Colloquial speech and vernacular. Speaking
SPEAKING, a kind of literary language, which is realized mainly in oral form in a situation of unprepared, unconstrained communication with direct interaction of communication partners. The main sphere for the implementation of colloquial speech is everyday everyday communication that takes place in an informal setting. Thus, one of the leading communicative parameters that determine the conditions for the implementation of colloquial speech is the parameter "informal communication"; according to this parameter, it is opposed to the book-written codified literary language that serves the sphere of official communication. The speakers of colloquial speech are people who know the literary language, i.e. in terms of the “native speaker” parameter, this variety is opposed primarily to dialects and vernacular.
Correlation of concepts colloquial - literary, colloquial - codified, colloquial - written, colloquial - dialect, colloquial - colloquial is filled with different content in different national languages and is largely determined by the peculiarities of their historical development. For example, due to the greater activity of dialects on German soil, local features in German colloquial speech are more pronounced than in Russian. The linguistic status of colloquial speech and its place in the system of oppositions standard/substandard, language/speech, language/style are also heterogeneous. Thus, the place of colloquial speech in the system of the national language is specific. Features of the language situation and the relationship of colloquial speech with other subsystems within each specific language are often reflected in the name of this linguistic phenomenon (cf. Umgangssprache - German, Obecná čestina - Czech., La langue parlee - French, Conversational English – English, Styl potoczny - Polish and etc.).
Russian colloquial speech and its place in the system of the literary language in modern Russian studies is defined in different ways. Some researchers consider it as an oral variety as part of the literary language (O.A. Lapteva, B.M. Gasparov) or as special style(O.B. Sirotinina). A group of scientists from the Institute of the Russian Language of the Russian Academy of Sciences under the leadership of E.A. Zemskaya developed a theoretical concept according to which Russian colloquial speech (RR), being an uncodified variety of the literary language, is opposed to the codified literary language (CLL) in general and differs from it both from the point of view of extralinguistic (conditions of use), and from the point of view of the language itself (specific system-structural properties). Thus, KLA and RR represent two subsystems within the literary language, the implementation of which is determined by communicative conditions: CL serves the sphere of official communication (private and public), RR serves the sphere of unofficial unprepared personal communication. Occurred for last years socio-political changes had a certain impact on the Russian language situation: the binary division of the communicative space into official and unofficial became less rigid, the boundaries of functional spheres turned out to be more permeable, which led, on the one hand, to a widespread invasion of colloquial elements into oral public speech, in the language of the mass media, and on the other hand - to the activation of the use of foreign words, elements of official business and special speech in everyday everyday communication. Thus, we can talk about socially conditioned changes that have affected the very conditions for the implementation of different types of speech (official/informal, personal/public, prepared/unprepared communication, etc.). This also applies to such a defining parameter as the speaker's attitude to one or another type of communication. The changed conditions of implementation influenced the nature of language processes in various communicative spheres, but nevertheless did not cancel the very division of the literary language into KLA and RR.
Many linguistic features of colloquial speech are determined by its close cohesion with the situation. Being a full-fledged component of a communicative act, the situation is “fused” into speech, which is one of the reasons for the high ellipticity of colloquial statements. A communicative act in colloquial speech is characterized by a close interaction of verbal and non-verbal (gestural-mimic) components. Various paralinguistic indicators, being actively included in the context, can replace the actual linguistic means of expression. Wed: BUT. Where did Sasha go? B. He ( tilts his head to his palms clasped together, gesturing"sleeping"). The close contact of colloquial speech with sign language allows us to speak about the coordination and mutual adaptation of two codes - verbal and visual, about the active interaction of sign and conversational grammar.
The predominantly oral nature of functioning, high consituational conditionality, and the important role of the gestural-mimic channel in the act of communication determine the proper linguistic features of colloquial speech, which manifest themselves at all language levels. The general feature of the system of colloquial speech, penetrating the phenomena of all its tiers, is the confrontation of two tendencies - the tendency to syncretism and the tendency to dismemberment. These tendencies manifest themselves in terms of expression and in terms of content, in syntagmatics and paradigmatics. So, for example, syncretism in phonetics (the plan of expression) is found in large numbers neutralizations of phonemes, in phonetic ellipsis, contraction of vowels (cf. the pronunciation of words such as naturally naturally [sn], imagine[въ] to ferment), dismemberment, - in the appearance of prosthetic vowels, rarefying consonantal combinations: [rubl "]). Syncretism in terms of content is manifested in the appearance of generalized undifferentiated nominations like than to write(instead of pen, pencil), dismemberment - in the wide distribution of derivative words, which are motivated designations of persons, processes, objects, etc. (type opener, cleaner). The tendency towards syncretism in paradigmatics reveals itself in the absence of specialized verbal and adjective forms for expressing semi-predication, the tendency towards dismemberment - in the presence of specialized vocative forms (such as Tan!;Tan-a-tan!;Tanya-a - Tanya!). Syncretism in syntagmatics is manifested in such phenomena as syntactic interference, polyfunctionality, etc. noun, dismemberment - in the wide distribution of constructions with a nominative theme. The systemic nature of colloquial speech allows us to talk about the existence of a certain system of norms in it. A feature of colloquial norms is their high variability, often functionally not differentiated (cf., for example, the possible use of different types of nominations to designate the same object: can opener, opener than open; the presence of several pronunciation options for one word: jumped off[download"il, s:kach"il,]).
The phonetic system of colloquial speech is characterized by the same set of language units as the codified literary language, but each phoneme is represented here by a large set of sound representations. The specificity of the phonetic tier is manifested in the features of the implementation and compatibility of phonemes. So, in colloquial speech, a qualitative reduction (up to zero) of vowels (including high vowels) is possible in any relation to stressed syllable(sor(o)kovy, s(y) new set, s(e)stra, ob(i)zat(e)lno, he asked(i)t), loss of individual consonants or their combinations in different positions (ho( e) it, see (t) rite, (z) start, (zdr) aste), ellipsis of syllables and even larger sections of the speech chain, leading to a restructuring of the syllabic and rhythmic structure of the word ( with someone- [with k" emn "it"], some- [k "it], because[tsh]). High-frequency words are exposed to the greatest phonetic deformation. The elliptical pronunciation of some of them is so typical of colloquial speech that these words in an abbreviated, reduced form are considered as colloquial lexical doublets. These include, for example, the sound forms of the following words: now[right now, right now], one thousand[thousand], means, at all in the meaning of introductory words [meaning, beginning, nasch; anyway, anyway] I say, He speaks[grue, grit], today[today, senya, senya]. Syllabic reduction and other phonetic phenomena of colloquial speech are closely related to its rhythmic and intonational properties. In particular, the degree of deformation of words largely depends on the degree of their stress in the phrase, their place in the syntagm (initial, middle, final), position in relation to the phrasal accent, and the rate of pronunciation. Thus, various phonetic features of colloquial speech are determined not only by the positional conditions for the realization of phonemes within a word, but also by the position of a word within a phrase.
In morphology, as in phonetics, there are no special differences from the codified literary language in the set of units itself. Nevertheless, there is a specificity here. For example, there are special colloquial vocative forms (such as pap!,Mom, and mom!). In colloquial speech, the quantitative ratio of certain grammatical classes of words and word forms is different than in the written language. Statistical studies of recordings of live colloquial speech have shown that in this subsystem, non-significant and semi-significant vocabulary is most frequent: conjunctions, particles, pronouns; the use of nouns is lower than that of verbs, and among the verb forms, gerunds and participles are the least common. These forms are practically not used in the function of secondary predication (i.e., as part of participial and adverbial phrases). Wed colloquial: Bring a book lies on the table(incl. book-writing: Bring a book, lying on the table); I'm completely bored removed that stain// (comm. book-letter: I'm completely worn out, removing this stain). The morphological system of colloquial speech is distinguished by pronounced features of analyticism, which confirms, for example, the active functioning of various classes of unchangeable significant words. In colloquial speech, these words are very common, numerous and varied. First of all, these are the so-called predicatives - immutable words that perform the function of a predicate in a personal sentence. These include, for example, interjectional-verbal words (such as la-la, bang, shoo-shoo-shoo, cf .: And they are sitting in a corner and shu-shu-shu between themselves); evaluation predicates (such as not ah, so-so, not that, cf. weather was not ah; She sings so-so). Analytical adjectives are also highly active (units like air, auto, tele, beige and many others. etc.), having great independence in colloquial speech. Wed: (conversation in the mail) BUT. What kind of envelopes do you want? B. to me air and simple //; Did you find the book? Sberbank? Features of the morphology of colloquial speech are most clearly manifested in the specific functions of some grammatical forms. So, the infinitive often plays a syntactic role, usually characteristic of a noun: To swim did they come there? (subject); BUT. What are you looking for? B. I'm looking for drink it down(addition); This towel dry off(definition). Among the case forms of nouns, the most frequent forms are name. case. Named expansion. case in colloquial texts is manifested in the fact that its functional load is much greater. The nominative case occurs in oral speech in any prepositional and non-prepositional positions and acts as other cases: Petrushechka fresh I will buy now fresh parsley, i.e. blames. case), His disciples were our teachers(with our teachers - tv.p.), A pickle half can't take? (vm. half a pickle).
The specificity of colloquial speech is most clearly manifested at the syntactic level. Conversational speech is a speech stream, which is not always easy to divide into sentences. The sentence as the main syntactic unit stands out in the codified literary language and is characterized by the following features: predicativity (the severity of the categories of modality and time), the presence of links between the components, semantic and intonational completeness. In colloquial speech, not all segments of the speech flow are sentences. For example, one predicative unit can, in a particular situation, break up into several independent intonational fragments: (two friends agree to meet) BUT. See you tomorrow B. At five BUT. On Pushkinskaya. Or, on the contrary, parts of a complex predicative whole intonation merge into one speech segment, and the word located at the junction of the first and second "sentences" refers to both: They turned to Sretenka they have to go; I will give you tomorrow read you wanted an article. In the codified literary language, situationally conditioned formations are considered as "non-sentential". If we approach colloquial cues in the same way, then more than half of them should be excluded from syntactic analysis - after all, the “inclusion” of colloquial cues in a situation is an important feature of colloquial speech that determines its specificity at the system level. When segmenting the conversational continuum, an essential criterion for researchers is intonation-semantic completeness, and the main syntactic unit is the statement. The speech flow is divided into intonationally independent segments - syntagmas. One or more syntagmas, characterized by intonational integrity and semantic completeness, form an utterance. When writing oral colloquial speech, due to its “non-sentence” nature, a special system of notation is used, the purpose of which is to adequately convey the features of the sound. The usual punctuation marks in written texts - dashes, colons, periods and commas - are not put. Instead, they are used: / - a sign of intonational articulation of the statement when it is incomplete; //, ?, ! - signs of the completion of a statement uttered respectively with an affirmative, interrogative or exclamatory intonation; an ellipsis (...) denotes a pause in hesitation (search for a suitable word), a break in a statement, or a self-interruption. Compare, for example, a fragment of an oral story: Here this year / son / in ... in the spring he brought such ... He is a passionate son fisherman / he was on La ... on this ... not Ladoga / but Lake Peipus / caught fish / and brought from there / among fish/ kitten/ little black kitten// And then I… when this kitten… He was fed/ from a pipette for the first days// And then/ I-a/ after looking at this kitten began to say that this is obviously a cross between cats and pikes such a strange kitten was// He threw himself at everyone who entered/ and tormented him//.
Many syntactic properties of colloquial speech are due to the peculiarities of its functioning - unpreparedness, spontaneity, close connection with the situation. In colloquial utterances, some grammatically and semantically necessary components often turn out to be unexpressed (non-verbalized). Their absence is possible only due to the “inclusion” of the statement in a certain situation. Wed the following examples (customer talking to salesperson in shoe department): Here those brown please show // (missing shoes); (conversation during breakfast) Would you like cheese or sausage? (not expressed do sandwich). The verbal ellipsis does not prevent the interlocutors from understanding each other: knowing the situation, they easily “complete” the missing fragments of the text. Statements of this type are called constructions with unreplaced syntactic positions. Most of these constructions are consituationally related, however, there are a number of constructions with null predicate verbs, the meanings of which are determined by the language system and do not require situation support. These include, for example, zero verbs of motion (I'm home//; We're at the dacha//; Are you not from the forest?); zero verbs with a general meaning of speech (What are you talking about? About the new film?; Are you talking about Katya?) and nek. etc. Widespread in colloquial speech constructions with nominative themes. The noun in the nominative case is taken to the absolute beginning of the statement, actualizing (highlighting) its theme. Further, the utterance may contain a correlative member, which acts as a "link" between the nominative case in preposition and the rest of the utterance. The correlative is usually pronouns or nouns that have the form like name. fall., and indirect cases. Wed: Dad / he has not had dinner yet / /, Dad/ dad haven't had dinner yet Flowers/ them I didn't buy Flowers/ colors I didn't buy.
Colloquial speech has a specific type of connection of two predicative constructions into one statement - the connection of a free connection. The semantic relations that develop on the basis of free connection bonds are very diverse and syncretic. Edit: Where is my wallet? lay here?; What is this transmission you have said will be on TV today?; Lena I know will not come//; Komarov you were are there many?; House we passed today already almost completed.
In colloquial speech, there are norms of word arrangement, closely related primarily to the features of the actual articulation of the utterance. One of the most important tendencies that regulates the order of words in a statement is the tendency to preposition the communicatively most important component: Of bread go buy it at the bakery//; Sonya I'm worried today/I wouldn't get sick//. Spontaneity, unpreparedness of colloquial speech, the linear nature of its construction lead to the fact that the words in the statement "unfold" according to the principle of free associative attachment. As a result, semantically and grammatically related phrases often turn out to be disconnected, with the most significant word being moved to the beginning. Wed: Towel bring pure//; Hat didn't see where my? The weakening of the role of unions and allied words is expressed in the fact that their place in a colloquial utterance is not fixed (in contrast to the book-written language, where their syntactic position is rigidly fixed). For example: Tanya I don't know where left / / (cf. codif. I don’t know where Tanya went); I can’t leave the house / I’m waiting for a locksmith because// (cf. codif. I can't leave the house because I'm waiting for a locksmith). The order of words in colloquial speech is closely related to its intonational and rhythmic features. A colloquial utterance is often built as an intonationally dissected unit with two intonational centers, between which there are accentuated non-selected components (the so-called "intonation hole"). In such two-peak constructions, phrasal accents fall on the most important words that make up the communicative core of the utterance: Doctor you do not know when will he arrive?; Very you have him independent//; Luda asked to call Tikhvinskaya//.
Colloquial word formation reveals less dependence on usage, on various kinds of grammatical and semantic restrictions. In the process of easy communication, the interlocutors often do not reproduce the words existing in the language, but produce, create them “just in case”, based on productive word-formation models. In the words formed in this way, the meaning prompted by a specific situation is actualized: And where do we purifier? The toilet is clogged / should be cleaned / / (instead of the word-term plunger the speaker uses the non-usual purifier, derived from the verb purify). In colloquial speech, there are specific ways of word production - univerbation and truncation. During univerbation, the original phrase (generating base), consisting of two or more components, is folded into one derivative word, which “absorbs” the meaning of the generating base: buckwheat - buckwheat, "Komsomolskaya Pravda" - "Komsomolskaya Pravda", a five-story building - five-story building; folding bed - cot. Another productive way of colloquial derivation is to truncate the generating stem. Nouns and adjectives are truncated: tape recorder - magician, teacher - prep, sandwich - buter, state exams - gosy, primitive - primitive, intimate - intimate. In colloquial speech, word-formation methods are more active, which also operate in the book-written language: suffix (open - opener(can opener), doctor - doctor, old - junk, synchronous - synchronize(engaged in simultaneous translation) and many others. etc.), prefix (She will have overprotection//; Dissect my sleeves!; This antisoup/ real porridge / / No liquid), prefix-suffix (cf. playful formations: We have sleeplessness/ forgot to buy matches//; Thanks! You me sandwiched//). Colloquial speech is characterized by the breadth of the use of various word-formation models, the weakening of the prohibitions on the compatibility of affixes with the generating base. Words that have a variety of lexical and grammatical properties can act as "source material". For example, borrowings, abbreviations, interjections: cinema - filmmaker, Moscow State University - emgeushny, Oh! - ooh, bam! - bang and many others. etc. Phrases and even whole statements can serve as a generating basis: This teticatin scarf// (from aunt Katya); [mother to child] Stay out of the puddle! And that grandmother God-wash will! (from My God!). In colloquial speech, a derivative word is often associated with a generating basis only by the most general meaning. As a result, many newly formed words are ambiguous and incomprehensible out of context. For example, core- it can be a cardiologist, and a person suffering from heart disease. The meanings of such words are clarified only in a specific speech situation. Wed: BUT. He who? Surgeon? B. No/ core//; My father has a heart / suffered three heart attacks / /. In the process of direct dialogical communication, the previous remark of the interlocutor may be an incentive for the formation of a non-usual word: BUT. I don't like / to me sorry// B. The point here is not pity//; BUT. Want cabbage soup? I ate//; BUT. Temirkanov did a great job conducting the Carmen Suite// B. Yes/ otkarmenil//.
