing Newton's, were published almost simultaneously in papers by Einstein and Hilbert.

The new theory of gravity predicted two previously unknown physical effects, fully confirmed by observations, and also accurately and completely explained the secular shift of Mercury's perihelion, which had long puzzled astronomers. After this, the theory of relativity became an almost universally accepted foundation of modern physics. In addition to astrophysics, general relativity has found practical application, as mentioned above, in global positioning systems (Global Positioning Systems, GPS), where coordinate calculations are made with very significant relativistic corrections.

Berlin (1915-1921)

In 1915, in a conversation with the Dutch physicist Vander de Haas, Einstein proposed a scheme and calculation of the experiment, which, after successful implementation, was called the “Einstein-de Haas effect.” The result of the experiment inspired Niels Bohr, who two years earlier had created a planetary model of the atom, since it confirmed that circular electron currents exist inside atoms, and electrons in their orbits do not emit. It was these provisions that Bohr based his model on. In addition, it was discovered that the total magnetic moment was twice as large as expected; the reason for this became clear when spin, the electron's own angular momentum, was discovered.

After the end of the war, Einstein continued to work in the previous areas of physics, and also worked on new areas - relativistic cosmology and the “Unified Field Theory”, which, according to his plan, was supposed to combine gravity, electromagnetism and (preferably) the theory of the microworld. The first paper on cosmology, "Cosmological Considerations on the General Theory of Relativity", appeared in 1917. After this, Einstein experienced a mysterious “invasion of diseases” - in addition to serious problems with the liver, a stomach ulcer was discovered, then jaundice and general weakness. He did not get out of bed for several months, but continued to work actively. Only in 1920 did the diseases recede.

In June 1919, Einstein married his cousin on his mother's side Else Löwenthal (née Einstein) and adopted her two children. At the end of the year, his seriously ill mother Paulina moved in with them; she died in February 1920. Judging by the letters, Einstein took her death seriously.

In the autumn of 1919, the English expedition of Arthur Eddington, at the moment of an eclipse, recorded the deflection of light predicted by Einstein in the gravitational field of the Sun. Moreover, the measured value corresponded not to Newton’s, but to Einstein’s law of gravity. The sensational news was reprinted in newspapers throughout Europe, although the essence of the new theory was most often presented in a shamelessly distorted form. Einstein's fame reached unprecedented heights.

In May 1920, Einstein, along with other members of the Berlin Academy of Sciences, was sworn in as a civil servant and legally considered a German citizen. However, he retained Swiss citizenship until the end of his life. In the 1920s, receiving invitations from everywhere, he traveled extensively throughout Europe (using a Swiss passport), giving lectures to scientists, students and the inquisitive public. He also visited the United States, where a special congratulatory resolution of Congress was adopted in honor of the eminent guest (1921). At the end of 1922, he visited India, where he had long contact with Tagore, and China. Einstein met the winter in Japan, where he was caught by the news that he had been awarded the Nobel Prize.

Nobel Prize (1922)

Einstein was repeatedly nominated for the Nobel Prize in Physics. The first such nomination (for the theory of relativity) took place, on the initiative of Wilhelm Ostwald, already in 1910, but the Nobel Committee considered the experimental evidence of the theory of relativity insufficient. Einstein's nomination was repeated every year thereafter, except in 1911 and 1915. Among the recommenders in different years There were such outstanding physicists as Lorentz, Planck, Bohr, Wien, Khvolson, de Haas, Laue, Zeeman, Kamerlingh Onnes, Hadamard, Eddington, Sommerfeld and Arrhenius.

However, members of the Nobel Committee for a long time did not dare to award the prize to the author of such revolutionary theories. In the end, a diplomatic solution was found: the 1921 prize was awarded to Einstein (in November 1922) for the theory of the photoelectric effect, that is, for the most indisputable and experimentally tested work; however, the text of the decision contained a neutral addition: “... and for other work in the field of theoretical physics.”

As I have already informed you by telegram, the Royal Academy of Sciences, at its meeting yesterday, decided to award you the Prize in Physics for the past year, thereby recognizing your work in theoretical physics, in particular the discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect, without taking into account your work on the theory of relativity and theories of gravity, which will be evaluated once they are confirmed in the future.

