In the process of material transformative activity. Transformative human activity in society and culture. Let’s say a word about cognitive activity
Activity- this is a specifically human activity, regulated by consciousness, generated by needs and aimed at understanding and transforming the external world and the person himself.
The main feature of activity is that its content is not determined entirely by the need that gave rise to it. Need as a motive (impulse) gives impetus to activity, but the very forms and content of activity determined by public goals, requirements and experience.
Distinguish three main activities: play, learning and work. Purpose games is the “activity” itself, and not its results. Human activity aimed at acquiring knowledge, skills and abilities is called teaching. is an activity whose purpose is the production of socially necessary products.
Characteristics of activity
Activity is understood as a specifically human way of actively relating to the world - a process during which a person creatively transforms the world, turning oneself into an active subject, and the phenomena being mastered into an object of one’s activity.
Under subject Here we mean the source of activity, the actor. Since it is, as a rule, a person who exhibits activity, most often it is he who is called the subject.
Object call the passive, passive, inert side of the relationship, on which activity is carried out. The object of activity can be natural material or an object (land in agricultural activities), another person (a student as an object of learning) or the subject himself (in the case of self-education, sports training).
To understand an activity, there are several important characteristics to consider.
Man and activity are inextricably linked. Activity is an indispensable condition human life: she created man himself, preserved him in history and predetermined the progressive development of culture. Consequently, a person does not exist outside of activity. The opposite is also true: there is no activity without a person. Only man is capable of labor, spiritual and other transformative activities.
Activity is a transformation of the environment. Animals adapt to natural conditions. A person is capable of actively changing these conditions. For example, he is not limited to collecting plants for food, but grows them in the course of agricultural activities.
Activity acts as a creative, constructive activity: Man, in the process of his activity, goes beyond the boundaries of natural possibilities, creating something new that did not previously exist in nature.
Thus, in the process of activity, a person creatively transforms reality, himself and his social connections.
The essence of the activity is revealed in more detail during its structural analysis.
Basic forms of human activity
Human activity is carried out in (industrial, domestic, natural environment).
Activity- active interaction of a person with the environment, the result of which should be its usefulness, requiring high mobility from a person nervous processes, fast and precise movements, increased perceptual activity, emotional stability.
The study of a person in the process is carried out by ergonomics, the purpose of which is optimization labor activity based on rational consideration of human capabilities.
The whole variety of forms of human activity can be divided into two main groups according to the nature of the functions performed by a person - physical and mental labor.
Physical work
Physical work requires significant muscle activity, is characterized by a load on the musculoskeletal system and functional systems of the body (cardiovascular, respiratory, neuromuscular, etc.), and also requires increased energy costs from 17 to 25 mJ (4,000-6,000 kcal) and higher per day.
Brainwork
Brainwork(intellectual activity) is work that combines work related to the reception and processing of information, requiring intense attention, memory, and activation of thinking processes. Daily energy consumption during mental work is 10-11.7 mJ (2,000-2,400 kcal).
Structure of human activity
The structure of an activity is usually represented in a linear form, with each component following the other in time.
Need → Motive→ Goal→ Means→ Action→ Result
Let's consider all components of the activity one by one.
Need for action
Need- this is need, dissatisfaction, a feeling of lack of something necessary for normal existence. In order for a person to begin to act, it is necessary to understand this need and its nature.
The most developed classification belongs to the American psychologist Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) and is known as the pyramid of needs (Fig. 2.2).
Maslow divided needs into primary, or innate, and secondary, or acquired. These in turn include the needs:
- physiological - in food, water, air, clothing, warmth, sleep, cleanliness, shelter, physical rest, etc.;
- existential— safety and security, inviolability of personal property, guaranteed employment, confidence in the future, etc.;
- social - the desire to belong and be involved in any social group, team, etc. The values of affection, friendship, love are based on these needs;
- prestigious - based on the desire for respect, recognition by others of personal achievements, on the values of self-affirmation and leadership;
- spiritual - oriented towards self-expression, self-actualization, creative development and using your skills, abilities and knowledge.