In lexical and stylistic terms, colloquial texts are heterogeneous: in them you can find, first of all, words related to everyday life, everyday life, the so-called everyday words ( spoon, saucepan, frying pan, comb, hairpin, rag, broom etc.), words that have a pronounced colloquial, often reduced, connotation ( snag, get drunk, dirty etc.), stylistically neutral words that make up the main vocabulary of the modern literary language ( work, rest, young, now, no time and many others. etc.), special terminological vocabulary and, conversely, separate jargon inclusions. Such stylistic "omnivorousness" of colloquial speech is explained primarily by its wide thematic range. In an informal setting with people you know well, you can talk about any topic: about everyday household chores, work, politics, friends and acquaintances, illness of loved ones, a new film, etc. At the same time, the speaker's linguistic preferences: his tendency to joke, play with words, or, conversely, to widely include book and written vocabulary in speech, are most clearly manifested in a situation of easy direct communication. Compare, for example, fragments of a conversation between a female student and her mother. The topic of the conversation (a story about hydrological practice) and the professional studies of the informant, a student of the Faculty of Geography of Moscow State University, determine the presence of special vocabulary in the text ( reconnaissance, slope, lot, echo sounder, take a count, depression, dredgers), the inclusion in the story of the words of youth, student jargon ( hesitated, prep), statements with bright colloquial coloring ( some kind of circus in the meaning of "funny situation", form just do vm. cod. at all, shvark) give an idea of the age and social status of the narrator, and also testify to her emotional looseness during the conversation: Yes, everything was there / there was always some kind of circus / / With this / when we were on reconnaissance / with us / we just do all the teachers had a very interesting manner// We arrive/ we say “we got a slope of three and a half centimeters per kilometer”// “This / cannot be here”//<…>With this bias, we shook them / / We nevertheless proved that we were right / / Then ... um ... let's go / there was also a reconnaissance / there / you measure with a manual lot / depth / / There is not a mechanical / not an echo sounder / namely, manual // That is, a rope / with a load / there is a shvark / and you take a countdown / /<…>We had Vadik with a lot//<…>We reach such a bottleneck / this means to the dredgers / / So this one is approaching us /<…>On the boat our prep / / They are waiting / / Vadik throws out the lot / and he himself is there like this ( shows) leaves// Depression/ twelve and a half meters//.
A typical feature of colloquial vocabulary is its semantic syncretism and polysemy. The so-called “sponges” words are widespread in colloquial speech, the meaning of which is determined by the situation. For example, general meaning words makeshift- "something temporary", but depending on the specific conditions of the conversation, it can "absorb" different meanings: "temporary house, stairs, stove, extension", etc .; glass in everyday communication, any building with large showcase windows can be called: a store, a hairdresser, a savings bank, a canteen, an institution, etc. Some words with a generalized meaning (cf. simple, normal, empty, normal) under certain conditions can act as unmarked members of semantic oppositions, while in each specific situation a certain component of meaning is actualized. For example, simple - silk, simple - festive, simple - with syrup, simple - air (cf .: Look / silk how many dresses do you want simple no one//; BUT. Put on festive blouse// B. yes no / me simple/ I feel more comfortable in it//; What water will you be / simple or with syrup?; I have two envelopes air/ and one simple//); cf. also common colloquial combinations: empty potatoes - potatoes With butter, empty tea - sweet tea and more etc. In colloquial speech, there are ways of naming objects, signs or actions. In the process of direct, informal communication, it is easier for interlocutors to construct a new word “for the occasion” than to reproduce a lexical unit that already exists in a codified language. In addition to the highly productive word-formation models described above (suffixal univerbation, truncation, suffixal, prefixal, prefix-suffixal methods), other methods are also used to create colloquial nominations: substantiation (meat dish - meat; cf .: Something for me today meat I don’t want / I’d rather have vegetables / /, laboratory work – laboratory; treatment room - procedural etc.); semantic contraction of phrases by eliminating the defined or defining (thesis - diploma, viral influenza virus, perm - chemistry, Academic Council - advice, kindergarten - kindergarten, granulated sugar - sand); construction of nominations based on metonymic transfer (Yesterday in the book / Sasha Cherny(book by Sasha Cherny) bought / /, They said that US(our house) is being demolished//, Girl/ a lycra(pantyhose with lycra) do you have?, in dinner(during lunch break) meet//); verbal nominations, including verbum finitum and characterizing a person or object by its action ( Milk brings/ now on vacation / yes?, Just came into our room/ works in the inventory department//); verbal nominations consisting of a verb in the infinitive form and a relative pronoun ( What to write don't you have it?, bring it what to put on//, What flowers to put in the room//). The close cohesion of colloquial utterances with the communicative act gives rise to a special type of naming, called the "situation name". Behind such one-word nominations used by the speaker, there is a whole complex of meanings that is understandable to the interlocutor, "included" in the situation, but remains unclear to the rest, "uninitiated", and requires commentary. The speech signal of the name of the situation is an unusual combination of words in the text. Compare: A skiing we changed our minds / yes? (i.e. changed their minds about discussing the details of the ski trip); Oh / a your birthday we didn't discuss // (didn't discuss how we will celebrate your birthday). Wed also expressions typical of everyday communication: turn off the fish, turn on the soup, turn down the pasta etc. (i.e. a burner on which stands fish, soup, pasta, etc.). The wide possibility of using a variety of models for constructing nominations generates a number of doublet words: ladle, ladle, scoop, bottling, bottling, than bottling; lab work, lab, lab, lab etc.
Spoken texts are distinguished by a high degree of expression. As the researchers note, the ability of colloquial speech to exaggerate sometimes leads to exclusions from the colloquial vocabulary of words with neutral evaluativeness. The "emotional tension" of colloquial utterances is created by a variety of means, such as, for example, the repetition of lexemes (Nam very very liked//; She was sad-sad today//; BUT. Do you want ice cream? B. Ouch want Want//); pronoun usage such as a quality intensifier (Behind us such turn!; She is with you such clever / such a sweetheart / /). To express a high degree of intensity of a property, a metaphor is widely used - cf. typically colloquial assessments: a sea of flowers, a mountain of gifts, a lot of claims and etc.; cf. See also: me today fall off my feet from fatigue//, We've been here for an hour sunbathing/waiting for you//, I called him all evening/ phone cut off/ busy all the time//; What the rubbish heap on your table!
In recent years, the focus of research interest has shifted from studying the system-structural features of colloquial speech to analyzing its textual characteristics. This explains the special attention to the genre stratification of colloquial speech. Speech genres as types of texts are realized under certain conditions and can be considered through the prism of a communicative situation and its participants. To characterize any communicative situation, such parameters as space (i.e., the place where communication takes place: at home or outside the home - at work, on the street, in a store, sanatorium, clinic, etc.), time (when communication takes place: on weekdays or on holidays, during working or free time, etc.), communication partners (their communicative roles - speaking / listening, family, professional roles, the nature of their ratio on the “higher” / “lower” scale, communicative goals of the speaker and listener, etc.), situational topic (for example, "Awakening", "Lunch", "Family holiday", "Shop", "Transport", etc.). Each of the situation parameters influences the speaker's choice of genre. So, for example, numerous situations of domestic communication "cast" into different stereotypical micro-genres (depending on the time and topic of conversation, family roles). Wed: [Morning. Awakening] BUT. [daughter's mother] Good morning// Mash/ get up/ oversleep school// B. Right now / I’m getting up / / Hello Mom / /; [Leaving home] BUT. [husband wife] Well, I went// Bye// B. Happy// Don't linger there//; [Preparing dinner] BUT. [husband to wife entering the kitchen] What are you? Did you buy a pizza? B. Yeah// So as not to mess around// Right now, quickly put it in the oven/ and in fifteen minutes it's ready//. Equally stereotyped is our verbal behavior in situations outside the home: [On the street] BUT. « Child's world"/ how to get? B. Straight / then left around the corner / / BUT. Thanks//; [Book store] BUT. [buyer] Please tell me / are there any manuals for the German language? B. [salesman] German department//. In colloquial speech, large and small, monologue and dialogic genres are distinguished. Large monologue and dialogic genres, for example, include story, conversation, conversation; small genres are monologues, microdialogues, stereotypes. Our everyday speech communication is a genre continuum. Observation of the specifics of the organization of this continuum allows us to identify the features of the everyday linguistic existence of modern speakers of the Russian literary language.
Literature:
Vinokur T.G. Stylistic development of modern Russian colloquial speech. - In the book: Development of functional styles of the modern Russian language. M., 1968
Russian colloquial speech. M., 1973
Sirotinina O.B. Modern colloquial speech and its features. M., 1974
Lapteva O.A. Russian colloquial syntax. M., 1976
Russian colloquial speech. Texts. 1978
Bakhtin M.M. The problem of speech genres. - In the book: Bakhtin M.M. Aesthetics of verbal creativity. M., 1979
Devkin V.D. German Conversation: Syntax and Vocabulary. M., 1979
Zemskaya E.A. Russian Colloquial Speech: Linguistic Analysis and Learning Problems. M., 1979
Zemskaya E.A., Kitaygorodskaya M.V., Shiryaev E.N. Russian colloquial speech: General issues. Word formation. Syntax. M., 1981
Russian colloquial speech. Phonetics. Morphology. Vocabulary. Gesture. M., 1983
Yakubinsky L.P. ABOUT dialogical speech
. - In the book: Yakubinsky L.P. Selected works: Language and its functioning. M., 1986
Kapanazde L.A. On the genres of informal speech. - In the book: Varieties of urban oral speech. M., 1988
Phonetics of spontaneous speech. L., 1988
Krasilnikova E.V. Noun in Russian colloquial speech. Functional aspect. M., 1990
Vinokur T.G. Speaking and listening: variants of speech behavior. M., 1993
Wierzbitska Anna. Speech genres. - In the book: Genres of speech. Saratov, 1997
Kitaigorodskaya M.V., Rozanova N.N. Muscovites Speech: Communicative and Cultural Aspect. M., 1999
Speaking
Introduction | |
§one. The concept of colloquial speech and its features | |
§2. Pragmatics and stylistics of colloquial speech. Conditions for successful communication | |
§3. Reasons for communication failures | |
§4. Communication goals, speech strategies, tactics and techniques | |
§five. Genres of speech communication | |
§6. Ethics of speech communication and etiquette formulas of speech | |
Conclusion | |
List of used literature |
Introduction
An important requirement of the culture of language proficiency is the requirement to distinguish between its functional varieties, to freely use any of them, clearly representing which of the varieties of the language should be chosen in accordance with the tasks of communication. One of the fundamental differences between such a non-literary form of language as vernacular and the literary language is that the speakers of the first of them do not distinguish or poorly distinguish between varieties of language. Getting, for example, into an official business environment, a vernacular speaker will strive to speak differently than he is used to speaking at home, but he does not know exactly how to speak in this situation.
The culture of proficiency in different functional varieties of the language is, first of all, such a choice and such an organization language tools, which distinguish this species from others, determine its face.
Among the functional varieties, colloquial speech occupies a special place. Not so long ago, colloquial speech was considered in a number of functional styles.
The fact is that colloquial speech, in comparison with other functional varieties, has very significant features. If the language of fiction and the functional styles of the language are built on the basis of the rules of the language fixed in dictionaries and grammars, then the features of colloquial speech are not fixed anywhere. Nowhere does it say, for example, that under certain conditions of communication one can encounter the use of the nominative case of a noun in statements like: “Can you tell me how to get to the Tretyakov Gallery?”
The culture of speech develops the skills of selecting and using language means in the process of speech communication, helps to form a conscious attitude to their use in speech practice in accordance with communicative tasks.
To be modern means in the field of oral speech to proceed from the norms accepted at the present time, and one who seeks to influence others with his speech cannot afford non-normative elements. Knowledge of the norm is a prerequisite for competent and expressive speech, free and interesting communication.
“In order to fully communicate,” he writes, “a person must have a whole range of skills. He must quickly and correctly navigate in the conditions of communication; be able to plan your speech correctly, choose the right content for an act of communication, find adequate means to convey this content, and be able to provide feedback. If any of the links of the act of communication is violated, then it will not be effective.
("1") Serious work on yourself and your speech begins only when you clearly understand why you need it. Linguists, studying oral speech, concluded that it is structurally different from written language. Basically, they are similar, otherwise it would be impossible to retell what was read, and write down what was said. If in writing one channel of information (the text itself) then verbally two:
Information contained in spoken words
Information that is received in addition to words, which accompanies speech in one way or another is associated with words.
Conversational speech, due to its two-channel nature, is distinguished by great heuristic, creative possibilities. The writer and philosopher repeatedly referred to this thesis: “To the last extreme, one must beware of the use of philosophical concepts and keep the language, we whisper about everything with a close friend, always understanding that with this language we can say more than philosophers have tried to say something for a thousand years and not said."
Creating a text of a certain functional orientation is a creative process, with the exception of some canonical genres of official business style. Creativity, on the other hand, presupposes the manifestation of linguistic individuality. Each functional type of language has such a rich arsenal of language tools and ways of organizing them that it is always possible to build the corresponding texts in a variety of ways, but in all cases effectively. The higher the culture of proficiency in functional varieties of the language, the more linguistic individuality is manifested. It is hardly possible to learn linguistic individuality - this, as they say, is from God, but it is probably possible to learn not to create texts that are ineffective in communicative terms.
§one. The concept of colloquial speech and its features
Spoken language is a special functional variety of the literary language. If the language of fiction and functional styles have a single codified basis, then colloquial speech is opposed to them as an uncodified sphere of communication. Codification is the fixation in various dictionaries and grammar of those norms and rules that must be observed when creating texts of codified functional varieties. Norms and rules of colloquial communication are not fixed.
A well-known Russian psychologist and linguist once remarked: "It's ironic, I think that linguists have been studying the silent man for a long time." And he was absolutely right. For a long time it was believed that they speak the same or about the same as they write. Only in the 60s. of our century, when it became possible to record colloquial speech with the help of tape recorders and this speech came to the full attention of linguists, it turned out that the existing codifications are not quite suitable for linguistic comprehension of colloquial speech. So what is colloquial speech?
Conversational speech as a special functional variety of language, and, accordingly, as a special object of linguistic research, is characterized by three extralinguistic, external to the language, features.
The most important feature of colloquial speech is its spontaneity, unpreparedness. If, when creating even such simple written texts as, for example, a friendly letter, not to mention complex texts such as a scientific work, each statement is considered, many “difficult” texts are first written in draft, then a spontaneous text does not require such operations. The spontaneous creation of a spoken text explains why neither linguists, nor even just native speakers, noticed its great differences from codified texts: linguistic spoken features are not recognized, not fixed by consciousness, in contrast to codified linguistic indicators. Such a fact is interesting. When native speakers are presented with their own colloquial statements like “House of Shoes” for normative assessment, how can they get there? (codified version: How to get to the "House of Shoes"), then often these assessments are negative: "This is a mistake", "They don't say so", although for colloquial dialogues such a statement is more than usual.
Second hallmark colloquial speech is that conversational communication is possible only with informal relations between speakers.
And, finally, the third sign of colloquial speech is that it can be realized only with the direct participation of the speakers. Such participation of speakers in communication is obvious in dialogical communication, but also in communication, when one of the interlocutors speaks mainly, the other interlocutor does not remain passive; he, so to speak, has the right, in contrast to the conditions for the implementation of a monologue official speech, to constantly “intervene” in communication, agreeing or disagreeing with what was said in the form of replicas: “Yes”, “Of course”, “Good”, “No”, “Well, this”, or simply demonstrating their participation in communication with interjections like “Uh-huh”, the real sound of which is difficult to convey in writing. The following observation is noteworthy in this regard: if you talk on the phone for a long time and do not receive any confirmation from the other end that you are being listened to - at least in the form of “Uh-huh”, then you begin to worry about whether they are listening to you at all, interrupting themselves with replicas like “Can you hear me?”, “Hello”, and the like.
The pragmatic factor plays a special role in colloquial communication. Pragmatics are such communication conditions that include certain characteristics of the addresser (speaking, writing), addressee (listening, reading) and situations that affect the language structure of communication. Conversational informal communication with the direct participation of speakers is usually carried out between people who know each other well in a particular situation. Therefore, speakers have a certain general stock knowledge. This knowledge is called background knowledge. It is background knowledge that makes it possible to build such reduced statements in colloquial communication that are completely incomprehensible outside of this background knowledge.
As already mentioned, the spontaneity of colloquial speech, its great differences from codified speech, lead to the fact that spoken texts fixed in writing in one way or another leave native speakers with the impression of some disorder, much in these texts is perceived as speech carelessness or simply as a mistake. This happens precisely because colloquial speech is evaluated from the standpoint of codified prescriptions. In fact, it has its own norms, which cannot and should not be assessed as non-normative. Conversational features regularly, consistently manifest themselves in the speech of native speakers who are fluent in codified norms and all codified functional varieties of the literary language. Therefore, colloquial speech is one of the full-fledged literary varieties of the language, and not some kind of language formation, which, as it seems to some native speakers, is on the sidelines of the literary language or even beyond it.