Since Einstein was away, the prize was accepted on his behalf on December 10, 1922 by Rudolf Nadolny, the German Ambassador to Sweden. Previously, he asked for confirmation whether Einstein was a citizen of Germany or Switzerland; The Prussian Academy of Sciences has officially certified that Einstein is a German subject, although his Swiss citizenship is also recognized as valid. Upon his return to Berlin, Einstein received the insignia accompanying the prize personally from the Swedish ambassador.

Naturally, Einstein dedicated his traditional Nobel speech (in July 1923) to the theory of relativity.

Berlin (1922-1933)

In 1923, completing his journey, Einstein spoke in Jerusalem, where it was planned to open the Hebrew University soon (1925).

In 1924, a young Indian physicist, Shatyendranath Bose, wrote to Einstein in a brief letter asking for help in publishing a paper in which he put forward the assumption that formed the basis of modern quantum statistics. Bose proposed to consider light as a gas of photons. Einstein came to the conclusion that the same statistics could be used for atoms and molecules in general. In 1925, Einstein published Bose's paper in a German translation, and then own article, in which he outlined a generalized Bose model applicable to systems of identical particles with integer spin, called bosons. Based on this quantum statistics, now known as Bose-Einstein statistics, both physicists theoretically substantiated the existence of the fifth in the mid-1920s state of aggregation substance - Bose - Einstein condensate.

The essence of the Bose-Einstein “condensate” is the transition large number particles of an ideal Bose gas into a state with zero momentum at temperatures approaching absolute zero, when the de Broglie wavelength of the thermal motion of particles and the average distance between these particles are reduced to the same order. Since 1995, when the first such condensate was obtained at the University of Colorado, scientists have practically proven the possibility of the existence of Bose-Einstein condensates made of hydrogen, lithium, sodium, rubidium and helium.

As a person of enormous and universal authority, Einstein was constantly involved in various kinds of political actions during these years, where he advocated social justice, internationalism and cooperation between countries (see below). In 1923, Einstein participated in the organization of the cultural relations society “Friends of the New Russia”. He repeatedly called for the disarmament and unification of Europe, and for the abolition of compulsory military service.

In 1928, Einstein conducted last way Lorenza, with whom he became very friendly in his last years. It was Lorentz who nominated Einstein for the Nobel Prize in 1920 and supported it the following year.

In 1929, the world noisily celebrated Einstein's 50th birthday. The hero of the day did not take part in the celebrations and hid in his villa near Potsdam, where he enthusiastically grew roses. Here he received friends - scientists, Tagore, Emmanuel Lasker, Charlie Chaplin and others.

In 1931, Einstein visited the USA again. In Pasadena he was very warmly received by Michelson, who had four months to live. Returning to Berlin in the summer, Einstein, in a speech to the Physical Society, paid tribute to the memory of the remarkable experimenter who laid the first stone of the foundation of the theory of relativity.

In addition to theoretical research, Einstein also owned several inventions, including:

very low voltage meter (together with Konrad Habicht);
a device that automatically determines exposure time when taking photographs;
original hearing aid;
silent refrigerator (shared with Szilard);
gyro-compass.

Until about 1926, Einstein worked in many areas of physics, from cosmological models to research into the causes of river meanders. Further, with rare exceptions, he focuses his efforts on quantum problems and the Unified Field Theory.

The establishment of Einstein's ideas (quantum theory and especially the theory of relativity) in the USSR was not easy. Some scientists, especially young scientists, perceived new ideas with interest and understanding; already in the 1920s, the first domestic works and textbooks on these topics appeared. However, there were physicists and philosophers who strongly opposed the concepts of the "new physics"; Among them, A.K. Timiryazev (son of the famous biologist K.A. Timiryazev), who criticized Einstein even before the revolution, was especially active. His articles in the magazines “Krasnaya Nov” (1921, No. 2) and “Under the Banner of Marxism” (1922, No. 4) were followed by Lenin’s critical remark:

If Timiryazev, in the first issue of the magazine, should have stipulated that the theory of Einstein, who himself, according to Timiryazev, does not lead any active campaign against the foundations of materialism, has already been seized upon by a huge mass of representatives of the bourgeois intelligentsia of all countries, then this applies not to Einstein alone, but to a number, if not most, of the great transformers of natural science since the end of the 19th century.

Also in 1922, Einstein was elected a foreign corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Nevertheless, during 1925-1926 Timiryazev published at least 10 anti-relativistic articles.