- The hierarchy of needs has been changed many times and supplemented by various psychologists. Maslow himself, in the later stages of his research, added three additional groups of needs:
- educational- in knowledge, skill, understanding, research. This includes the desire to discover new things, curiosity, the desire for self-knowledge;
- aesthetic- desire for harmony, order, beauty;
- transcending- a selfless desire to help others in spiritual self-improvement, in their desire for self-expression.
According to Maslow, in order to satisfy higher, spiritual needs, it is necessary to first satisfy those needs that occupy a place in the pyramid below them. If the needs of any level are fully satisfied, a person has a natural need to satisfy the needs of a higher level.
Motives for activity
Motive - a need-based conscious impulse that justifies and justifies an activity. A need will become a motive if it is perceived not just as a need, but as a guide to action.
In the process of motive formation, not only needs, but also other motives are involved. As a rule, needs are mediated by interests, traditions, beliefs, social attitudes, etc.
Interest is a specific reason for action that determines. Although all people have the same needs, different social groups have their own interests. For example, the interests of workers and factory owners, men and women, youth and pensioners are different. So, innovations are more important for pensioners, traditions are more important for pensioners; Entrepreneurs' interests are rather material, while artists' interests are spiritual. Each person also has his own personal interests, based on individual inclinations and likes (people listen to different music, play different sports, etc.).
Traditions represent a social and cultural heritage passed on from generation to generation. We can talk about religious, professional, corporate, national (for example, French or Russian) traditions, etc. For the sake of some traditions (for example, military ones), a person can limit his primary needs (by replacing safety and security with activities in high-risk conditions).
Beliefs- strong, principled views on the world, based on a person’s ideological ideals and implying a person’s willingness to give up a number of needs (for example, comfort and money) for the sake of what he considers right (for the sake of preserving honor and dignity).
Settings- a person’s predominant orientation towards certain institutions of society, which overlap with needs. For example, a person may be focused on religious values, or material enrichment, or public opinion. Accordingly, he will act differently in each case.
In complex activities, it is usually possible to identify not one motive, but several. In this case, the main motive is identified, which is considered the driving one.
Activity goals
Target - This is a conscious idea of the result of an activity, an anticipation of the future. Any activity involves goal setting, i.e. ability to independently set goals. Animals, unlike humans, cannot set goals themselves: their program of activity is predetermined and expressed in instincts. A person is able to form his own programs, creating something that has never existed in nature. Since there is no goal-setting in the activity of animals, it is not an activity. Moreover, if an animal never imagines the results of its activity in advance, then a person, starting an activity, keeps in his mind the image of the expected object: before creating something in reality, he creates it in his mind.
However, the goal can be complex and sometimes requires a series of intermediate steps to achieve it. For example, to plant a tree, you need to purchase a seedling, find a suitable place, take a shovel, dig a hole, place the seedling in it, water it, etc. Ideas about intermediate results are called objectives. Thus, the goal is divided into specific tasks: if all these tasks are solved, then the overall goal will be achieved.
Tools used in activities
Facilities - these are techniques, methods of action, objects, etc. used in the course of activity. For example, to learn social studies, you need lectures, textbooks, and assignments. To be a good specialist, you need to get professional education, have work experience, constantly practice in their activities, etc.
The means must correspond to the ends in two senses. First, the means must be proportionate to the ends. In other words, they cannot be insufficient (otherwise the activity will be fruitless) or excessive (otherwise energy and resources will be wasted). For example, you cannot build a house if there are not enough materials for it; It also makes no sense to buy materials several times more than are needed for its construction.
Secondly, the means must be moral: immoral means cannot be justified by the nobility of the end. If goals are immoral, then all activities are immoral (in this regard, the hero of F. M. Dostoevsky’s novel “The Brothers Karamazov” Ivan asked whether the kingdom of world harmony is worth one tear of a tortured child).
Action
Action - an element of activity that has a relatively independent and conscious task. An activity consists of individual actions. For example, teaching activity consists of preparing and delivering lectures, conducting seminars, preparing assignments, etc.
The German sociologist Max Weber (1865-1920) identified the following types of social actions:
- purposeful - actions aimed at achieving a reasonable goal. At the same time, a person clearly calculates all the means and possible obstacles (a general planning a battle; a businessman organizing an enterprise; a teacher preparing a lecture);
- value-rational- actions based on beliefs, principles, moral and aesthetic values (for example, a prisoner’s refusal to transfer valuable information to the enemy, saving a drowning man at the risk of his own life);
- affective - actions committed under the influence strong feelings— hatred, fear (for example, flight from the enemy or spontaneous aggression);
- traditional- actions based on habit, often an automatic reaction developed on the basis of customs, beliefs, patterns, etc. (for example, following certain rituals in a wedding ceremony).