What is a conversational norm? The norm in colloquial speech is that which is constantly used in the speech of native speakers of the literary language and is not perceived as a mistake during spontaneous perception of speech - “does not hurt the ear”. In colloquial speech, such pronunciations as stock (instead of codified so much), kada, tada (instead of codified when, then) are often found - and all this is an orthoepic colloquial norm. In colloquial speech, a special morphological form of address is more than usual - a truncated nominative case of personal names, sometimes with repetition: Kat, Mash, Volod, Mash-a-Mash, Len-a-Len - and this is a morphological norm. In colloquial speech, the nominative case of a noun is consistently used where only the oblique case is possible in codified texts: "Conservatory ... how can I get closer?" (“How can I get closer to the conservatory?”), “We have a large pack of sugar” (“We have a large pack of sugar”) - and this is a syntactic norm.
Norms of colloquial speech have one important feature. They are not strictly obligatory in the sense that a general literary norm can be used instead of a colloquial one, and this does not violate the colloquial status of the text: there are no prohibitions on saying in an informal setting: “You’d better go on the fourteenth trolley bus Kazansky station” and “The fourteenth trolleybus is better for you than Kazansky.” There is, however, a large number of such words, forms, turns, which are intolerable in colloquial speech. Everyone, presumably, will easily feel the unnaturalness for a conversational situation of such a statement as: "It is more convenient for you to get to the Kazansky railway station if you use the trolleybus route number fourteen."
So, colloquial speech is a spontaneous literary speech, implemented in informal situations with the direct participation of speakers based on pragmatic conditions of communication.
The linguistic features of colloquial speech are so significant that they gave rise to the hypothesis that the basis of colloquial speech is a special system that cannot be reduced to the system of a codified language and cannot be derived from it. Therefore, in many studies, colloquial speech is called colloquial language. This hypothesis may or may not be accepted. In all cases, it remains true that colloquial speech, compared with codified language, has its own characteristics. Let's consider the main ones.
Phonetics. In colloquial speech, especially at a fast pace of pronunciation, a much stronger reduction of vowels is possible than in a codified language, up to their complete loss. In the field of consonants main feature colloquial speech - simplification of groups of consonants. Many phonetic features of colloquial speech act in combination, creating a very "exotic" phonetic appearance of words and phrases, especially frequency ones.
Morphology. The main difference between colloquial morphology is not that it has any special morphological phenomena (except for the already mentioned vocative forms of address like “Mash, Mash-a-Mash”, it’s hard to name anything else), but that some there are no phenomena. So, in colloquial speech such verbal forms as participles and gerunds are rarely used in their direct functions associated with the creation of participial and participle phrases, which in works on syntactic stylistics are rightly characterized as purely bookish phrases. In colloquial speech, only such participles or gerunds are possible that perform the functions of ordinary adjectives or adverbs and are not the center of participles or gerunds: knowledgeable people, decisive, close-fitting dress, trembling voice, shiny glass; lay without getting up, poured a full cup without measuring, walked without turning, came at the same time without saying a word, answers without hesitation. The absence of gerunds in colloquial speech has one important syntactic consequence for it. Those relations that are conveyed in the codified language by gerunds and participles, in colloquial speech are formed by a construction with double heterogeneous verbs that is completely intolerable in the codified language: “Yesterday I was lying on my head at all, I could not raise it”; “Write two phrases, don’t be lazy”; “I was sitting here surrounded by dictionaries.”
("2") Syntax. Syntax is that part of grammar in which colloquial features manifest themselves most clearly, consistently and diversely. Features of colloquial syntax are found primarily in the field of connection between words and parts of a complex sentence (predicative constructions). In a codified language, these connections are usually expressed by special syntactic means: prepositional-case forms, conjunctions and allied words. In colloquial speech, the role of such syntactic means is not so great: in it, semantic relations between words and predicative constructions can be established on the basis of the lexical semantics of the connected components, an example of which is the nominative case of a noun, which can be used, as can be seen from many examples already given, on the spot many indirect cases. Languages with explicit syntactic links are called synthetic, languages in which links between components are established based on the lexico-semantic indicators of the components are called analytical. Russian belongs to synthetic languages, but some elements of analyticism are not alien to it. It is the tendency towards analyticism that is one of the major differences colloquial syntax from codified.
Vocabulary. In colloquial speech, there are almost no special words unknown in the codified language. Its lexical features are manifested in a different way: colloquial speech is characterized by a developed system of its own methods of nomination (naming).
The main, if not the only, form of the implementation of colloquial speech is the oral form. Only notes and other similar genres can be attributed to the written form of colloquial speech. So, sitting in a meeting, you can write to a friend: “Leave?” - and in the conditions of this situation and the corresponding background knowledge (you need to be in time somewhere), it will be clear what is at stake. There is an opinion that all the features of colloquial speech are generated not by the conditions of its implementation (spontaneity, informality, direct contact of the speakers), but by the oral form. In other words, it is believed that unreadable official public oral texts (report, lecture, radio talk, etc.) are built in the same way as unofficial spontaneous ones.
From the point of view of linguistic features, it is necessary to distinguish between oral codified and non-codified spoken texts.
What is the significance of the above information about the linguistic characteristics of colloquial speech for the culture of language proficiency? Only one thing: in the conditions of colloquial communication, one should not be afraid of spontaneous manifestations of colloquial speech. And, of course, you need to know what these spontaneous manifestations are in order to be able to distinguish them from errors, which, of course, can also be in colloquial speech: incorrect stresses, pronunciation, morphological forms, etc.
§ 2. Pragmatics and stylistics of colloquial speech.
conditions for successful communication.
The functional variety of the codified literary language "colloquial speech" is an example of the communicative interaction of people, and therefore, shows all the nuances of purposeful behavior. The informality of the communication environment, the situational conditionality of speech, its spontaneity, instantaneousness and simultaneity (simultaneity) of speech-thought processes obscure the complex nature of this phenomenal human behavior, which is largely due to the social roles of the participants, their psychological characteristics, emotional state.
Since antiquity, researchers of colloquial speech have distinguished such forms as dialogue, polylogue and monologue, recognizing dialogue as a “natural” form of language existence, and monologue as “artificial”. A polylogue is a conversation between several participants in a conversation. Monologue - addressed speech of one participant in communication, for example, a letter, a note (written forms of speech), a story, a story. Researchers usually project polylogue problems onto dialogue, defining dialogue as a conversation of more than one participant in communication, mainly oral interpersonal verbal interaction.
The structure of the dialogue is determined not so much by the rules of people's linguistic behavior, but by the canons of human communication and the individual characteristics of the worldview of the speakers, so the dialogue is studied not only by linguistic disciplines, but also by other sciences. Especially valuable for the culture of speech are discoveries in philosophy, cultural studies, psychology, and neuropsychology. So, it is the dialogue that is the language in the understanding of Hegel: "the self-consciousness that exists for others, which in this capacity is given directly and is universal." E. Benveniste's statement is known that man was created twice: once without language, another time - with language. Thus, long before the conclusions of modern neuropsychology, philosophers came to the idea of the dialogical nature of consciousness, the phenomenon of pure I in speech (the inner form of the word "consciousness"). Thus, consciousness (and speech creativity) is always targeted. introduced the concept of "the highest instance of reciprocal understanding", "superaddressee", who will understand the speaker in any case, help to reveal the author's intention. To understand the essence of colloquial speech, the following conclusion is important: the speaking person always declares himself as a person, and only in this case it is possible to establish contact in communication with other people. In each statement, the speaker appears as a person with certain ethnic, national, cultural characteristics, revealing his own worldview, ethical and value orientations.
1. A necessary condition for the emergence of a dialogue and its successful completion is the need for communication, not explicitly expressed in linguistic forms, communicative interest (by definition). Interest in communication and equal rights in the dialogue do not affect: a) the depth of acquaintance (close friends, acquaintances, strangers); b) the degree of social dependence (for example, the primacy of the father, a subordinate position in the team); in) emotional background(benevolence, neutrality, hostility). In any case, with interest, there is agreement to “listen”, “solidarity”. And this is the first step to the successful completion of the conversation.
The success of verbal communication is the implementation of the communicative goal of the initiator (initiators) of communication and the achievement of agreement by the interlocutors.
2. The next important condition for successful communication, correct perception and understanding is the attunement to the world of the interlocutor, the closeness of the worldview of the speaker and the listener. defined it as the proximity of the speakers' apperceptual base. called this phenomenon the apperceptive background of speech perception. The interlocutors' past life experience, similar interests and cultural canons give rise to quick mutual understanding, which is expressed by a rapid change of remarks, by such paralinguistic means as facial expressions, gestures, tone, voice timbre.
The speech forms of the correct attunement to the world of the listener are very different: the type of address, intonation, voice timbre, speech rate, one and a half, special means of expressing the speaker's attitude to the subject of speech (epithets, evaluative adverbs, introductory words and sentences), to the interlocutor, hints, allusions, ellipsis; implicit (or, conversely, explicit) ways of conveying information, pauses, silence, etc.
3. The main condition for successful verbal communication is the ability of the listener to penetrate the communicative plan (intention, intention) of the speaker. Since the communicative intention is formed at the preverbal level of speech-thought, and the comprehension of the meaning of what was said occurs parallel to the linear deployment of the statement, the listener does a great job of interpreting the speech flow and “reconstructing” the speaker’s intention, rethinking what was said and understood earlier, and correlating his “model” of the understood with real facts and the line of behavior of the interlocutor. This "work" is also instantaneous, simultaneous and biological in its essence, the pack and the process of speaking, therefore individual differences are natural here. “Knowing a language means: (a) being able to express a given meaning in different (ideally, all possible in given language) ways (ability to paraphrase); (b) be able to extract meaning from what is said in a given language, in particular, to distinguish between outwardly similar but different in meaning statements (discrimination of homonymy) and find a common meaning in outwardly different statements (possession of synonymy); (c) be able to distinguish linguistically correct sentences from incorrect ones.
Communicative competence implies knowledge of sociocultural norms and stereotypes of verbal communication. So, one who owns these norms knows not only the meaning of units of different levels and the meaning of the types of combinations of these elements, but also the meaning of textual social parameters; for example, knows the techniques of dialogization of speech (knows how to use appeals in various forms, knows how to sincerely express his assessment of a particular fact or event, which usually causes a response, reciprocal empathy), knows how to predict the emotive reactions of interlocutors, knows the means of intimating communication. An important role is played by the speaker's knowledge of expressions known to the addressee with an "incremented" meaning, which have gone through the process of "secondary meaning" in various speech situations: aphorisms, proverbs, sayings, textual clichés, precedent texts, allusions.
It is important to understand that linguistic (communicative) competence, helping the listener to recognize the "true hierarchies" in the statement, text, allows you to correlate the relevance of a particular linguistic fact (word, expression, syntactic model) with the speaker's intention. This can be called the key to adequate understanding.
4. The success of communication depends on the speaker's ability to vary the way of linguistic representation of a particular real event. This is primarily due to the possibility of different conceptualizations of the surrounding world. The speaker builds his speech with a focus on the world of knowledge of the addressee, adapting the form of presenting information to the possibilities of its interpretation.
The basic rule of the speaker's behavior is the hierarchization of the content of the message, which should be based on the speaker's awareness of a particular issue; first, information is reported that can be used in interpreting the subsequent one. For successful verbal communication, the speaker should not strive to tell the interlocutor only facts, the “bare truth”, objective truth: he will still reveal his opinion. On the contrary, it is necessary to consciously combine “direct” communication (information) and “indirect”, wrapping the message in a “shell”, “veil” of one’s own understanding, which seeks sympathy from the addressee. It can be irony, humor, paradox, symbol, image. Such speech is always a search for agreement.
5. The success of verbal communication is influenced by external circumstances: the presence of strangers, a communication channel (for example, a telephone conversation, SMS to a phone, a note, a letter, a face-to-face conversation), mood, emotional mood, physiological state - all this can predetermine the fate of the conversation . Distinguish communication contact - distant; direct - indirect; oral - written. Communication will be more successful if it takes place orally, the interlocutors are alone. But even favorable circumstances are not a guarantee of success, consent. The conversation is “created” by speech segments (replicas), pauses, tempo, gestures, facial expressions, looks, postures, the conversation develops in time, and each subsequent replica “layers” everything that was said earlier, interacts with it, and the result of this interaction is unpredictable. The atmosphere of the dialogue becomes no less significant than its content, and therefore the “element” of the conversation is more and more captivating to the interlocutors.
("3") 7. An important component of successful speech communication is the speaker's knowledge of the norms of etiquette speech communication. Regardless of the politeness formulas, there is a certain set of statements in the language, fixed by the tradition of using the language, which "prescribe" a certain form of response to the addressee. Etiquette speech behavior is rigidly predetermined not only by “traditional” questions, but also by the circumstances of the conversation, the tone of communication, and its style. The basic rule for the reciprocal utterance of the address: the replica must fit into the "context" of the dialogue, i.e., be appropriate.
8. The conditions for successful verbal communication are also rooted in accordance with the plans and patterns of speech behavior of the interlocutors, which are based on a certain level of human relations and social interaction.
How realistic is the implementation of the dialogue plans? Even a carefully thought-out course of the conversation and the prescribed procedure for exchanging views does not always lead to the agreement of the interlocutors and the successful completion of the conversation. Success in dialogue leads to a successful prediction of the listener's perception of the speaker's remarks, the speaker's ability to predict the general intention of the listener's interpretation and the strategy of its perception. At the same time, perception should also be assessed as a “behavioral” act. The success of verbal communication depends on the desire of the participants in the form of a dialogue to express their opinions, desires, requests, to report something, etc.; from the ability to determine all the personal characteristics of the communicants, to organize in accordance with this their remarks containing information on a specific issue, expressing an opinion, an impulse to action or a question in the optimal form under the circumstances, at an intellectual level worthy of interlocutors, in an interesting perspective.
§ 3. Causes of communication failures
The linguistic entity "verbal communication" is largely formed by non-linguistic factors and constructs extra-linguistic entities: relationships, action, state, emotions, knowledge, beliefs, etc. Therefore, both the success of verbal communication and failures do not always depend on the choice of linguistic forms by speakers .
Communication failures are the failure of the initiator of communication to achieve the communicative goal and, more broadly, pragmatic aspirations, as well as the lack of interaction, mutual understanding and agreement between the participants in communication.
The linear deployment of a dialogue (or polylogue) is due to different order, but at the same time interrelated factors, linguistic and extralinguistic processes. Therefore, the search for the causes of communication failures should be carried out in different areas: in the socio-cultural stereotypes of communicants, in their background knowledge, in differences communicative competence, in the psychology of gender, age, personality. In addition, naturally, the distance of the participants, the presence of unauthorized persons, communication through notes, letters, pagers, and telephone can have a negative impact on the outcome of verbal communication. An important role is played by all the features of the development of the speech situation, up to the state of the communicants and their mood.
The apparent amorphousness, intangibility of the terms of verbal communication, however, allows us to distinguish the following adverse factors leading to communication failure.
1. An alien communicative environment reduces the efforts of the participants in communication to nothing, since in such an environment disharmony reigns, there is no mood of the interlocutors for the phenomenal inner world of each other. In dialogue communication with strangers, the interlocutors feel discomfort that prevents them from realizing themselves in this situation and determining the tone of their speech behavior. A small degree of familiarity can exacerbate discomfort and make it difficult to find " common language". Incomplete speech contact (even when interested in communication) can manifest itself in a low rate of exchange of remarks, out of place statements, inappropriate jokes and emotional reactions (for example, in irony instead of sympathy), misinterpretation and, in general, in a "dissonant" exchange of remarks.
2. A serious reason for the alienation of the participants in the conversation may be a violation of the parity of communication. In this case, there is also a violation of the rule of solidarity, cooperation of interlocutors. This is manifested in the dominance of one of the participants in the conversation: starting from the initial remark, the same person chooses the topic of conversation, asks questions, interrupts the interlocutor, without waiting for signals of perception and correct interpretation of what was said, thus turning the dialogue into a monologue. At the same time, factors such as the psychological traits of the participants in communication, social status, emotional relationships, and cultural skills play a decisive role.
3. The communicative intentions of the interlocutors will not be realized, there will be no agreement if live speech communication is ritualized. In a ritualized replica, all pragmatic characteristics of speech (who - to whom - what - why - why) are leveled, the rule of a sincere benevolent attitude towards the interlocutor, that is, ethical norms, is violated, and there is also a use of a “set of words” for the occasion.
4. The reason for the violation of contact with the interlocutor and the termination of the conversation may be an inappropriate remark to the listener about his actions, personal qualities, which can be interpreted as an unfriendly attitude of the speaker (violation of the rules of cooperation, solidarity, relevance). Inappropriateness can be caused by the inability of the speaker to catch the mood of the interlocutor, to determine the course of his thought. This is typical for conversations between unfamiliar people.
The discrepancy between the sociocultural characteristics of the participants in communication can also lead to inappropriate phrases leading to a communicative failure.
5. Misunderstanding and failure of the interlocutors to reach agreement can be caused by a number of circumstances when the listener's communicative expectations are not justified. And if the elimination of the causes of unsuccessful communication, which lie in the sphere of socio-cultural stereotypes, the background of knowledge, psychological predilections, is in principle impossible, then misunderstanding caused by a low level of language competence can be overcome. Discomfort of communication, misinterpretation and alienation arise in the case of incorrect linear organization of the utterance. Syntactic errors in agreement, stringing of cases, truncated sentences, reticence, jumping from one topic to another, albeit a close one - all this causes tension in attention and failure to fulfill the listener's communicative expectations. The situation is exacerbated by the rapid pace of speech, pauses of reflection (stammering). If at the same time the speaker informs the listener on a topic known to him, then the listener has to do a lot of “work” to guess the overall picture, and if the topic of the message is unknown to the addressee, then the speaker risks being misunderstood.