K. E. Tsiolkovsky also did not accept the theory of relativity, who rejected relativistic cosmology and the limitation on the speed of movement, which undermined Tsiolkovsky’s plans for populating space: “His second conclusion: the speed cannot exceed the speed of light... these are the same six days allegedly used to create peace." Nevertheless, towards the end of his life, Tsiolkovsky apparently softened his position, because at the turn of the 1920s and 1930s, in a number of works and interviews, he mentioned Einstein’s relativistic formula E=mc^2 without critical objections. However, Tsiolkovsky never came to terms with the impossibility of moving faster than light.

Although criticism of the theory of relativity among Soviet physicists ceased in the 1930s, the ideological struggle of a number of philosophers against the theory of relativity as “bourgeois obscurantism” continued and especially intensified after the removal of Nikolai Bukharin, whose influence had previously softened the ideological pressure on science. The next phase of the campaign began in 1950; it was probably connected with similar in spirit campaigns against genetics (Lysenkoism) and cybernetics of that time. Not long before (1948), the Gostekhizdat publishing house published a translation of the book “The Evolution of Physics” by Einstein and Infeld, equipped with an extensive preface entitled: “On ideological vices in the book “The Evolution of Physics” by A. Einstein and L. Infeld.” Two years later, the magazine “Soviet Book” published devastating criticism of both the book itself (for its “idealistic bias”) and the publishing house that published it (for its ideological mistake).

This article opened a whole avalanche of publications that were formally directed against Einstein’s philosophy, but at the same time they accused a number of major Soviet physicists of ideological mistakes - Ya. I. Frenkel, S. M. Rytov, L. I. Mandelstam and others. Soon, an article by M. M. Karpov, associate professor of the Department of Philosophy at Rostov State University, “On the Philosophical Views of Einstein” (1951) appeared in the journal “Questions of Philosophy,” where the scientist was accused of subjective idealism, disbelief in the infinity of the Universe and other concessions to religion. In 1952, an article by the prominent Soviet philosopher A. A. Maksimov was published, which condemned not only philosophy, but also Einstein personally, “for whom the bourgeois press created advertising for his numerous attacks on materialism, for promoting views that undermine the scientific worldview, emasculating ideologically science." Another prominent philosopher, I.V. Kuznetsov, during the 1952 campaign declared: “The interests of physical science urgently require deep criticism and decisive exposure of Einstein’s entire system of theoretical views.” However, the critical importance of the “atomic project” in those years, the authority and decisive position of the academic leadership prevented a defeat of Soviet physics similar to the one inflicted on geneticists. After Stalin's death, the anti-Einstein campaign was quickly curtailed, although a considerable number of “Einstein subverters” can still be found today.

Other myths

In 1962, a logic puzzle known as Einstein's Riddle was first published. This name was probably given to it for advertising purposes, because there is no evidence that Einstein had anything to do with this mystery. She is also not mentioned in any biography of Einstein.
IN famous biography Einstein claims that in 1915, Einstein allegedly participated in the design of a new model of military aircraft. This activity is difficult to reconcile with his pacifist beliefs. The investigation showed, however, that Einstein was simply discussing with a small aircraft company an idea in the field of aerodynamics - a catback wing (a hump on the top of the airfoil). The idea turned out to be unsuccessful and, as Einstein later put it, frivolous; however, a developed theory of flight did not yet exist.
Einstein is often mentioned among vegetarians. Although he supported the movement for many years, he only began following a strict vegetarian diet in 1954, about a year before his death.
There is an unsubstantiated legend that before his death, Einstein burned his last scientific papers, which contained a discovery that was potentially dangerous to humanity. This topic is often associated with the Philadelphia Experiment. The legend is often mentioned in various media; the film “The Last Equation” was based on it.

Family

Family tree of the Einstein family
Herman Einstein
Paulina Einstein (Koch)
Maya Einstein
Mileva Maric
Elsa Einstein
Hans Albert Einstein
Eduard Einstein
Lieserl Einstein
Bernard Sizer Einstein
Carl Einstein

Scientific activity

List scientific publications Albert Einstein
History of relativity
History of quantum mechanics
General theory of relativity
Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen paradox
Equivalence principle
Einstein Agreement
Einstein's relation (molecular kinetic theory)
Special theory of relativity
Bose-Einstein statistics
Einstein's theory of heat capacity
Einstein's equations
Equivalence of mass and energy