The basis of activity is made up of actions of the first two types, since only they have a conscious goal and carry creative nature. Affects and traditional actions are only capable of exerting some influence on the course of activity as auxiliary elements.
Special forms of action are: actions - actions that have value-rational, moral significance, and actions - actions that have a high positive social significance. For example, helping a person is an act, winning an important battle is an act. Drinking a glass of water is an ordinary action that is neither an act nor an act. The word "act" is often used in jurisprudence to denote an action or omission that violates legal norms. For example, in legislation “a crime is an unlawful, socially dangerous, guilty act.”
Result of activity
Result- this is the final result, the state in which the need is satisfied (in whole or in part). For example, the result of study can be knowledge, skills and abilities, the result -, the result scientific activity- ideas and inventions. The result of the activity itself can be, since in the course of the activity it develops and changes.
Let's read the information
.
Activity human - a type of human activity aimed at cognition and creative transformation of the surrounding world, including oneself and the conditions of one’s existence.
Human activity is of the nature:
- conscious - a person consciously determines the goal and foresees the result.
- productive - a person directs activity towards obtaining a result (product).
- transformative - a person in the process of activity changes the world around him and himself.
- social - in the process of activity, communication occurs, and various relationships arise with other people.
I. Depending on the characteristics of a person’s relationship to the world around him (or according to objects and results):
1.Practical (material) activities- activity that is associated with the creation of things and material assets necessary to meet people's needs.
- material and production - activities to transform nature.
- social-transformative - activities to transform society.
A) educational- activities related to the reflection of reality in artistic and scientific form, in myths and religious teachings.
Cognitive activity includes all types of human knowledge:
- sensory - cognition through sensation, perception, representation.
- rational - knowledge associated with forms of rational knowledge (concept, judgment, inference).
- scientific knowledge is knowledge that is guided by the principle of objectivity, validity of knowledge, systematic knowledge and verifiability of knowledge.
- artistic - knowledge through art (associated with the use of artistic images).
- everyday (ordinary, practical) - knowledge that is acquired in Everyday life and activities.
- personal - knowledge that depends on a person’s abilities and on the characteristics of his intellectual activity.
- mythological - knowledge, which is a fantastic reflection of reality, is an unconscious artistic processing of nature and society by folk fantasy.
- religious - knowledge that is determined by the direct emotional form of people’s relationship to the earthly forces (natural and social) that dominate them.
- parascientific - knowledge that does not meet generally accepted criteria for constructing and justifying scientific theories, as well as the inability to give a convincing rational interpretation of the phenomena being studied.
IN) prognostic- activities related to planning or anticipating possible changes in reality.
II. Depending on the results obtained, the activity can be characterized as
- creative - activity that brings positive results.
- destructive - activity that brings negative results
- reproductive - activity in which the receipt or reproduction of already known result known methods and means.
- productive (creative) - activity that is aimed at developing new goals and new means and methods corresponding to them, or at achieving known goals with the help of new, previously unused means.
- economic - activities related to the processes of production, distribution, exchange and consumption material goods- production and consumer activities.
- political - 1.Activity government agencies, political parties, social movements in the sphere of relations between social groups, aimed at integrating their strengthening with the aim of consolidating political power or seizing it.
- spiritual - activities related to the creation of spiritual values, their preservation, dissemination and development - scientific, educational, leisure.
- social - activity related to transformation, expedient change in society and one’s social essence.
- external - activity that manifests itself in the form of movements, muscle efforts, actions with real objects.
- internal - activity associated with mental (mental) operations.
Let's look at examples material and production activities .