The difference in the patterns of behavior of the participants in the dialogue can lead to communicative disharmony and misunderstanding, which is reflected in the incoherence (fragmentation) of parts of the dialogue, in the unrealized communicative valence of replicas, and unjustified pauses.
§ 4. Communicative goals, speech strategies,
tactics and techniques
Speech communication, being a special kind of purposeful human behavior, requires the analysis of such types of speech communication that can be considered exemplary in terms of speech culture.
l. According to the communicative attitude, all speech acts are divided into two large categories: informative and interpretive.
According to the modal characteristic, informative dialogues include informative ones (or messages), discusive genres and “prescriptive” types of communication. The initial remarks and the role of the leader in the conversation predetermine the next stage in the typology of the dialogues. Interpretive dialogues can be divided into the following classes: purposeful and undirected. Purposeful in terms of modal characteristics, in turn, are divided into dialogues that form evaluative modeling, and dialogues that form another type of modality. Non-directional dialogues differ in what aspect of the personality is realized in the conversation: I-intellectual, I-emotional, I-aesthetic.
("4") 2. Speech strategies are identified based on the analysis of the course of dialogue interaction throughout the conversation. The smallest unit of research is a dialogue "step" - a fragment of a dialogue characterized by semantic exhaustion. The number of such "steps" in the dialogue may vary depending on the topic, the relationship between the participants in the communication and on all pragmatic factors.
As a rule, the strategy is determined by the macro-intention of one (or all) participants in the dialogue, determined by social and psychological situations. The strategy is connected with the search for a common language and the development of the foundations of dialogic cooperation: this is the choice of the tone of communication, the choice of a linguistic way of presenting the real state of affairs. The development of a strategy is always carried out under the influence of the requirements of the stylistic norm.
According to the attitude of the participants in the dialogue to such a principle of organizing verbal communication as solidarity, or cooperation, speech strategies can be divided into cooperative and non-cooperative.
Cooperative strategies include different types of informative and interpretive dialogues; for example, communication of information (initiator-active participant in the dialogue); clarification of the true state of affairs (dispute, exchange of views on any issue; all participants are active); dialogues with the expectation of a response by the initiator of the dialogue and "dialogues" that exclude response responses (the first category includes a request, advice, persuasion, exhortation; the second - a demand, an order, a recommendation). An accurate description of the type of dialogue is given by verbs that directly reveal the purpose of the initiator's speech - I ask, advise, beg, demand, etc.; expressions of gratitude, confessions, in love, apologies, expressions of sympathy, sympathy, friendly feelings, compliments.
Non-cooperative strategies include dialogues based on a violation of the rules of verbal communication - benevolent cooperation, sincerity, compliance with the "code" of trust, for example: conflicts, quarrels, squabbles, claims, threats, aggression, anger, irony, slyness, lies, evasion from the answer.
Speech strategies outline the general development of the dialogue, which is fully revealed only in the final remarks, because, we recall, there are no rules for “managing” the conversation and any parameter of the pragmatic characteristics of speech communication can have a significant impact on the outcome of the dialogue. In addition, the chosen framework of the style of communication dictates the "plot turns" of the conversation and ways of expression.
3. Speech tactics perform the function of ways to implement the speech strategy: they form parts of the dialogue, grouping and alternating the modal shades of the conversation (assessments, opinions, annoyance, joy, etc.). So, for example, in a strategy for refusing to fulfill a request, there may be tactics: a) impersonate an incompetent person (incapable of fulfilling this request); b) refer to the impossibility of fulfilling the request at a given time (employment); c) irony; d) refusal without motivation; e) avoid answering, do not promise anything definite; e) make it clear that he does not want to comply with the request. All these tactics are based on a non-cooperative strategy of speech behavior of a participant in communication. Regardless of the chosen means of expression, agreement will not be reached, the initiator of communication will face a communicative failure. A special kind of speech tactics are needed to establish contact between speakers (phatic communication). They are based on cooperative strategies and use a wide range of tactics to maintain the communicative interest of interlocutors, activate attention and awaken interest in the topic of conversation and the participants in communication. This creates an atmosphere of conversation, where each statement has a special overtone of meaning, words-symbols and clichéd constructions are often used. Spontaneous conversations that have only conative goals (establishing speech contact) often repeat the same tactics, for example, suggesting a topic of general interest (fashion, politics, parenting, weather, etc.), tactics to attract attention and engage in a conversation of many interlocutors, a tactic of shocking interlocutors through the denial of habitual patterns of behavior or the denial of value orientations in a given microsociety, aimed at strengthening the role of a leader. The tactics of implementing a certain strategy of speech bear the stamp of national psychology.
4. Techniques for the speech embodiment of strategies and tactics can be divided into trivial ways of expressing meaning and non-trivial ones. Trivial ways are stereotypes of expression that have developed in the language system: ensembles of different levels of means are organized in a given stylistic key. At the same time, lexical elements and syntactic constructions, historically established correspondences of word order and sentence patterns, types of inversions are in close interaction. The purpose of units of different levels for their use as part of units of a higher level, the role of all units in the formation of the meaning of the replica is revealed. The methods of expressing role relations in the dialogue are also stereotyped: variants of expressing apologies, requests indicate cooperative and non-cooperative strategies. There are implicit ways of expressing the meaning of the statement, the point of view of the speaker. They rely on known facts, generally accepted assessments or opinions of the speaker.
The means of expressing the cooperative strategy are different ways of evaluating one's own speech: introductory words, quotation marks in letters and notes, words denoting one's own content. Silence is an important technique for implementing a whole range of tactics in cooperative and non-cooperative strategies.
5. Specific for such a functional variety, so colloquial speech, is the constant attraction of the attention of the interlocutor. Therefore, the expressive effect of the utterance planned by the speaker and the listener's emotive reaction determine the atmosphere of the dialogue.
6. The success of communicative interaction is always the implementation of the speech, the speaker's intention and the persuasion of the listener, as well as his necessary emotional reaction. Linguistic units of all levels, for example, specially marked constructions, act as linguistic means of persuasion.
7. The stylistic tone of the speech of each participant in the conversation creates an aesthetic atmosphere of communication. Each speech situation has its own aesthetics, and all language means perform a certain aesthetic function. They reveal the aesthetic categories of beautiful and ugly, comic and tragic, heroic and everyday, harmony and dissonance, high ideals and base motives, spiritual aspirations, and earthly interests.
The principle of solidarity and cooperation in speech communication is refracted by the aesthetics of the comic into a convention to use the language of metaphorical comprehension, improvisation, common to the interlocutors.
§ 5. Genres of speech communication
The first clear division of the forms of verbal communication was made by Aristotle. A major role in the allocation of everyday speech genres belongs to him, who, without using the term "pragmatics", characterized the necessary pragmatic components of speech communication, emphasized the importance of the role of the addressee, anticipating his response. defined speech genres as relatively stable and normative forms of utterance, in which each utterance obeys the laws of integral composition and types of connection between sentences-utterances. Dialogue he defined as a classical form of verbal communication.
According to the types of communicative attitudes, according to the way partners participate, their role relations, the nature of the remarks, the ratio of dialogic and monologue speech, the following genres are distinguished: conversation, conversation, story, story, proposal, recognition, request, dispute, remark, advice, letter, note, message on pager, diary.
1. Conversation. This is a genre of verbal communication (dialogue or polylogue), in which, with a cooperative strategy, the following occurs: a) an exchange of views on any issues; b) exchange of information about the personal interests of each of the participants - to establish the type of relationship; c) aimless exchange of opinions, news, information (phatic communication). Different types conversations are characterized by corresponding types of dialogical modality.
2. Conversation. In this genre, both cooperative and non-cooperative strategies can be implemented. According to the goals of communication, they differ: a) informative conversation; b) prescriptive conversation (requests, orders, demands, advice, recommendations, beliefs in something); c) conversations aimed at clarifying interpersonal relationships (conflicts, quarrels, reproaches, accusations). Purposefulness is a characteristic feature of conversation, in contrast to conversation, which can be an idle speech genre.
3. Dispute. An argument is an exchange of opinions with the aim of making a decision or finding out the truth. Different points of view on a particular issue, however, have a common phase, not explicitly expressed in linguistic forms - an interest in communication. This determines a positive beginning in a dialogue or polylogue, a kind of code of trust, truthfulness and sincerity, expressed in etiquette forms of address, politeness, and the truth of arguments. The purpose of the dispute is to find an acceptable solution, but at the same time it is also a search for truth, the only correct solution. Depending on the topic of the dispute, it is possible to form an epistemic modality (in disputes on topics of science, politics) or an axiological modality (in disputes about the world of values, morality, etc.).
4. Story. This is a genre of colloquial speech, in which the monologue form of speech predominates within a dialogue or polylogue. The main strategic line of verbal communication is solidarity, consent, cooperation, "permission" to one of the participants to carry out their communicative intention, which basically comes down to information. The topic of the story can be any event, fact that happened to the narrator or anyone else. The course of the story may be interrupted by remarks-questions or remarks-evaluations, to which the narrator answers with varying degrees of completeness.
("5") 5. History. This genre of colloquial speech, like the story, is primarily monologue speech, which takes into account all the components of the pragmatic situation. In addition, an important pragmatic factor of speech when telling a "story" is memory. This factor determines the structure of the narrative and the content of speech. Characteristically, the stories do not include the addressee himself as a character. The communicative goal of history is not only the transfer of information about events that occurred earlier (at an unspecified moment), but also a summing up of semantic results, a summary, a comparison with an assessment of modern events and facts.
6. Letter. A necessary condition for this genre of verbal communication is sincerity, which is possible with the internal proximity of kindred or friendly people. “The context of consent, characteristic of the concept of sincerity, corresponds to the etymological meaning of the word: sincere meant “close, approximate, nearby.” Whatever mode prevails in writing, the very fact of addressing one’s feelings-thoughts in writing, which implies a non-momentary reading, indicates that the author has the opportunity to use the natural way of explicating himself as a person (and this is the most important pragmatic condition for any verbal communication).
7. Note. Unlike writing, this genre of written colloquial speech is largely formed common peace feelings-thoughts of the sender and the addressee, the same epistemic and axiological modality, the relevance of the same circumstances. Therefore, the content of the note is usually brief; a detailed discussion can be replaced by one or two words that play the role of a hint.
8. Diary. Diary entries are texts of addressed colloquial speech, and therefore, they have all the stylistic features of texts due to the multifactorial pragmatic space. The addressee of the texts of the diary is an alter-ego, a supersubject, "the highest instance of reciprocal understanding" (in terminology), which helps the writer express his thoughts, feelings and doubts. This pragmatic factor makes the author diary entries verify the accuracy of the expression of thoughts, introduce synonyms concretizers, use such syntactic techniques as gradation, question-answer moves, rhetorical questions; introductory words and sentences that are signals of the author's reflection.
§ 6. Ethics of speech communication and etiquette formulas of speech
The ethics of verbal communication begins with the observance of the conditions for successful verbal communication: with a benevolent attitude towards the addressee, demonstrating interest in the conversation, “understanding understanding” - attunement to the world of the interlocutor, sincere expression of one’s opinion, sympathetic attention. This prescribes to express one's thoughts in a clear form, focusing on the world of knowledge of the addressee. In idle-speech areas of communication in dialogues and polylogues of intellectual, as well as "playful" or emotional nature Of particular importance is the choice of topic and tone of conversation. Signals of attention, participation, correct interpretation and sympathy are not only regulatory cues, but also paralinguistic means - facial expressions, smile, gaze, gestures, posture. A special role in the conduct of a conversation belongs to the look.
Thus, speech ethics are the rules of proper speech behavior based on moral norms, national and cultural traditions.
Ethical norms are embodied in special etiquette speech formulas and are expressed in statements by a whole ensemble of multi-level means: both full-significant word forms and words of non-full-significant parts of speech (particles, interjections).
The main ethical principle of speech communication - respect for parity - finds its expression, starting with a greeting and ending with a farewell throughout the conversation.
1. Greeting. Appeal.
Greetings and salutations set the tone for the entire conversation. Depending on the social role of the interlocutors, the degree of their closeness, you-communication or you-communication is chosen and, accordingly, greetings hello or hello, good afternoon (evening, morning), hello, salute, welcome, etc. The situation of communication also plays an important role. National and cultural traditions prescribe certain forms of addressing strangers.
2. Label formulas.
Each language has fixed ways, expressions of the most frequent and socially significant communicative intentions. So, when expressing a request for forgiveness, an apology, it is customary to use a direct, literal form, for example, Sorry (those), Forgive (those). Etiquette formulas, phrases for the occasion are an important part of communicative competence; knowledge of them is an indicator of a high degree of language proficiency.
3. Euphemization of speech.
Maintaining a cultural atmosphere of communication, the desire not to upset the interlocutor, not to offend him indirectly, not. cause an uncomfortable state - all this obliges the speaker, firstly, to choose euphemistic nominations, and secondly, a softening, euphemistic way of expression.
4. Interruption.
Counter remarks. Polite behavior in verbal communication prescribes listening to the interlocutor's remarks to the end. However, a high degree of emotionality of the participants in communication, a demonstration of their solidarity, consent, the introduction of their assessments "in the course" of the partner's speech is an ordinary phenomenon of dialogues and polylogues of idle speech genres, stories and stories-memories.
5. V Y-communication and T Y-communication. In Russian, YOU-communication in informal speech is widespread. A superficial acquaintance in some cases and a distant, long-term relationship of old acquaintances in others is shown by the use of the polite "you." In addition, YOU-communication indicates respect for the participants in the dialogue; so, you-communication is typical for old, girlfriends, who have deep feelings of respect and devotion for each other. Parity relations as the main component of communication do not cancel the possibility of choosing You-communication and You-communication depending on the nuances of social roles and psychological distances.
Conclusion
Colloquial speech occupies a special place among the functional varieties of the language, it has significant features at all language levels, and therefore it is often considered as a special language system. It is important to emphasize that colloquial speech is a special functional variety of the literary language (and not some kind of non-literary form). It is wrong to think that the language features of colloquial speech are speech errors that should be avoided. This implies an important requirement for the culture of speech: in the conditions of the manifestation of colloquial speech, one should not strive to speak in writing, although it must be remembered that in colloquial speech there may be speech errors, they must be distinguished from colloquial features.
("6") The functional variety of the language "colloquial speech" has historically developed under the influence of the rules of linguistic behavior of people in various life situations, that is, under the influence of the conditions of communicative interaction of people. All the nuances of the phenomenon of human consciousness find their expression in the genres of speech, in the ways of its organization. The speaking person always declares himself as a person, and only in this case it is possible to establish contact with other people.
Successful verbal communication is the implementation of the communicative goal of the initiators of communication and the achievement of agreement by the interlocutors. The prerequisites for successful communication are the interest of the interlocutors in communication, attunement to the world of the addressee, the ability to penetrate into the communicative intent of the speaker, the ability of the interlocutors to fulfill the strict requirements of situational speech behavior, to unravel the “creative handwriting” of the speaker when reflecting the real state of affairs or “pictures of the world” the ability to predict “vector » dialogue or polylogue. Therefore, the central concept of the success of verbal communication is the concept of linguistic competence, which involves knowledge of the rules of grammar and vocabulary, the ability to express meaning in all possible ways, knowledge of sociocultural norms and stereotypes of speech behavior, which allows you to correlate the relevance of a particular linguistic fact with the speaker’s intention and, finally, makes it possible to express one's own understanding and individual presentation of information.
The reasons for communicative failures are rooted in ignorance of language norms, in the difference in the background knowledge of the speaker and listener, in the difference in their sociocultural stereotypes and psychology, and also in the presence of “external interference” (an alien communication environment, the distance of interlocutors, the presence of strangers).
The communicative goals of the interlocutors determine the speech strategies, tactics, modality and methods of conducting a dialogue. The components of speech behavior include expressiveness and emotiveness of statements.
Techniques of speech expressiveness are the basis of the techniques of fiction and oratory: anaphora, antithesis, hyperbole, litotes; chains of synonyms, gradations, repetitions, epithets, unanswered questions, questions of self-verification, metaphors, metonymy, allegory, allusions, allusions, paraphrases, redirection to a third party; such means of expressing the author's subjective modality as introductory words and sentences.
Conversational speech has its own aesthetic atmosphere, which is due to the deep processes that connect a person with society and culture.
Historically, relatively stable forms of speech communication - genres - have developed. All genres are subject to the rules of speech ethics and language canons. The ethics of speech communication requires the speaker and the listener to create a benevolent tone of the conversation, which leads to agreement and success in the dialogue.
Knowledge of the culture of colloquial speech allows you to show the strengths of the human personality, build successful communication, and achieve your goals.
List of used literature
Apresyan study of the Russian verb. M., 1967. “Believe” and “see” (on the problem of mixed propositional attitudes) // Logical analysis of language. Problems of intensional and pragmatic contexts. M., 1989. Arutyunova modality and the phenomenon of citation / / The human factor in the language. Communication. Modality. Deixis. M., 1992. Bart R. Selected works. Semiotics. Poetics. M., 1989. Bakhtin of verbal creativity. M., 1982; 2nd ed. M, 1986. Benveniste E. General linguistics. M., 1974 Hegel G. Phenomenology of Spirit // Sobr. op. M., 1959. , On the construction of a typology of communicative failures (based on natural Russian dialogue) // Russian language in its functioning. Communicative-pragmatic aspect. M., 1993. Krysin aspects of the study of the modern Russian language. M., 1989. Lazutkina speech among other linguistic disciplines // Culture of Russian speech and communication efficiency. M., 1996. Pavilenis of speech and philosophy of language // New in foreign linguistics. Issue. XVII. M., 1986. ("7") Forman's etiquette and culture of communication. M, 1989. Shiryaev syntactic characteristics of functional varieties of the modern Russian language // Russian language in its functioning. Language levels. M., 1995. Shcherba system and speech activity. L., 1974. Yakubinsky work. Language and its functioning. M., 1986. Yastrezhembsky aspects of the linguistic analysis of the dialogue // Dialogue: Theoretical problems and research methods. Sat. scientific and analytical reviews. INION. M., 1991. Culture of Russian speech. Textbook for high schools. Ed. prof. and prof. . - M.: Publishing group NORMA-INFRA M, 1999. Muranov. Reader practical. Moscow: Russian Pedagogical Agency, 1997
SPEAKING, a kind of literary language, which is realized mainly in oral form in a situation of unprepared, unconstrained communication with direct interaction of communication partners. The main sphere for the implementation of colloquial speech is everyday everyday communication that takes place in an informal setting. Thus, one of the leading communicative parameters that determine the conditions for the implementation of colloquial speech is the parameter "informal communication"; according to this parameter, it is opposed to the book-written codified literary language that serves the sphere of official communication. The speakers of colloquial speech are people who know the literary language, i.e. in terms of the “native speaker” parameter, this variety is opposed primarily to dialects and vernacular.
Correlation of concepts colloquial - literary, colloquial - codified, colloquial - written, colloquial - dialect, colloquial - colloquial is filled with different content in different national languages and is largely determined by the peculiarities of their historical development. For example, due to the greater activity of dialects on German soil, local features in German colloquial speech are more pronounced than in Russian. The linguistic status of colloquial speech and its place in the system of oppositions standard/substandard, language/speech, language/style are also heterogeneous. Thus, the place of colloquial speech in the system of the national language is specific. Features of the language situation and the relationship of colloquial speech with other subsystems within each specific language are often reflected in the name of this linguistic phenomenon (cf. Umgangssprache - German, Obecná čestina - Czech., La langue parlee - French, Conversational English – English, Styl potoczny - Polish and etc.).
Russian colloquial speech and its place in the system of the literary language in modern Russian studies is defined in different ways. Some researchers consider it as an oral variety as part of the literary language (O.A. Lapteva, B.M. Gasparov) or as a special style (O.B. Sirotinina). A group of scientists from the Institute of the Russian Language of the Russian Academy of Sciences under the leadership of E.A. Zemskaya developed a theoretical concept according to which Russian colloquial speech (RR), being an uncodified variety of the literary language, is opposed to the codified literary language (CLL) in general and differs from it both from the point of view of extralinguistic (conditions of use), and from the point of view of the language itself (specific system-structural properties). Thus, KLA and RR represent two subsystems within the literary language, the implementation of which is determined by communicative conditions: CL serves the sphere of official communication (private and public), RR serves the sphere of unofficial unprepared personal communication. The socio-political changes that have taken place in recent years have had a certain impact on the Russian language situation: the binary division of the communicative space into official and unofficial has become less rigid, the boundaries of functional spheres have turned out to be more permeable, which led, on the one hand, to a widespread invasion of colloquial elements into the oral language. public speech, into the language of the mass media, and on the other hand - to the activation of the use of foreign words, elements of official business and special speech in everyday everyday communication. Thus, we can talk about socially conditioned changes that have affected the very conditions for the implementation of different types of speech (official/informal, personal/public, prepared/unprepared communication, etc.). This also applies to such a defining parameter as the speaker's attitude to one or another type of communication. The changed conditions of implementation influenced the nature of language processes in various communicative spheres, but nevertheless did not cancel the very division of the literary language into KLA and RR.
Many linguistic features of colloquial speech are determined by its close cohesion with the situation. Being a full-fledged component of a communicative act, the situation is “fused” into speech, which is one of the reasons for the high ellipticity of colloquial statements. A communicative act in colloquial speech is characterized by a close interaction of verbal and non-verbal (gestural-mimic) components. Various paralinguistic indicators, being actively included in the context, can replace the actual linguistic means of expression. Wed: BUT. Where did Sasha go? B. He ( tilts his head to his palms clasped together, gesturing"sleeping"). The close contact of colloquial speech with sign language allows us to speak about the coordination and mutual adaptation of two codes - verbal and visual, about the active interaction of sign and conversational grammar.
The predominantly oral nature of functioning, high consituational conditionality, and the important role of the gestural-mimic channel in the act of communication determine the proper linguistic features of colloquial speech, which manifest themselves at all language levels. The general feature of the system of colloquial speech, penetrating the phenomena of all its tiers, is the confrontation of two tendencies - the tendency to syncretism and the tendency to dismemberment. These tendencies manifest themselves in terms of expression and in terms of content, in syntagmatics and paradigmatics. So, for example, syncretism in phonetics (plan of expression) is found in a large number of phoneme neutralizations, in phonetic ellipsis, vowel contraction (cf. the pronunciation of such words as naturally naturally [sn], imagine[въ] to ferment), dismemberment, - in the appearance of prosthetic vowels, rarefying consonantal combinations: [rubl "]). Syncretism in terms of content is manifested in the appearance of generalized undifferentiated nominations like than to write(instead of pen, pencil), dismemberment - in the wide distribution of derivative words, which are motivated designations of persons, processes, objects, etc. (type opener, cleaner). The tendency towards syncretism in paradigmatics reveals itself in the absence of specialized verbal and adjective forms for expressing semi-predication, the tendency towards dismemberment - in the presence of specialized vocative forms (such as Tan!;Tan-a-tan!;Tanya-a - Tanya!). Syncretism in syntagmatics is manifested in such phenomena as syntactic interference, polyfunctionality, etc. noun, dismemberment - in the wide distribution of constructions with a nominative theme. The systemic nature of colloquial speech allows us to talk about the existence of a certain system of norms in it. A feature of colloquial norms is their high variability, often functionally not differentiated (cf., for example, the possible use of different types of nominations to designate the same object: can opener, opener than open; the presence of several pronunciation options for one word: jumped off[download"il, s:kach"il,]).
The phonetic system of colloquial speech is characterized by the same set of language units as the codified literary language, but each phoneme is represented here by a large set of sound representations. The specificity of the phonetic tier is manifested in the features of the implementation and compatibility of phonemes. So, in colloquial speech, a qualitative reduction (down to zero) of vowels (including high vowels) is possible in any syllable in relation to the stressed syllable (sor(o)kovy, s(u)new set, s(e)stra, ob( i) zat (e) lno, he asks (i) t), the loss of individual consonants or their combinations in different positions (ho (d) it, see (t) rite, (h) starts, (health) aste), ellipsis syllables and even larger sections of the speech chain, leading to a restructuring of the syllable and rhythmic structure of the word ( with someone- [with k" emn "it"], some- [k "it], because[tsh]). High-frequency words are exposed to the greatest phonetic deformation. The elliptical pronunciation of some of them is so typical of colloquial speech that these words in an abbreviated, reduced form are considered as colloquial lexical doublets. These include, for example, the sound forms of the following words: now[right now, right now], one thousand[thousand], means, at all in the meaning of introductory words [meaning, beginning, nasch; anyway, anyway] I say, He speaks[grue, grit], today[today, senya, senya]. Syllabic reduction and other phonetic phenomena of colloquial speech are closely related to its rhythmic and intonational properties. In particular, the degree of deformation of words largely depends on the degree of their stress in the phrase, their place in the syntagm (initial, middle, final), position in relation to the phrasal accent, and the rate of pronunciation. Thus, various phonetic features of colloquial speech are determined not only by the positional conditions for the realization of phonemes within a word, but also by the position of a word within a phrase.
In morphology, as in phonetics, there are no special differences from the codified literary language in the set of units itself. Nevertheless, there is a specificity here. For example, there are special colloquial vocative forms (such as pap!,Mom, and mom!). In colloquial speech, the quantitative ratio of certain grammatical classes of words and word forms is different than in the written language. Statistical studies of recordings of live colloquial speech have shown that in this subsystem, non-significant and semi-significant vocabulary is most frequent: conjunctions, particles, pronouns; the use of nouns is lower than that of verbs, and among the verb forms, gerunds and participles are the least common. These forms are practically not used in the function of secondary predication (i.e., as part of participial and adverbial phrases). Wed colloquial: Bring a book lies on the table(incl. book-writing: Bring a book, lying on the table); I'm completely bored removed that stain// (comm. book-letter: I'm completely worn out, removing this stain). The morphological system of colloquial speech is distinguished by pronounced features of analyticism, which confirms, for example, the active functioning of various classes of unchangeable significant words. In colloquial speech, these words are very common, numerous and varied. First of all, these are the so-called predicatives - immutable words that perform the function of a predicate in a personal sentence. These include, for example, interjectional-verbal words (such as la-la, bang, shoo-shoo-shoo, cf .: And they are sitting in a corner and shu-shu-shu between themselves); evaluation predicates (such as not ah, so-so, not that, cf. weather was not ah; She sings so-so). Analytical adjectives are also highly active (units like air, auto, tele, beige and many others. etc.), having great independence in colloquial speech. Wed: (conversation in the mail) BUT. What kind of envelopes do you want? B. to me air and simple //; Did you find the book? Sberbank? Features of the morphology of colloquial speech are most clearly manifested in the specific functions of some grammatical forms. So, the infinitive often plays a syntactic role, usually characteristic of a noun: To swim did they come there? (subject); BUT. What are you looking for? B. I'm looking for drink it down(addition); This towel dry off(definition). Among the case forms of nouns, the most frequent forms are name. case. Named expansion. case in colloquial texts is manifested in the fact that its functional load is much greater. The nominative case occurs in oral speech in any prepositional and non-prepositional positions and acts as other cases: Petrushechka fresh I will buy now fresh parsley, i.e. blames. case), His disciples were our teachers(with our teachers - tv.p.), A pickle half can't take? (vm. half a pickle).
The specificity of colloquial speech is most clearly manifested at the syntactic level. Conversational speech is a speech stream, which is not always easy to divide into sentences. The sentence as the main syntactic unit stands out in the codified literary language and is characterized by the following features: predicativity (the severity of the categories of modality and time), the presence of links between the components, semantic and intonational completeness. In colloquial speech, not all segments of the speech flow are sentences. For example, one predicative unit can, in a particular situation, break up into several independent intonational fragments: (two friends agree to meet) BUT. See you tomorrow B. At five BUT. On Pushkinskaya. Or, on the contrary, parts of a complex predicative whole intonation merge into one speech segment, and the word located at the junction of the first and second "sentences" refers to both: They turned to Sretenka they have to go; I will give you tomorrow read you wanted an article. In the codified literary language, situationally conditioned formations are considered as "non-sentential". If we approach colloquial cues in the same way, then more than half of them should be excluded from syntactic analysis - after all, the “inclusion” of colloquial cues in a situation is an important feature of colloquial speech that determines its specificity at the system level. When segmenting the conversational continuum, an essential criterion for researchers is intonation-semantic completeness, and the main syntactic unit is the statement. The speech flow is divided into intonationally independent segments - syntagmas. One or more syntagmas, characterized by intonational integrity and semantic completeness, form an utterance. When writing oral colloquial speech, due to its “non-sentence” nature, a special system of notation is used, the purpose of which is to adequately convey the features of the sound. The usual punctuation marks in written texts - dashes, colons, periods and commas - are not put. Instead, they are used: / - a sign of intonational articulation of the statement when it is incomplete; //, ?, ! - signs of the completion of a statement uttered respectively with an affirmative, interrogative or exclamatory intonation; an ellipsis (...) denotes a pause in hesitation (search for a suitable word), a break in a statement, or a self-interruption. Compare, for example, a fragment of an oral story: Here this year / son / in ... in the spring he brought such ... He is a passionate son fisherman / he was on La ... on this ... not Ladoga / but Lake Peipus / caught fish / and brought from there / among fish/ kitten/ little black kitten// And then I… when this kitten… He was fed/ from a pipette for the first days// And then/ I-a/ after looking at this kitten began to say that this is obviously a cross between cats and pikes such a strange kitten was// He threw himself at everyone who entered/ and tormented him//.
Many syntactic properties of colloquial speech are due to the peculiarities of its functioning - unpreparedness, spontaneity, close connection with the situation. In colloquial utterances, some grammatically and semantically necessary components often turn out to be unexpressed (non-verbalized). Their absence is possible only due to the “inclusion” of the statement in a certain situation. Wed the following examples (customer talking to salesperson in shoe department): Here those brown please show // (missing shoes); (conversation during breakfast) Would you like cheese or sausage? (not expressed do sandwich). The verbal ellipsis does not prevent the interlocutors from understanding each other: knowing the situation, they easily “complete” the missing fragments of the text. Statements of this type are called constructions with unreplaced syntactic positions. Most of these constructions are consituationally related, however, there are a number of constructions with null predicate verbs, the meanings of which are determined by the language system and do not require situation support. These include, for example, zero verbs of motion (I'm home//; We're at the dacha//; Are you not from the forest?); zero verbs with a general meaning of speech (What are you talking about? About the new film?; Are you talking about Katya?) and nek. etc. Widespread in colloquial speech constructions with nominative themes. The noun in the nominative case is taken to the absolute beginning of the statement, actualizing (highlighting) its theme. Further, the utterance may contain a correlative member, which acts as a "link" between the nominative case in preposition and the rest of the utterance. The correlative is usually pronouns or nouns that have the form like name. fall., and indirect cases. Wed: Dad / he has not had dinner yet / /, Dad/ dad haven't had dinner yet Flowers/ them I didn't buy Flowers/ colors I didn't buy.
Colloquial speech has a specific type of connection of two predicative constructions into one statement - the connection of a free connection. The semantic relations that develop on the basis of free connection bonds are very diverse and syncretic. Edit: Where is my wallet? lay here?; What is this transmission you have said will be on TV today?; Lena I know will not come//; Komarov you were are there many?; House we passed today already almost completed.
In colloquial speech, there are norms of word arrangement, closely related primarily to the features of the actual articulation of the utterance. One of the most important tendencies that regulates the order of words in an utterance is the tendency to preposition the communicatively most important component: Of bread go buy it at the bakery//; Sonya I'm worried today/I wouldn't get sick//. Spontaneity, unpreparedness of colloquial speech, the linear nature of its construction lead to the fact that the words in the statement "unfold" according to the principle of free associative attachment. As a result, semantically and grammatically related phrases often turn out to be disconnected, with the most significant word being moved to the beginning. Wed: Towel bring pure//; Hat didn't see where my? The weakening of the role of unions and allied words is expressed in the fact that their place in a colloquial utterance is not fixed (in contrast to the book-written language, where their syntactic position is rigidly fixed). For example: Tanya I don't know where left / / (cf. codif. I don’t know where Tanya went); I can’t leave the house / I’m waiting for a locksmith because// (cf. codif. I can't leave the house because I'm waiting for a locksmith). The order of words in colloquial speech is closely related to its intonational and rhythmic features. A colloquial utterance is often built as an intonationally dissected unit with two intonational centers, between which there are accentuated non-selected components (the so-called "intonation hole"). In such two-peak constructions, phrasal accents fall on the most important words that make up the communicative core of the utterance: Doctor you do not know when will he arrive?; Very you have him independent//; Luda asked to call Tikhvinskaya//.
Colloquial word formation reveals less dependence on usage, on various kinds of grammatical and semantic restrictions. In the process of easy communication, the interlocutors often do not reproduce the words existing in the language, but produce, create them “just in case”, based on productive word-formation models. In the words formed in this way, the meaning prompted by a specific situation is actualized: And where do we purifier? The toilet is clogged / should be cleaned / / (instead of the word-term plunger the speaker uses the non-usual purifier, derived from the verb purify). In colloquial speech, there are specific ways of word production - univerbation and truncation. During univerbation, the original phrase (generating base), consisting of two or more components, is folded into one derivative word, which “absorbs” the meaning of the generating base: buckwheat - buckwheat, "Komsomolskaya Pravda" - "Komsomolskaya Pravda", a five-story building - five-story building; folding bed - cot. Another productive way of colloquial derivation is to truncate the generating stem. Nouns and adjectives are truncated: tape recorder - magician, teacher - prep, sandwich - buter, state exams - gosy, primitive - primitive, intimate - intimate. In colloquial speech, word-formation methods are more active, which also operate in the book-written language: suffix (open - opener(can opener), doctor - doctor, old - junk, synchronous - synchronize(engaged in simultaneous translation) and many others. etc.), prefix (She will have overprotection//; Dissect my sleeves!; This antisoup/ real porridge / / No liquid), prefix-suffix (cf. playful formations: We have sleeplessness/ forgot to buy matches//; Thanks! You me sandwiched//). Colloquial speech is characterized by the breadth of the use of various word-formation models, the weakening of the prohibitions on the compatibility of affixes with the generating base. Words that have a variety of lexical and grammatical properties can act as "source material". For example, borrowings, abbreviations, interjections: cinema - filmmaker, Moscow State University - emgeushny, Oh! - ooh, bam! - bang and many others. etc. Phrases and even whole statements can serve as a generating basis: This teticatin scarf// (from aunt Katya); [mother to child] Stay out of the puddle! And that grandmother God-wash will! (from My God!). In colloquial speech, a derivative word is often associated with a generating basis only by the most general meaning. As a result, many newly formed words are ambiguous and incomprehensible out of context. For example, core- it can be a cardiologist, and a person suffering from heart disease. The meanings of such words are clarified only in a specific speech situation. Wed: BUT. He who? Surgeon? B. No/ core//; My father has a heart / suffered three heart attacks / /. In the process of direct dialogical communication, the previous remark of the interlocutor may be an incentive for the formation of a non-usual word: BUT. I don't like / to me sorry// B. The point here is not pity//; BUT. Want cabbage soup? I ate//; BUT. Temirkanov did a great job conducting the Carmen Suite// B. Yes/ otkarmenil//.