- mining and transportation of minerals
- production of ferrous and non-ferrous metals
- mining and beneficiation of ferrous metal ores
- production of chemical and petrochemical products
- production of reinforced concrete products
- production of steel and cast iron pipes
- repair of gas field and linear equipment
- construction of new facilities: railways, housing stock, schools, hospitals, cultural institutions and consumer services population
- production of machinery and equipment
- production of building materials
- production of light and food industry products
- production, transmission and sale of electricity
- wood harvesting and processing
- production of pulp, paper, cardboard
- production of consumer goods from various types of raw materials
- food production
- animal meat processing
- extraction and processing of fish and other seafood
- processing of plant, animal, artificial and synthetic fibers into yarn, threads, fabrics
- production of clothing and other garments
- shoe making
- production of fine ceramic products
- growing grain, fodder, technical plants
- raising large and small livestock
Used Books:
1. Unified State Exam 2009. Social studies. Directory / O.V. Kishenkova. - M.: Eksmo, 2008. 2. Social studies: Unified State Exam-2008: real tasks / author-comp. O.A.Kotova, T.E.Liskova. - M.: AST: Astrel, 2008. 3. Social science: a complete reference book / P.A. Baranov, A.V. Vorontsov, S.V. Shevchenko; edited by P.A. Baranova. - M.: AST: Astrel; Vladimir: VKT, 2010. 4. Social studies: profile level: academic. For 10th grade. general education Institutions / L.N. Bogolyubov, A.Yu. Lazebnikova, N.M. Smirnova and others, ed. L.N. Bogolyubova and others - M.: Education, 2007. 5. Social science. 10th grade: textbook. for general education institutions: basic level / L.N. Bogolyubov, Yu.I. Averyanov, N.I. Gorodetskaya and others; edited by L.N. Bogolyubova; Ross. acad. Sciences, Ross. acad. education, publishing house "Enlightenment". 6th ed. - M.: Education, 2010.
Internet resources used:
Wikipedia - the free encyclopedia
a\ appropriating character
activities;
B\ purposeful transformative
activity;
B\ creation of tools.
2. Associated with the social essence of a person is the need for:
a\ knowledge of the laws of nature; b\ receiving food;
Culture in the broad sense of the word?1) everything that is created
humanity in the sphere
art
2) a set of knowledge, beliefs and
human behavior
3) level of education
a certain person
4) all transformative
human activity and its
results
life activity does not simply change natural connections and complexes. Deforming, destroying, it at the same time creates. All these changes fit into pre-existing natural complexes and relationships, becoming their integral part. Finally, it should be emphasized that society also impacts nature with waste from its production and other activities. Thus, the impact of society on nature is varied not only in the specific content of the development of natural resources. This influence is diverse in its focus on the development of nature: it develops and improves some of its capabilities, and destroys others. In a word, this influence represents the unity of creation and destruction.
Nature's resistance to human influence is a developing quantity. The possibilities of nature are limitless, the growth of people's needs is unstoppable. Therefore every new peak mastery of nature
This is essentially the beginning of a new round in the relationship between society and nature. And on this new turn
new resistance of nature. Apparently
In this increase in the resistance of nature lies one of the reasons for the progressive and accelerating development of society.
In a word, nature, in its opposition to man, puts before him, as it were, two barriers: on the one hand, this is the closedness of nature, the cemented nature of its connections, the mystery of its laws; on the other hand, on the contrary, the openness of nature, its plasticity and vulnerability. Humanity always needs to take precautions in overcoming these barriers. If it weakens its labor pressure, cognitive power
it will “lose” a lot from nature and will reduce the possibilities for its development. If it “goes too far” in its transformative zeal, then, ultimately, it will also come to negative results for itself, cutting off the branch on which it sits.
In the twentieth century, during the period of the scientific and technological revolution, the scale of material activity increased so much that the waste of this activity fell upon nature with enormous force.
(Based on materials from the online publication)
1) Make a plan for the text. To do this, highlight the main semantic fragments of the text and title each of them.
2) What two manifestations of the contradictory impact of society on nature are discussed in the text? 3) For what purpose does society change? natural environment? How, according to the author, is nature’s resistance to human influence related to the development of society? 4) What two barriers, in the author’s opinion, does nature pose to humans? Illustrate with an example the author’s call for compliance with the measure
in overcoming these barriers. 5) How does the author evaluate the results of human material activity in the twentieth century? To what social process does he associate these results? Using facts public life, give an argument confirming the author's position. 6) How does the author evaluate the results of human material activity in the twentieth century? To what social process does he associate these results? Using facts from social life, provide an argument to support the author’s position. 7) Many modern public figures call on society to change its attitude towards nature. (Using social science knowledge and facts of social life, indicate three possible directions for this change.)
1. Humanism is:
A) integrity of thought and fearlessness in the face of inhumanity;
B) love of humanity, respect for a person’s personal dignity, faith in his future;
B) sentimentality;
G) special kind activities.
2. Worldview ideals, universal moral standards, reflecting the spiritual experience of all humanity, developing in the process of spiritual and practical activity of people - these are:
A) morality;
B) culture;
C) universal human values;
D) social consciousness.
3. The system of generalized views on the surrounding reality is:
A) philosophy;
B) worldview;
B) science;
D) sociology.
4. In its most complete form, morality is:
A) conclusions that a person makes based on an analysis of his behavior;
B) the science of good manners;
C) a set of principles and norms of behavior of people in society;
D) formulated and legally enshrined norms of behavior of citizens.
5. The rules “Don’t do to others what you don’t wish for yourself,” “Don’t steal,” “Don’t lie,” “Honor your elders” are norms:
A) art;
B) science;
B) morality;
D) rights.
6. Morality, as opposed to law, includes:
A) any law;
B) Constitution of the state;
C) the charter of a public organization;
D) certain principles, norms of behavior.
7. Morality as opposed to law:
A) relies solely on public support;
B) contains norms of human behavior;
C) arises on the basis of the historical experience of people;
D) is in development.
8. You witnessed how one person unfairly offended another. Which behavior is not appropriate? moral choice a humane person?
A) demand an apology from the offender to the victim;
B) pretend that this does not concern you;
C) express condolences to those who were offended;
D) understand the causes of the conflict and achieve its elimination.
9. You accidentally, without meaning to, caused damage or harm to another person. Which choice is consistent with the moral position of a humane person?
A) do everything possible to eliminate evil and damage;
B) pretend that nothing happened;
C) try to ensure that no one notices the damage you have caused;
D) blame it on the one who suffered (let him not interfere, he is to blame).
10. Criteria for human spirituality:
A) active life position;
B) possession of higher education;
C) commitment in thoughts and actions to universal human values.
11. Worldview in a person’s life is:
A) a guideline for its activities;
B) strengthening his life experience;
C) connection with religion and science.
12. The level of development of spiritual culture is measured:
A) the volume of spiritual values created in society;
B) the quality of spiritual products;
C) how people use the achievements of spiritual culture;
D) degree of achievement social equality people in introducing them to cultural values.
13. A person’s worldview depends on:
A) historical conditions;
B) life experience;
B) on the level of education;
D) internal culture.
14. Moral qualities person:
A) laid down from birth;
B) are developed by self-education, self-improvement;
C) are formed by society purposefully.
15. Culture in a broad sense is:
A) all types of transformative activities;
B) everything related to art;
C) production of spiritual values;
D) human education.
16. Products of material culture do not include:
A) skyscraper;
B) music;
B) car;
D) TV.
17. Spiritual values include:
A) microscope;
B) computer;
B) scientific discovery;
D) videotapes.
18. Is the judgment correct?
A. Spiritual and material culture exist independently of each other.
B. Elements of spiritual and material culture are inextricably linked.
A) only A is true;
B) only B is true;
C) A and B are correct;
D) both are incorrect.
19. The vertical accumulation of cultural values is associated with:
A) with the appearance of new works of art;
B) deepening knowledge about culture;
C) transfer of cultural values from generation to generation;
D) restoration of cultural monuments.
Speech– a form of communication mediated by language that has developed historically in the process of material transformative activity of people.*
Speech performs a number of functions:
- designations - each word, sentence has a specific content;
- messages – transfer of information, knowledge, experience;
- expressions – intonation structure, stress, use of comparisons, detection of feelings, needs, relationships;
- influence – encouragement to complete tasks, to be active, to change views.
The functions of speech manifest themselves differently in its various types.