In lexical and stylistic terms, colloquial texts are heterogeneous: in them you can find, first of all, words related to everyday life, everyday life, the so-called everyday words ( spoon, saucepan, frying pan, comb, hairpin, rag, broom etc.), words that have a pronounced colloquial, often reduced, connotation ( snag, get drunk, dirty etc.), stylistically neutral words that make up the main vocabulary of the modern literary language ( work, rest, young, now, no time and many others. etc.), special terminological vocabulary and, conversely, separate jargon inclusions. Such stylistic "omnivorousness" of colloquial speech is explained primarily by its wide thematic range. In an informal setting with people you know well, you can talk about any topic: about everyday household chores, work, politics, friends and acquaintances, illness of loved ones, a new film, etc. At the same time, the speaker's linguistic preferences: his tendency to joke, play with words, or, conversely, to widely include book and written vocabulary in speech, are most clearly manifested in a situation of easy direct communication. Compare, for example, fragments of a conversation between a female student and her mother. The topic of the conversation (a story about hydrological practice) and the professional studies of the informant, a student of the Faculty of Geography of Moscow State University, determine the presence of special vocabulary in the text ( reconnaissance, slope, lot, echo sounder, take a count, depression, dredgers), the inclusion in the story of the words of youth, student jargon ( hesitated, prep), statements with bright colloquial coloring ( some kind of circus in the meaning of "funny situation", form just do vm. cod. at all, shvark) give an idea of the age and social status of the narrator, and also testify to her emotional looseness during the conversation: Yes, everything was there / there was always some kind of circus / / With this / when we were on reconnaissance / with us / we just do all the teachers had a very interesting manner// We arrive/ we say “we got a slope of three and a half centimeters per kilometer”// “This / cannot be here”//<…>With this bias, we shook them / / We nevertheless proved that we were right / / Then ... um ... let's go / there was also a reconnaissance / there / you measure with a manual lot / depth / / There is not a mechanical / not an echo sounder / namely, manual // That is, a rope / with a load / there is a shvark / and you take a countdown / /<…>We had Vadik with a lot//<…>We reach such a bottleneck / this means to the dredgers / / So this one is approaching us /<…>On the boat our prep / / They are waiting / / Vadik throws out the lot / and he himself is there like this ( shows) leaves// Depression/ twelve and a half meters//.
A typical feature of colloquial vocabulary is its semantic syncretism and polysemy. The so-called “sponges” words are widespread in colloquial speech, the meaning of which is determined by the situation. For example, the general meaning of the word makeshift- "something temporary", but depending on the specific conditions of the conversation, it can "absorb" different meanings: "temporary house, stairs, stove, extension", etc .; glass in everyday communication, any building with large showcase windows can be called: a store, a hairdresser, a savings bank, a canteen, an institution, etc. Some words with a generalized meaning (cf. simple, normal, empty, normal) under certain conditions can act as unmarked members of semantic oppositions, while in each specific situation a certain component of meaning is actualized. For example, simple - silk, simple - festive, simple - with syrup, simple - air (cf .: Look / silk how many dresses do you want simple no one//; BUT. Put on festive blouse// B. yes no / me simple/ I feel more comfortable in it//; What water will you be / simple or with syrup?; I have two envelopes air/ and one simple//); cf. also common colloquial combinations: empty potatoes - potatoes With butter, empty tea - sweet tea and more etc. In colloquial speech, there are ways of naming objects, signs or actions. In the process of direct, informal communication, it is easier for interlocutors to construct a new word “for the occasion” than to reproduce a lexical unit that already exists in a codified language. In addition to the highly productive word-formation models described above (suffixal univerbation, truncation, suffixal, prefixal, prefix-suffixal methods), other methods are also used to create colloquial nominations: substantiation (meat dish - meat; cf .: Something for me today meat I don’t feel like it / I’d rather have vegetables //, laboratory work - laboratory; treatment room - procedural etc.); semantic contraction of phrases by eliminating the defined or defining (thesis - diploma, viral influenza virus, perm - chemistry, Academic Council - advice, kindergarten - kindergarten, granulated sugar - sand); construction of nominations based on metonymic transfer (Yesterday in the book / Sasha Cherny(book by Sasha Cherny) bought / /, They said that US(our house) is being demolished//, Girl/ a lycra(pantyhose with lycra) do you have?, in dinner(during lunch break) meet//); verbal nominations, including verbum finitum and characterizing a person or object by its action ( Milk brings/ now on vacation / yes?, Just came into our room/ works in the inventory department//); verbal nominations consisting of a verb in the infinitive form and a relative pronoun ( What to write don't you have it?, bring it what to put on//, What flowers to put in the room//). The close cohesion of colloquial utterances with the communicative act gives rise to a special type of naming, called the "situation name". Behind such one-word nominations used by the speaker, there is a whole complex of meanings that is understandable to the interlocutor, "included" in the situation, but remains unclear to the rest, "uninitiated", and requires commentary. The speech signal of the name of the situation is an unusual combination of words in the text. Compare: A skiing we changed our minds / yes? (i.e. changed their minds about discussing the details of the ski trip); Oh / a your birthday we didn't discuss // (didn't discuss how we will celebrate your birthday). Wed also expressions typical of everyday communication: turn off the fish, turn on the soup, turn down the pasta etc. (i.e. a burner on which stands fish, soup, pasta, etc.). The wide possibility of using a variety of models for constructing nominations generates a number of doublet words: ladle, ladle, scoop, bottling, bottling, than bottling; lab work, lab, lab, lab etc.
Spoken texts are distinguished by a high degree of expression. As the researchers note, the ability of colloquial speech to exaggerate sometimes leads to exclusions from the colloquial vocabulary of words with neutral evaluativeness. The "emotional tension" of colloquial utterances is created by a variety of means, such as, for example, the repetition of lexemes (Nam very very liked//; She was sad-sad today//; BUT. Do you want ice cream? B. Ouch want Want//); pronoun usage such as a quality intensifier (Behind us such turn!; She is with you such clever / such a sweetheart / /). To express a high degree of intensity of a property, a metaphor is widely used - cf. typically colloquial assessments: a sea of flowers, a mountain of gifts, a lot of claims and etc.; cf. See also: me today fall off my feet from fatigue//, We've been here for an hour sunbathing/waiting for you//, I called him all evening/ phone cut off/ busy all the time//; What the rubbish heap on your table!
In recent years, the focus of research interest has shifted from studying the system-structural features of colloquial speech to analyzing its textual characteristics. This explains the special attention to the genre stratification of colloquial speech. Speech genres as types of texts are realized under certain conditions and can be considered through the prism of a communicative situation and its participants. To characterize any communicative situation, such parameters as space (i.e., the place where communication takes place: at home or outside the home - at work, on the street, in a store, sanatorium, clinic, etc.), time (when communication takes place: on weekdays or on holidays, during working or free time, etc.), communication partners (their communicative roles - speaking / listening, family, professional roles, the nature of their ratio on the “higher” / “lower” scale, communicative goals of the speaker and listener, etc.), situational topic (for example, "Awakening", "Lunch", "Family holiday", "Shop", "Transport", etc.). Each of the situation parameters influences the speaker's choice of genre. So, for example, numerous situations of domestic communication "cast" into different stereotypical micro-genres (depending on the time and topic of conversation, family roles). Wed: [Morning. Awakening] BUT. [daughter's mother] Good morning// Mash/ get up/ oversleep school// B. Right now / I’m getting up / / Hello Mom / /; [Leaving home] BUT. [husband wife] Well, I went// Bye// B. Happy// Don't linger there//; [Preparing dinner] BUT. [husband to wife entering the kitchen] What are you? Did you buy a pizza? B. Yeah// So as not to mess around// Right now, quickly put it in the oven/ and in fifteen minutes it's ready//. Equally stereotyped is our verbal behavior in situations outside the home: [On the street] BUT. "Children's World" / how to get there? B. Straight / then left around the corner / / BUT. Thanks//; [Book store] BUT. [buyer] Please tell me / are there any manuals for the German language? B. [salesman] German department//. In colloquial speech, large and small, monologue and dialogic genres are distinguished. Large monologue and dialogic genres, for example, include story, conversation, conversation; small genres are monologues, microdialogues, stereotypes. Our everyday speech communication is a genre continuum. Observation of the specifics of the organization of this continuum allows us to identify the features of the everyday linguistic existence of modern speakers of the Russian literary language.
Literature:
Vinokur T.G. Stylistic development of modern Russian colloquial speech. - In the book: Development of functional styles of the modern Russian language. M., 1968
Russian colloquial speech. M., 1973
Sirotinina O.B. Modern colloquial speech and its features. M., 1974
Lapteva O.A. Russian colloquial syntax. M., 1976
Russian colloquial speech. Texts. 1978
Bakhtin M.M. The problem of speech genres. - In the book: Bakhtin M.M. Aesthetics of verbal creativity. M., 1979
Devkin V.D. German Conversation: Syntax and Vocabulary. M., 1979
Zemskaya E.A. Russian Colloquial Speech: Linguistic Analysis and Learning Problems. M., 1979
Zemskaya E.A., Kitaygorodskaya M.V., Shiryaev E.N. Russian colloquial speech: General questions. Word formation. Syntax. M., 1981
Russian colloquial speech. Phonetics. Morphology. Vocabulary. Gesture. M., 1983
Yakubinsky L.P. About Dialogic Speech. - In the book: Yakubinsky L.P. Selected works: Language and its functioning. M., 1986
Kapanazde L.A. On the genres of informal speech. - In the book: Varieties of urban oral speech. M., 1988
Phonetics of spontaneous speech. L., 1988
Krasilnikova E.V. Noun in Russian colloquial speech. Functional aspect. M., 1990
Vinokur T.G. Speaking and listening: variants of speech behavior. M., 1993
Wierzbitska Anna. Speech genres. - In the book: Genres of speech. Saratov, 1997
Kitaigorodskaya M.V., Rozanova N.N. Muscovites Speech: Communicative and Cultural Aspect. M., 1999
SPEAKING, a kind of literary language, which is realized mainly in oral form in a situation of unprepared, unconstrained communication with direct interaction of communication partners. The main sphere for the implementation of colloquial speech is everyday everyday communication that takes place in an informal setting. Thus, one of the leading communicative parameters that determine the conditions for the implementation of colloquial speech is the parameter "informal communication"; according to this parameter, it is opposed to the book-written codified literary language that serves the sphere of official communication. The speakers of colloquial speech are people who know the literary language, i.e. in terms of the “native speaker” parameter, this variety is opposed primarily to dialects and vernacular.
Speaking - functional style speech, which serves for informal communication, when the author shares his thoughts or feelings with others, exchanges information on everyday issues in an informal setting. It often uses colloquial and colloquial vocabulary.
The usual form of implementation of conversational style is dialogue, this style is more often used in oral speech. There is no pre-selection of language material in it.
In this style of speech, extralinguistic factors play an important role: facial expressions, gestures, and the environment.
Conversational style is characterized by emotionality, figurativeness, concreteness, and simplicity of speech. For example, in a bakery, the phrase: “Please, with bran, one” does not seem strange.
The relaxed atmosphere of communication provides greater freedom in the choice of emotional words and expressions: colloquial words are more widely used ( to be stupid), colloquial ( neigh, deadhead, awful, disheveled), slang ( parents - ancestors, iron, world).
In the colloquial style of speech, especially at its fast pace, a large reduction in vowels is possible, up to their complete loss and simplification of consonant groups. Word-building features: subjective evaluation suffixes are widely used. To enhance expressiveness, doubling words is used.
Limited: abstract vocabulary, foreign words, book words.
An example is the statement of one of the characters in A.P. Chekhov's story "Revenge":
Open it, damn it! How much longer will I have to freeze in this through wind? If you had known that it was twenty degrees below zero in your hallway, you would not have made me wait so long! Or maybe you don't have a heart?
This short passage reflects the following features of conversational style:
interrogative and exclamatory sentences;
interjection of the colloquial style "damn it";
personal pronouns of the 1st and 2nd person, verbs in the same form.
Another example is an excerpt from a letter from A. S. Pushkin to his wife, N. N. Pushkina, dated August 3, 1834:
Shame on you, lady. You are angry with me, not understanding who is to blame, me or the post office, and you leave me for two weeks without news of yourself and the children. I was so embarrassed that I didn't know what to think. Your letter calmed me, but did not console me. The description of your trip to Kaluga, however funny, is not at all funny to me. What is the desire to wander into a nasty provincial town to see nasty actors performing nasty old, nasty opera?<…>I asked you not to travel around Kaluga, yes, it’s clear that you have such a nature.
This passage showed the following linguistic signs conversational style:
the use of colloquial and colloquial vocabulary: wife, drag, nasty, drive around, what a hunt, the union “yes” in the meaning of “but”, the particles “already” and “not at all”, the introductory word “seen”;
a word with an evaluative derivational suffix town;
inverted word order in some sentences;
lexical repetition of the word bad;
· appeal;
the presence of an interrogative sentence;
the use of personal pronouns 1 and 2 person singular;
the use of verbs in the present tense;
· the use of the plural form of the word Kaluga (to drive around Kaluga), which is absent in the language, to designate all small provincial towns.
· 31. Richness of speech. Lexical means of richness of speech.
· wealth of speech is the criterion speech culture, which speaks of the speaker's erudition. Each person needs to have as much vocabulary as possible in order to express their thoughts clearly and clearly. "Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language" by V.I. Dalia contains 200,000 words, although not all the words used in Russian in the middle of the 19th century are recorded in it. It is impossible to determine the exact number of words in modern Russian, as it is constantly updated and enriched. The richness of a language is judged not only by the number of words. The vocabulary of the Russian language is enriched by polysemantic words, synonyms, homonyms, antonyms, paronyms, phraseological units, as well as archaisms, historicisms and neologisms.
It should be added that wealth of any language defined by its stylistic diversity and flexibility. And one of the features of the modern Russian language state is that in the stylistic structure of the Russian language, the language of the media comes to the fore, which performs a function that belonged to the language of fiction in the past.
· Indicators of rich speech are:
· – The use of various lexical forms(polysemantic words, synonyms, antonyms, paronyms, phraseological units, neologisms);
· – Use of various syntactic constructions;
· – Use of various morphological forms.
Speech is considered rich if it is diverse in its linguistic structure. Man must have great vocabulary, from which he can choose the right word and apply it in his speech.
The richness of the Russian language lies not only in the large number of words, but also in the variety of their meanings. New semantic shades give the language flexibility, liveliness and expressiveness. There are many different homonyms, synonyms, antonyms, paronyms in our language, which make our speech colorful, diverse, help to avoid repeating the same words, and allow us to express a thought figuratively.
Visibility, figurativeness, liveliness of oral speech are given by the so-called trails - words used in a figurative sense. Almost every word of the language has, in addition to the first, its direct meaning, usually also a number of figurative meanings. Such figurative meanings of the word are called tropes (from the Greek "tropos" - turn), and the culture of speech, among other things, involves the art of free use of words not only in their direct, but also in figurative meaning, alternating between the two, or even pushing them together in a witty pun. Purpose of trails, or language metaphors- decorate, make more expressive individual speech of a person. At the seminars, you will get acquainted with the main types of tropes and you will be able to see how expressive the speech of a person using these language means can become.
The lexical means of expression are adjoined phraseological units- stable combinations of words, proverbs, sayings. They help to achieve both the emotionality of speech, and its conciseness, elegant accuracy in conveying thoughts. The most complex meaning can be accurately, briefly and expressively conveyed with the help of an aphorism or a proverb.
They decorate speech very much, make it not only expressive, but also brilliant, “intellectual” foreign phraseological units, for example, carte blanche, alma mater, com-il-fo, force majeure, ab-ovo, alter-ego, ami-cauchon, entre-nu, ultima-ratio, etc. I think you will pay attention to them at seminars: these expressions should be, if not used, then at least understood if they are pronounced in front of you.
· 32. Expressiveness of speech. Characteristics of the expressive possibilities of figures of speech.