For psychology, the place of speech in the system of higher mental functions of a person is of interest - in its relationship with thinking, consciousness, memory, emotions, etc.; At the same time, those features that reflect the structure of personality and activity are especially important. Psychologists consider speech as a speech activity, appearing either in the form of an integral act of activity (if it has a specific motivation that is not realized by other types of activity), or in the form of speech actions included in non-speech activity.Structure speech activity or speech act coincides with the structure of any action, i.e. includes phases of orientation, planning (in the form of “internal programming”), implementation and control. Speech can be active, constructed anew each time, and reactive, representing a chain of dynamic speech stereotypes. In conditions of spontaneous oral speech, conscious choice and evaluation of the words used in it speech means reduced to a minimum, while in writing and occupy a significant place in prepared oral speech. Various types and forms of speech are built according to specific patterns (for example, Speaking allows significant deviations from the grammatical system of the language, a special place is occupied by logical and especially artistic speech).**
The following are distinguished:types of speech activity : internal and external. External speech includes oral (dialogic and monologue) and written speech.Inner speech is different kinds using language outside the process of real communication. Inner speech are divided into three main types: internal pronunciation (devoid of phonation - the pronunciation of sounds, typical for solving mental problems), internal speech itself (acts as a means of thinking, uses specific units and has a specific structure, different from the structure of external speech), internal programming (formation and consolidation in speech utterance).
Oral speech – verbal (verbal) communication using linguistic means perceived by ear. Oral speech is characterized by the fact that individual components of a speech message are generated and perceived sequentially. The processes of generating oral speech include the links of orientation, simultaneous planning (programming), speech implementation and control; in this case, planning, in turn, occurs through two parallel channels and concerns the content and motor-articulatory aspects of oral speech.***
Oral speech happensdialogical and monological .
Dialogical speech is supported speech that has an interlocutor; it is simpler, condensed, it may contain intonations, gestures, pauses, and stress.Dialogical speech can be situational, i.e. associated with the situation in which communication occurred, but it can also be contextual, when all previous statements determine subsequent ones. Both situational and contextual dialogues are direct forms of communication between people, where participants in the dialogue make their judgments and wait for other people’s reactions to them.
Monologue speech is a long, consistent, coherent presentation of thoughts and knowledge by one person.
Written speech - verbal (verbal) communication using written texts. It can be either delayed (for example, a letter) or immediate (exchange of notes during a meeting). Written speech differs from oral speech not only in that it uses graphics, but also in grammatical (primarily syntactic) and stylistic respects - in syntactic constructions typical of written speech and specific to it functional styles.* Written speech is characterized by a complex compositional and structural organization, which must be specially mastered, therefore its development requires attention Special attention in the process of studying at school. Since the text of written speech can be perceived simultaneously or in large passages, the perception of written speech differs in many ways from the perception of spoken speech.
Types of speech can be presented in the form of a diagram:
general characteristics speech development junior schoolchildren
The content and form of a person’s speech depend on his age, situation, experience, temperament, character, abilities, interests, and condition. Children use speech to learn educational material, communicate, influence each other. The more actively students improve oral, written and other types of speech, replenish their lexicon, those better level their cognitive abilities and culture. As notedR.S. Nemov, “when a child enters school, educational activities come into play along with communication and play. It is this that determines the nature of other types of activity: play, work and communication.”* The scope and content of communication between younger schoolchildren and people around them, especially adults, who act as teachers, serve as role models and the main source of knowledge, are expanding. “The statements of preschoolers and primary schoolchildren are, as a rule, spontaneous. Often this is speech-repetition, speech-naming; compressed, involuntary, reactive (dialogical) speech predominates,” L. Zenkovsky writes in his works.** The learning process contributes to the formation of voluntary, detailed speech and teaches it to be planned. During lessons, the teacher sets students the task of learning to give complete and detailed answers to questions, compose a story according to a specific plan, not repeat themselves, speak competently, and coherently retell a large amount of material. Stories, conclusions, and the formulation of rules are constructed as a monologue. "In progress educational activities students must master free, active, programmed, communicative and monologue speech.”***
A school-age child uses a word more accurately in its meaning than a child younger age, semantic knowledge is becoming better systematized. Growing up, the child can explain the meaning of a word better and better. First, the child characterizes the word denoting an object by its functions or appearance, later - characterizes more abstractly, using synonyms, divides objects into categories.
Children of primary school age use on average about 5,000 new words. Words learned by children are divided into two groups.
First- this is an active reserve, it includes words that the child not only understands, but also actively, consciously uses in his speech.Second- passive stock - includes words that the child understands, but does not include in his speech. “When taking care of enriching the vocabulary of children, we must understand that... a new proposed word will replenish the active vocabulary of children only if it is fixed. It’s not enough to say it once or twice. Children should perceive with their ears and consciousness as often as possible.”****“Every new word a child learns seems important to him. Often a new word has a common root with an already familiar word, so it is easier for the child to remember it. If you help a school-age child understand how some words are related to others, his vocabulary will quickly expand.”*****
The written speech of a primary school student is poorer than the oral one. By the age of 8, a child has approximately 2500 words in oral speech, and 1600 words in written speech. But according to research by M.D. Tsviyanovich, by the 3rd grade, the percentage of nouns and adjectives in students’ written speech becomes higher, and there are fewer pronouns and conjunctions that clog up oral speech. The speech contains simple common sentences (71%).* -
Written works are shorter, there are fewer repetitions of words, and monotonous connecting conjunctions are not as frequent. Consequently, by the 3rd-4th grade, students’ written speech is in some sense superior to oral, taking on the form of bookish, literary speech. By the age of 12, the number of words in oral speech is 2400, and in written language – already 2700 words.
Mastery of writing, grammar and spelling plays a huge role in the development of students’ speech. Based on research different psychologists, A.F. Obukhova concluded that younger schoolchildren gradually “increase their requirements for the sound analysis of a word: the auditory image turns into a visual-motor image, i.e. is recreated element by element. The child needs to learn to distinguish between pronunciation and writing... By the end of primary education, children can freely change the time of the presentation, the person on whose behalf the presentation is being conducted, compose a story on a given topic according to a written plan, or this name, can successfully use the basic grammatical structures".* The author writes that when learning to analyze the composition of a word, selecting words with the same root, changing the meaning of the word by substituting various prefixes or including suffixes, children master vocabulary native language, pick up the right words to express your thoughts and accurately determine the quality of objects. In constructing sentences, in retellings and essays, schoolchildren master the rules of spelling and master syntax.
Psychologist A.A. Lyublinskaya believes that “the development of speech in a primary school student is expressed in the fact that he develops the skill of reading, i.e. fairly quick and correct recognition of letters and their combinations and the transformation of seen signs into pronounced sounds, sound combinations, i.e. words. The meaningfulness of reading is manifested in the fact that correct intonations appear, children pay attention to the signs at the end of the sentence: period, interrogative and exclamation marks. Later, the meaningfulness of reading begins to manifest itself in increasingly subtle intonation expressiveness.”** However, meaningful reading does not come immediately. Expressive reading aloud by the teacher, and then by the students themselves, is especially helpful here.
P.P. Blonsky points out the importance of the process of transition from loud reading to silent reading, i.e. internalization of reading, as a result of which severalforms of speech behavior in children:
extended whisper - clear and complete pronunciation of words and phrases with a decrease in volume;
reduced whisper - pronunciation of individual syllables of a word while inhibiting the rest;
silent movement of the lips - the action of the inertia of external pronunciation, but without the participation of the voice;
unvocalized twitching of the lips, which usually occurs at the beginning of reading and disappears after reading the first phrases;
reading with one's eyes, which is similar in external indicators to the silent reading of older children and adults.
From all of the above, we can conclude that the speech of children in the younger school age undergoes various changes and develops comprehensively under the influence of the educational process. All functions of speech are revealed, which means that the child learns to plan and express his plans language means, anticipate possible reactions of the interlocutor, changing terms of communication, control your speech activity.
* - A.F. Obukhova Child psychology. Moscow, 1995, p.257
Features of students' coherent speech
Connected speech- a section that is always highlighted as a special area of work on speech development. This is explained by the importance that coherent speech has in the life of a person and society. In the methodology, the name “coherent speech” is used in three meanings:
this is the process, the activity of the speaker, the writer;
product, the result of this activity, text, statement;
title of the section of work on speech development.
*- M. Koltsova A child learns to speak. Moscow, 1973, p.5
Let us consider the coherent speech of students from the point of view of its inherent characteristics.
Functions of speech.