· expressiveness of speech these are features of its structure that maintain the attention and interest of the listener or reader; speech that has these features is called expressive.
· indicators of this criterion are:
· – Good knowledge of the expressive possibilities of the language;
· – Use of various intonations;
· - Ability to pause;
· - The ability to evoke a reaction in the listener.
· Expressive possibilities of synonyms To pay attention to one or another detail, to express a certain attitude to the named object or phenomenon, to evaluate it and, therefore, to enhance the expressiveness of speech allows the skillful use of synonyms.
· Expressive possibilities of antonyms-As an expressive means of creating contrast, sharp opposition, antonyms are used in speech. They underlie the creation of antithesis (Greek antithesis - opposition) - a stylistic figure built on a sharp opposition of words with opposite meanings. This stylistic device is widely used by poets, writers, and publicists to give speech emotionality, extraordinary expressiveness.
· Expressive possibilities of homonyms Homonyms are words that sound the same but have different meanings. Lexical homonyms are combined into rows. They belong to the same part of speech. Relative homonyms (homoforms, homophones and homographs) differ from lexical homonyms. With homonymy, only sound identity is established between words, and there are no semantic associations.
· expressive possibilities of paronyms- Words-paronyms have considerable expressive possibilities. They serve as a means of creating humor, irony, satire, etc.
· expressive possibilities of nouns- The noun is distinguished from all other names by the fact that its grammatical categories - gender, number, case - are able to receive special stylistic meanings. The stylistic activity of these categories is due to their functional and stylistic specialization and expressive use in artistic speech.
The category of gender has the greatest expressive possibilities for a noun.
· The expressive power of adjectives- The stylistic possibilities of qualitative, relative, possessive adjectives are not the same, which is due to the very nature of these semantic categories of words, which are used in speech in different ways.
· Expressive possibilities of numerals The numeral is a lexically closed category, numbering only a few dozen words and no longer replenished with new formations. However, even with such lexical material, one can note the presence of variative uses in numeral cases associated with stylistic differentiation.
· The variability of case forms of numerals in the modern Russian language is primarily due to the development of analyticism in their declension. According to V.V. Vinogradova, " old technology language comes into conflict with the new principles of understanding and expressing the abstract concepts of number and quantity”, and “subjecting to the influence of mathematical thinking, numerals unify their forms”.
· 33 Logic of speech and appropriateness of speech.
· consistency of presentation. The statement must reflect the logic of reality, the logic of thought, and is characterized by the logic of speech expression. The logic of thought (or the content of the statement) means the correct reflection of the facts of reality and their relationships (cause - effect, similarity - difference, etc.), the validity of the hypothesis put forward, the presence of arguments for and against, the reduction of arguments to a conclusion that proves or rejects the hypothesis. For example: “There is an elderberry in the garden, and an uncle in Kyiv” “It was raining and two students, one went to the university, the other in galoshes”, “It was raining outside and a company of Red Army soldiers”.
· Logic as a communicative quality has much in common with accuracy. It characterizes speech from the side of content. Characteristic features of logical speech:
- combinations of words and phrases should not be contradictory
· - logical connections in the sentence. New information is reported into the structure of the Russian declarative sentence: the theme (the initial data of the utterance) must in this case precede the rheme (the communication center that communicates something new, unknown to the interlocutor).
· At the text level, consistency is ensured by connecting individual statements using special techniques: 1) lexical repetition, 2) a synonym, 3) an anaphoric pronoun (from the Greek anaphora - bringing up), a pronoun that indicates the previous word, referring to what was said earlier; 4) violation of the logic of speech expression is also often manifested in the incorrect division of the text into paragraphs Paragraph - a piece of written text from one red line to another. In terms of content, a paragraph is a complete part of the whole, a separate link in the general dynamics of thought and a transition to the next link. The logic of the text also depends on its overall composition.
· Relevance as a quality of good speech - the selection and organization of language tools that make speech meet the goals and conditions of communication. Appropriate speech corresponds to the topic of the message, its logical and emotional content, and the composition of the listeners. Relevance as a quality of literate speech was given great attention in the oratory of antiquity. The appropriateness of certain linguistic means depends on the context, situation, psychological characteristics of the interlocutor's personality: "In the house of a hanged man, they don't talk about a rope."
· Distinguish appropriateness:
· 1.Style relevance manifests itself in the ability to take into account the specifics, patterns of selection and use of linguistic material in accordance with the style used to create the text - business, scientific, artistic, journalistic, colloquial. So, for colloquial speech, incomplete syntactic constructions are characteristic (Where is the string bag? Platova Street, how to get there?). Transferring them to written styles of speech is inappropriate.
2 . Contextual relevance a particular linguistic unit is also regulated by the context, i.e. speech environment. The context regulates the use of this or that element in a particular language situation or its rejection. P. S. Porohovshchikov, a well-known lawyer of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, and author of the book “Judicial Eloquence” (1910), pointed out the importance of the context: “The beauty and liveliness of speech are not always appropriate: is it possible to flaunt the elegance of the medical research dead body, or shine with beautiful expressions, conveying the content of a civil transaction? The appropriateness of speech in judicial practice was determined by him with a chased formula: “Do not speak so that the judge can understand you, but so that the judge cannot fail to understand you.” Slightly paraphrased, it is quite applicable to all other speech situations both in everyday and business speech.
3. The most typical manifestation personal-psychological inappropriateness− rudeness.
· 34. Purity of speech. Typicality and accessibility of speech.
The purity of speech is the absence in speech of elements alien to the literary language, primarily elements of the language that are rejected by moral norms (which are subject to a social veto). This communicative quality of speech, more than others, is based on the moral consciousness of the speaker.
Accessibility of speech is the communicative quality of speech, which consists in the fact that the speaker selects facts, arguments, speech means with maximum consideration of the possibilities of speech perception in a particular audience.
· The level of accessibility as a communicative quality should be determined by the speaker each time, in each specific case, depending on which audience the speech is aimed at, so that it is most correctly perceived by the listener. This should take into account age, level of education, social status, psychological and emotional condition audiences, etc.
· 35. Correctness of speech.
The correctness of speech is determined by the possession of language norms.6 Language norm
Norm is the generally accepted and legalized use of language variants in speech, which are recognized by society at a certain stage of its development as correct, exemplary and best performing the main language functions.
· This language standard, sample is contained in special normative dictionaries and orthological manuals. The legalization of the norm by literature, its consolidation in dictionaries and reference books is called codification. Naturally, codified norms are the most stringent.
· Normativity of linguistic phenomena is characterized by compliance with the structure of the language, mass and regular reproducibility in the process of communication, public approval and recognition.
There are two types of rules depending on their severity.
Strict norm ( imperative) - does not allow choice, prescribing to use only one option from among the available ones, recognizing others as incorrect, violating the norm. Violation of the imperative norm indicates a poor command of the norms of the literary language: quarters - quarters(not right.), alphabet - alphabet(not right.), accepted - accepted(not right.), horse[sh]about the horse[ch]about(not right.), thanks to what - thanks to what(not right.), chicken - chicken(not right.). In dictionaries, incorrect and non-normative options are accompanied by restrictive and prohibitive marks: not right.(not right), grossly wrong.(grossly wrong) not rivers.(Not recommended), simple.(colloquial), grossly simple.(roughly colloquial) vulg. (vulgar).
Non-strict norm ( dispositive) - allows the use of different options, recognizing them as correct, not violating the norm. There are two types of dispositive norm:
1) equal (in dictionaries, options are given with the union AND ): and crunchy And sparkling, in lnam And wave m, , in order[sh]th And in order[ch]oh, it smelled And groin.
2) unequal: one option is recognized as the main and commonly used, the other is only acceptable and somewhat limited (in dictionaries, the commonly used option is given without a mark, the limited option is given with a mark additional.)
There are types of norms depending on their belonging to a certain language level:
· one) accentological: adjusts the accent;
2) orthoepic: adjusts pronunciation;
3) morphological: determines the competent choice of the form of the word;
· 4) syntactic: defines the rules for constructing phrases and sentences.
· five) lexical: determines a logically justified word usage based on knowledge of the lexical meaning of the word and the features of the combination of words in speech;
6) stylistic: determines the choice of language means in accordance with a certain style of speech.
In addition, there are rules for:
7) spelling: regulates spelling;
· 8) punctuation: Defines the punctuation rules.
1.7 Literary language
· 36. Business conversation. Speech means of influencing a partner.
· business communication requires a high psychological culture from a person, as well as constant study and consideration of the emotional side of business relations. Anyone who believes that the concept of "feeling" is not applicable to work is capable of causing numerous and costly conflicts. Many have met with clichés: "Let's talk businesslike", "Let's leave aside our feelings", "Our work is just business, and no emotions", etc.
· With the help of these techniques, it is impossible to convince anyone and nothing and prove nothing to anyone, but you can only win over the interlocutor. Is it a lot or a little to improve the efficiency of your business communication - let each of you decide for yourself. What are these methods?
There are two main types of speech influence: verbal (using words) and non-verbal .
· At verbal (from lat. verbum- word) impact it is important in what speech form you express your thought, in what words, in what sequence you cite certain facts, how loudly, with what intonation, what, when and to whom you say. For verbal speech impact, both the choice of language means for expressing thoughts and, naturally, the very content of speech - its meaning, the argumentation, the arrangement of text elements relative to each other, the use of speech impact techniques, etc. are essential. Verbal signals are words. See the paragraph "Speech Communication" for details.
· Non-verbal speech impact- this is an impact with the help of non-verbal means that accompany our speech (gestures, facial expressions, our behavior during speech, the appearance of the speaker, the distance of communication, etc.).
· Factors of speech influence- a set of typical verbal and non-verbal signals that affect the effectiveness of communication.
The main factors of speech impact are:
· 1. appearance of the speaker;
2. observance of the communicative norm;
· 3. establishing contact with the interlocutor;
· 4. look;
5. physical behavior during speech (movement, gestures, postures),
· 7. style of communication (friendliness, sincerity, emotionality, non-monotonicity, enthusiasm);
· 8. Organization of communication space?
· 10. language design;
· 11. volume of the message;
· 12. Arrangement of facts and arguments, ideas;
· 13. duration;
· 14. addressee (including the number of participants);
15. communicative genre (taking into account the rules for the effectiveness of a certain genre of speech - a rally speech, an entertaining speech, criticism, remark, order, request, etc.).
· Rules of communication and speech impact- these are the ideas and recommendations for communication that have developed in society:
· - Regulatory rules communication (how to? how to do it right?), i.e. the rules of speech etiquette.
· - Rules of speech impact (how is it better, how is it more effective?), i.e. specific speech recommendations.
· 37. Culture of speech. The main directions of improving the skills of competent writing and speaking.
· The culture of speech is a relatively young field of science about language. As an independent section of this science, it took shape under the influence of the fundamental social changes that took place in our country. The involvement of the broad masses in active social activities required increased attention to raising the level of their speech culture.
· This primarily means having a certain set of skills, i.e. knowing the rules for using vowels and consonants, the correct use of vocabulary, the rules of syntax, stylistics, etc. For example, stylistics. It is very important that the text is written in the same style and that there are no separate words that fall out of the overall picture. Recently, in this part of linguistics, there have been trends in the expansion of some concepts, which will help, if not to remove controversial points, then to reduce their number. This is how the main directions for improving literacy skills in style are expressed. As for vocabulary, full knowledge of the lexical composition of the language is available to very literate people. But to improve one's knowledge in this area is a task facing every literate person and is the task of the theory of the Russian language.
· As with anything, the best way to improve your writing skills is through constant practice. Learning new rules and repeating those already learned are the fundamental rules. The use of vowels in the roots of nouns, the correct allocation of participial and adverbial phrases and much more - this is what needs to be done and is, in turn, the main directions for improving the level of literate writing skills.
· Equally important is the issue of competent speaking. What does it mean to speak well? This is the ability to correctly emphasize, pronounce sounds correctly (i.e., phonetics), this includes stylistic skills, and the richness and diversity of the language. But the basis of competent speaking is, first of all, the skills of competent writing. For example, such an important point as the accuracy of speech. This is the ability to clearly and clearly express your thoughts. Like any skill, it can be improved. To be accurate, you must first know what you want to say. Otherwise, confusion is obtained and the logic of the narrative is violated. There is another reason that makes speech inaccurate. This is a poor and insufficient knowledge of the Russian language, its features.
Everything that surrounds us has names. Therefore, the more a person knows words, the richer his language, the more accurately he expresses his thoughts. In speech, there are many pitfalls, for example, homonyms - words that are the same in spelling, pronunciation, but different in meaning. They cannot be used in more than one sense. Dangerous in speech and syntactic homonymy.
One of the requirements for the speech of the speaker and writer is the intelligibility of speech. This is the most important communicative quality of speech. It is necessary to comply with this requirement because it is associated with the effectiveness, efficiency of the spoken word.
Another point is the expressiveness of speech. Speech filled with comparisons, proverbs and other stylistic means attracts attention.
· All of the above areas need constant improvement both in written and oral language.
· 38. Ethical aspect of the culture of speech. Speech etiquette. Types of dictionaries and their significance in the development of speech culture.
· Ethical aspect of the culture of speech is the moral and ethical justification of the sounding and written word: knowledge and application of the rules of linguistic behavior in specific situations. Ethical norms, or otherwise - speech etiquette, relate primarily to the appeal to "you" and "you", the choice of a full or abbreviated name (Vanya or Ivan Petrovich), the choice of appeals such as citizen, master, etc., the choice of ways to greet and say goodbye (hello, hello, salute, goodbye, all the best, everything, see you, bye, etc.). Ethical norms are in many cases national
· The ethical aspect of the culture of speech is not always explicit. R.O. Jacobson, a world-famous linguist, identifies six main functions of communication: designation of extralinguistic reality (It was a beautiful mansion), attitude to reality (What a beautiful mansion!), magic function(Let there be light!), poetic, metalinguistic (judgments about the language itself: They don't say that; Another word is needed here) and factual, or contact-establishing. If during the performance of the first five functions named here, the ethical aspect manifests itself, say, usually, then when the contact-establishing function is performed, it manifests itself in a special way. The contact-establishing function is the very fact of communication, while the topic does not matter much; it doesn't matter if the topic is good or bad
The ethics of speech communication begins with the observance of the conditions for successful speech communication: with a benevolent attitude towards the addressee, demonstrating interest in the conversation, “understanding understanding” - attunement to the world of the interlocutor, sincere expression of one’s opinion, sympathetic attention. This prescribes to express one's thoughts in a clear form, focusing on the world of knowledge of the addressee. In idle-speech areas of communication in dialogues and polylogues of an intellectual, as well as "playful" or emotional nature, the choice of the topic and tone of the conversation is of particular importance. Signals of attention, participation, correct interpretation and sympathy are not only regulatory cues, but also paralinguistic means - facial expressions, smile, gaze, gestures, posture. A special role in the conduct of a conversation belongs to the look.
Thus, speech ethics are the rules of proper speech behavior based on moral norms, national and cultural traditions. The main ethical principle of speech communication - respect for parity - finds its expression, starting with a greeting and ending with a farewell throughout the conversation.
· Dictionaries can be divided into two main types: encyclopedic and philological (linguistic). Encyclopedic dictionaries provide a description of a particular phenomenon, concept, event, etc. Encyclopedic dictionaries include encyclopedias, scientific reference books that provide information on any branch of knowledge, terminological dictionaries. Encyclopedias are general and special, sectoral.
· IN linguistic dictionaries contains interpretations of words (the main meanings are indicated, direct and figurative), grammatical, stylistic and other marks are given. Linguistic (philological) dictionaries are divided into multilingual, bilingual and monolingual. Bilingual and multilingual dictionaries are translation dictionaries, in which the meanings of words of one language are explained by comparison with another language (for example, dictionaries English-Russian, Russian-English, Russian-English-Arabic, etc.). In monolingual dictionaries, words are interpreted by means of words of the same language. Monolingual dictionaries can be complex (such are explanatory dictionaries) and aspectual, reflecting one or another aspect (for example, synonymous, derivational, etc.).
Encyclopedic dictionaries describe the world, explain concepts, give biographical information about famous people, information about countries and cities, about outstanding events (wars, revolutions, discoveries).
The most important types of modern dictionaries
1. Explanatory dictionaries
· 2. Phraseological dictionaries as a kind of explanatory dictionaries.
· 3. Synonymic dictionaries.
· 4. Dictionaries of antonyms.
5. Dictionaries of homonyms
· 6. Orthological dictionaries, their varieties.
· 7. Spelling dictionaries.
· 8. Orthoepic dictionaries.
· 9. Dialect dictionaries as explanatory dictionaries of vocabulary in space.
· 10. Historical dictionaries as explanatory dictionaries of vocabulary in time.
· 11. Etymological dictionaries as reference books on the original structure of the word and the elements of its ancient meaning.
· 12. Dictionaries of foreign words.
· 13. Word-building dictionaries, their types.
· Dictionaries are not only reference books, but also an element of national culture: after all, many aspects of folk life are captured in the word. All the richness and diversity of the vocabulary of the language is collected in dictionaries. The creation of dictionaries is the task of a special branch of the linguistic science of lexicography. Dictionaries are numerous and varied. Encyclopedic dictionaries describe the world, explain concepts, provide biographical information about famous people, information about countries and cities, about outstanding events (wars, revolutions, discoveries).