Initially, the child’s speech appears in two social functions- Howmeans of establishing contact and with people and how a means of understanding the world. Then, at 3-7 years of age, speech emerges and develops, which is used to organize joint activities. At school, in the process of educational activities, all speech functions develop, but special meaning during this period speech acquires as a means of acquisition and transmissioninformation, speech as a means of self-awareness and self-expression, speech as a means of influencing comrades and adults.
Forms of speech.
The child first masters oral speech. Until the age of three, his oral speech is situational. But along with this speech, contextual speech gradually appears. However, contextual oral speech of children even 6-7 years old is less developed. Students master written speech at school, and not only oral speech is the basis for the development of written language, but, conversely, book styles are formed under the influence of written language oral form literary language.
Functional-style types of speech .
By the age of 6-7 years, the child mainly masters the conversational style. At school, students master the bookish style of writing, its journalistic, official business variety, and most of all the scientific style of presentation, which is associated with the nature of the students’ leading activity - their mastery of the basic sciences.Types of speech (dialogue and monologue).First the child uses dialogical speech. Then (already at 2-3 years old) elements of monologue speech appear. At the same time, dialogue develops: elements of evaluation, motivation, and an indication of what and how to do in order to coordinate an action appear in it (for example, during a game). At school, dialogue and monologue receive further development. Students master the ability to conduct conversations on a wide range of issues related to the life of the class, school, country, and the study of basic sciences.
Types of texts, compositional forms.
Already at 3-4 years old, the child tries to talk about what happened to him, what he did, what he did. His stories contain elements of description (for example, toys) and reasoning (for example, motivation for why one should do this and not another). The child tries to retell texts of a narrative nature (fairy tales, short stories, films). Many children compose and tell various stories. This indicates the presence of a certain intention of the statement, the desire to realize it. IN primary school students master this type of text as narration (oral and written) with elements of description.Change in general development schoolchildren, in their ability to observe, compare, and generalize are reflected in the content of statements, on what and how children write and say.At the same time, it is obvious that without targeted special work, many students not only do not master individual compositional forms of statements (for example, a note in a wall newspaper, a report, etc.), but also such skills as the ability to reveal the topic and main idea of a statement, the ability to plan it.
The above allows you to do the following conclusions on the development of coherent speech in children:
1. In preschool age, coherent speech in its development goes from dialogue to monologue, from situational to concrete speech, to its use not only in the function of communication and cognition, but also in the function of planning, coordinating activities;
2. In the process of studying at school, children’s coherent speech receives further development: they use it in the learning process as a means of acquiring, preserving and transmitting knowledge. As a means of self-expression and influence;
3. Students master the written form of the literary language.
The development of coherent speech is manifested in schoolchildren’s mastery of various types and forms of statements, and also forms in childrencommunication and speech skills : -
understand the topic of the text and determine its boundaries; -
select and organize material in accordance with the topic or main thought; -
predict the content of a text based on its title, as well as
title the text inin accordance with the content; -
divide the text into logically complete parts; -
highlight main idea and draw up a text plan;- highlight keywords, phrases and sentences; -
use the phonetic, lexical, syntactic richness of the language; -
recognize the meanings of unfamiliar words.
Now let's look at some forms of work on developing students' speech.One of these forms iswork on the word . Our language is the language of words. With the help of the word, human thinking is connected with objective reality, since it is the word that designates the object of reality and expresses the concept of it. There is no phenomenon that cannot be denoted by words or combinations of words. People “express their thoughts and feelings with the help of words, listen to the words of others, learn new or unfamiliar words, study words of other languages, remember forgotten words of their native language.”* This is why vocabulary work occupies an important place in common system speech development work. Stands out next low features characteristic of a word :
1. the presence of one word stress;
2. phonetic expression;
3. reference to a specific part of speech and grammatical design;
4. impenetrability, that is, the impossibility of arbitrary insertions and changes within a word;
5. presence of meaning.
*- R.A. Budagoras Man and his language. Moscow, 1974, p.6
In elementary school, the “word” is studied from all sides, but I would like to especially focus on working on itlexical meaning . “It is well known that a word is not only the name of an object or objects, but also an expression of meaning, and sometimes an entire system of meanings.”* Lexical meaning is part of the content side of the word.It is known that a word is an independent component of the lexical system of a language, but it is also a member of systemic vocabulary associations: synonymous series, antonym series, thematic and lexical-semantic groups.