ESSAY
SPEECH AND ITS FEATURES
Plan
Introduction
3
1.
General characteristics of colloquial speech
4
9
Intonation and pronunciation
10
Lexicon of colloquial speech.
10
Phraseology of colloquial speech
10
Morphology of colloquial speech.
11
Colloquial syntax.
12
3. Trends in the development of conversational style of speech. The specifics of Russian speech etiquette
13
Conclusion
15
Literature
16
Introduction
Democratic processes in our society over the past 15 years have led to the destruction of censorship, the growth of the personal principle in speech, the expansion of the sphere of spontaneous communication, not only personal, but also oral public. This allowed the speaker to freely express his position, to show individuality, as a result of which elements of colloquial speech began to penetrate into the texts of journalistic and official business styles. The anthropocentric view of language, which has become established today in the communicative concept of language, is based on the perception of a person as the central figure of the language and as a person who speaks, and as the main character of the world he speaks about.
Thanks to the view of a person as a subject of speech activity, it became significant to clarify the position of the speaker in the selection of speech means.
All of the above makes the topic topic relevant.
Oral speech- this is sounding speech, it is created in the process of conversation. It is characterized by verbal improvisation and some language features:
1) freedom in the choice of vocabulary;
2) use of simple sentences;
3) the use of incentive, interrogative, exclamatory sentences of various kinds;
4) repetitions;
5) incompleteness of the expression of thought.
The oral form is presented in two of its varieties:
1) colloquial speech;
2) codified speech.
Speaking
allows ease of communication; informality of relations between speakers; unprepared speech; use of non-verbal means of communication (gestures and facial expressions); the possibility of changing the roles of the speaker and the listener. Conversational speech has its own rules, which each speaker must adhere to.
Codified speech is used in official areas of communication (at conferences, meetings, etc.).
The mutual relationship between the literary language and colloquial speech was rightly defined by M. Gorky, pointing out that the division of the language into folk and literary means only that in one case it means "raw" language, and in the other - processed by masters.
So, the needs for language as a means of communication are not the same in the field of literary activity and in the everyday area. The specificity of colloquial speech is to be revealed in this work.
The work consists of an introduction, three paragraphs that reveal the main content, a conclusion and a list of references.
- General characteristics of colloquial speech
The colloquial style is opposed to book styles in general. This determines its special place in the system of functional varieties of the Russian literary language. Conversational style is the most traditional communication style.
The well-known Russian psychologist and linguist N. I. Zhinkin once remarked: “However, paradoxically, I think that linguists have been studying a silent person for a long time” 1 . And he was absolutely right. For a long time it was believed that they speak the same or about the same as they write. Only in the 60s. of our century, when it became possible to record colloquial speech with the help of tape recorders and this speech came to the full attention of linguists, it turned out that the existing codifications are not quite suitable for linguistic comprehension of colloquial speech. So what is colloquial speech?
Conversational style is characterized by mass use. It is used by people of all ages, all professions, not only in everyday life, but also in informal, personal communication in the socio-political, industrial, labor, educational and scientific fields of activity. It is widely represented in fiction. Colloquial speech occupies an exceptional position in modern Russian. This is the original style of the national language, while all others are phenomena of a later (often even historically recent) period.
Conversational speech as a special functional variety of language, and, accordingly, as a special object of linguistic research, is characterized by three extralinguistic, external to the language, features or components (see fig 1). The most important feature of colloquial speech is its spontaneity , unpreparedness. If, when creating even such simple written texts as, for example, a friendly letter, not to mention complex texts such as a scientific work, each statement is considered, many “difficult” texts are first written in draft, then a spontaneous text does not require such operations. The spontaneous creation of a spoken text explains why neither linguists, nor even just native speakers, noticed its great differences from codified texts: linguistic spoken features are not recognized, not fixed by consciousness, in contrast to codified linguistic indicators. Such a fact is interesting. When native speakers are presented with their own colloquial statements like “House of Shoes” for normative evaluation, how can they get there? (a codified version of How to get to the Shoe House), then these assessments are often negative: “This is a mistake”, “They don’t say that”, although for colloquial dialogues such a statement is more than usual.
Rice. 1. Components of a situation of colloquial speech 2
The second distinguishing feature of colloquial speech is that colloquial communication is possible only with informal
relationships between speakers.
And, finally, the third sign of colloquial speech is that it can be realized only with the direct participation of speakers
. Such participation of the speakers in communication is obvious in dialogic communication, but also in communication, when one of the interlocutors speaks mainly (cf. genre, colloquial story), the other interlocutor does not remain passive; is he. so to speak, has the right, in contrast to the conditions for the implementation of a monologue official speech, to constantly “interfere” in communication, whether agreeing or disagreeing with what was said in the form of replicas Yes, Of course, Good, No, Well, this, or simply demonstrating their participation in communication interjections like Ugu, the real sound of which is difficult to convey in writing. The following observation is noteworthy in this regard: if you talk on the phone for a long time and do not receive any confirmation from the other end that you are being listened to - at least in the form of Uh-huh - then you begin to worry about whether they are listening to you at all, interrupting themselves with remarks like Can you hear me? Hello, and the like 3 .
The situation of colloquial speech consists of specific components
, which determine the speaker's choice of the spoken variety of the language.
In addition to the three listed components of the situation, there are additional components that also influence the choice and construction of colloquial speech. These include: 1) the number of speakers and the genre of speech (monologue, dialogue, polylogue); 2) conditions for the implementation of speech; 3) reliance on an extralinguistic situation; 4) the presence of common everyday experience, general preliminary information from the interlocutors 4 .
Let's take a look at these components.
1.
Number of speakers
is defined like this: one, two, more than two. Accordingly, there are the following genres colloquial speech: monologue, dialogue, polylogue. These genres have their own specifics.
Distinctive feature monologue
in colloquial speech - its dialogism, i.e. appeal to the listener, who can interrupt the narrator, ask him a question, agree with him or object to him at any moment. Compare: in the monologue types of speech of the book literary language of the speaker (speaker, lecturer, orator at a rally) it is not customary to interrupt.
Dialog
- the main genre of colloquial speech. It is characterized by a frequent change of roles "speaking - listening", so that the interlocutors alternately act in one or another role. In real colloquial speech, the monologue and dialogue are usually presented not in their pure form, but in intersecting forms: the dialogue may contain elements of a monologue (micronarratives, minimonologues), and the monologue can be interrupted by the interlocutors' remarks.
For polylogue
colloquial speech is characterized by a mixture of different topics (different topics), since often each of the interlocutors speaks about his own, "leads his own party." In a polylogue, different forms of interaction between speakers are possible. For example, the interlocutor can interrupt one topic of the conversation (leave his partner) and break into the remarks of other participants in the polylogue, can conduct a conversation, participating in two or more topics at once, etc.
It should be noted that diversity of topics can also be characteristic of dialogue, i.e. speakers can easily switch from one topic to another. For example, at home, two people at breakfast talk about work (first topic) and breakfast (second topic):
A: And with whom are you on duty, / is he young?
B: Younger than me / a year and a half - two.
A: Would you like some more cabbage?
B: I don’t want cabbage./ He is leaving us./ Because he was invited to another institute.
2. Conditions for the implementation of speech
subdivided into contact(personal conversation) and distant(conversation at a distance, for example on the phone). In a contact conversation, interlocutors can use gestures and facial expressions as a means of conveying information; with remote communication, only one communication channel is used - auditory.
3.
Reliance on an extralinguistic situation
- one of the brightest features of colloquial speech. The extralinguistic situation, that is, the immediate environment of speech in which communication takes place, is usually called consitution. In conditions of easy communication, colloquial speech is often constructed in such a way that consituation and speech form a unity, a single act of communication. The consituation determines the ellipticity of speech, increases the role of pronouns. For example:
(A woman examines her boots before leaving home) What kind should I wear something (about boots)? Here these whether? Or here these? Not raw? (feeling) I don't think so//
The speaker manages with pronouns, the word boots she does not use, but from the situation it is clear to everyone what is at stake.
4.
Availability of general background information
, the general everyday experience of the interlocutors is an important condition for the construction of colloquial speech.
The commonality of the everyday base can be due to both the long-term acquaintance of the participants in the dialogue, their large (often many years) joint communication with each other, and short-term experience that is important only for this conversation. This allows speakers not to name a lot, not to explain, to leave verbally unexpressed. For example:
A: Tanechka / cute!
B (angrily): Haven't gone yet.
The meaning of this dialogue is clear only to the participants in the dialogue: A asks B for a book that she was supposed to borrow from the library.An indicator of what a big role in speech communication is played by joint everyday experience, knowledge of the pre-situation by the interlocutors, is that the same laconic (but typical for Russian colloquial speech) question Well, how? different answers can be received: Five!(if you passed the exam); Getting better!(if someone was sick); I arrived!(if someone should come); Unanimously!(if someone defended a dissertation); Warm!(if a person went swimming and reports what kind of water is in the sea).
The main, if not the only, form of the implementation of colloquial speech is the oral form. Only notes and other similar genres can be attributed to the written form of colloquial speech. So, sitting in a meeting, you can write to a friend Let's go? - and in the conditions of this situation and the corresponding background knowledge (you need to be in time somewhere), it will be clear what is at stake. There is an opinion that all the features of colloquial speech are generated not by the conditions of its implementation (spontaneity, informality, direct contact of the speakers), but by the oral form. In other words, it is believed that unreadable official public oral texts (report, lecture, radio talk, etc.) are built in the same way as unofficial spontaneous ones.
The well-known researcher of oral texts O. A. Lapteva, who owns the version of oral texts as the leading feature of uncodified texts, rightly notes the special, unknown to written texts, character of division of any oral unreadable texts (see Table 1):
Table 1. Features of oral unreadable text 5
| Fragment of an oral lecture | Her written form after editing |
| Uh // how / after / as it was / in the Pythagorean school / a phenomenon / of incommensurability / of two segments / uh-this / in-in mathematics// a very serious crisis arose // From the point of view of mathematics / of that time / on the one hand / everything had to be measured by numbers / and thus / uh / the presence / of that two / of the two segments / that cannot be measured / followed / the non-existence of one of them / on the other side / it was clear / what is clear / completely clear / and obvious I previously seemed / abstraction / like a square / well, or an isosceles right triangle / uh / completely I uh / well, / they can’t stand it / / well, here / do not withstand // well, they turn out to be non-existent / / in a sense, turn out to be non-existent //. | After the phenomenon of the incommensurability of two segments was discovered in the Pythagorean school, a very serious crisis arose in mathematics. From the point of view of mathematics of that time, on the one hand, everything had to be measured by numbers, and, thus, from the presence of segments that could not be measured, the non-existence of one of them followed, and on the other hand, it was clear that such a seemingly perfect clear and obvious abstraction, like, say, a square or an isosceles right triangle, in some sense turns out to be non-existent. |
Table 2. Features of spoken text 6
| Spoken uncodified text | Written codified translation |
| You know / this is industrial training // Sasha is just fine // He's on this / some kind of radio // Our transistor has deteriorated // He took everything out and shook it out // I think I, well! And did // Everything / / Talks-plays // | Industrial training gives a lot in practical terms (it gives a lot to a person, it is very useful). Sasha is engaged in radio business (a radio specialist, at a radio enterprise). And he has achieved great success. For example, we have a broken transistor. He tore it all apart. I thought that he would not be able to collect (that he broke it). And he collected and corrected everything. And the receiver is now working properly. |
So, from the point of view of linguistic features, one should distinguish between oral codified and non-codified spoken texts. According to the opinion of most experts, only the latter can be attributed to the conversational style in its pure form.
2. Language features of colloquial speech
The spontaneity of colloquial speech, its great differences from codified speech lead to the fact that spoken texts fixed in writing in one way or another leave native speakers with the impression of some disorder, much in these texts is perceived as speech carelessness or simply as a mistake. This happens precisely because colloquial speech is evaluated from the standpoint of codified prescriptions. In fact, it has its own norms, which cannot and should not be assessed as non-normative.Conversational norm - this is what is constantly used in the speech of native speakers of the literary language and is not perceived as a mistake in the spontaneous perception of speech - “does not hurt the ear”.
Norms of colloquial speech have one important feature. They are not strictly obligatory in the sense that a general literary norm can be used instead of a colloquial one, and this does not violate the colloquial status of the text.
Consider the manifestation of the norms of colloquial speech at various levels of the language system.
intonation and pronunciation. In everyday colloquial speech, for which the oral form is primordial, intonation plays an extremely important role. In interaction with syntax and vocabulary, it creates the impression of colloquialism. Unconstrained speech is often accompanied by sharp rises and falls in tone, lengthening, "stretching" of vowels, lengthening of consonants, pauses, changes in the tempo of speech, as well as its rhythm.
Lexicon of colloquial speech. Everyday colloquial vocabulary is words that are accepted in everyday life, including: 1) significant neutral (time, business, work, person, house, hand, go, red, rain) and 2) insignificant (such, means, in general, here; what, how, where, when, yes, no), often acting as a means of semantic connection or highlighting statements.
The vocabulary of everyday colloquial speech, in addition to neutral ones, includes words that are characterized by expressiveness, evaluativeness. Among them: words colloquial and colloquial coloring (excites, unfortunate, living creatures, blond, crazy, warm).Colloquial speech is also characterized by words with a situational meaning, the so-called situational vocabulary. These words can denote any concepts, and even entire situations, if they are well known to the participants in the dialogue ( thing, thing, carousel, music, parsley, bandura, business, question, trifles, nonsense, nonsense, nonsense, pies, toys). For example: I can't figure this thing out! i.e.: "I just can't understand how (TV, vacuum cleaner, washing machine) works."
The main signs of colloquialism in the region word formation are:
1) the use of words with suffixes of pronounced expressiveness, emotionality, stylistic reduction, for example:
-l (liar), -ash- (trader), -un- (chatterbox), -usch- (large), -ast- (handy), -sha- (doctor's wife), -ih-a (watchman);
2) the widespread use of words formed according to specific colloquial patterns of "semantic contraction" (abbreviation), i.e. combining two or more words into one: evening paper - evening; urgent care - ambulance; course of foreign literature - foreigner: higher mathematics - tower; thesis - diploma.
Phraseology of colloquial speech . The everyday colloquial style is characterized by an abundance of colloquial phraseology. These are: a) speech stable turns from colloquial everyday speech: on bare feet, to be sure, no matter how; b) turns-slang: butcher, clumsy work, green street, lay a paw; c) turns borrowed from scientific terminology: go downhill and etc.
Colloquial speech uses phraseological units as ready-made and integral semantic units of the language, for example: Hand something / there was a fracture / gives know yourself sometimes.In colloquial speech, the synonymy of phraseological units is widely developed: not in the tooth with a foot \u003d I don’t know belmes \u003d not boom-boom.
Morphology of colloquial speech .
1. Morphological features of everyday colloquial speech are manifested primarily in the very set of parts of speech. So, we can note the absence in colloquial speech of participles and gerunds, short adjectives (in their syntactic opposition to complete ones), a decrease in the proportion of nouns, an increase in the proportion of particles.2. Colloquial speech is no less peculiar in the distribution of case forms. Typical, for example, is the predominance of the nominative case: shoe house/ where to get off? Porridge/ look // Not burnt?
3. The presence of a special vocative form is noted: Kat! Mom!
4. In contrast to the book styles of the literary language, many words naming a substance can be used in the sense of "portion of this substance": two milk, two ryazhenka.
5. In colloquial speech, truncated versions of service words, conjunctions and particles are widely used: really, well, so that, at least, as well as truncated variants of nouns: five kilo orange (right: kilograms of oranges).
Pronouns in colloquial speech. Pronouns very popular in modern colloquial speech. Being insignificant words, i.e. words without lexical meaning, they, like a sponge, absorb various meanings, playing a particular role. The word sounds meaningful in the mouths of modern youth something, which, depending on the situation, can show positive or negative shades of meaning:
- Well? Have you talked to her?
- This something! (conversation failed)
- Well, how did you like the movie?
- This something! (a very good movie)
- I saw his sister. This something(a strange girl, extravagant, unlike anyone else).
The pronoun can act as a form of alienation, unwillingness to communicate. This role is especially evident in modern oral speech. Words nothing, nothing, somehow, ever become an obstacle in conversation between people. A person seems to outline the boundary of his world, not wanting to let anyone into it:
- Can I help you?
- Yes, I somehow… (I don't need your help.)
– Somehow come in. We will be glad.
- Thanks, somehow let's go. (A vague, non-specific form of polite etiquette invitation after which people may not see each other for years.)
A characteristic feature of colloquial speech is also the use of the pronoun we when addressing (questioning) to one person. So, most likely, a doctor will turn to a patient during a round in a hospital or an adult to a child. We in meaning you - appeal of the strong to the weak, the loving to the beloved:
- How we do we feel?
– We already awake?
– We still angry?
The "game" with personal pronouns is a striking feature of Russian speech, introducing many semantic shades into it. In particular, the pronoun you it can be a manifestation of friendly feelings, love, familiarity, or a contemptuous, and even offensive attitude. It all depends on who and in what situation the interlocutor is addressing, what cultural environment the interlocutors belong to. For example, in a village, in contrast to a city, it is more common to appeal to you, on the other hand, parents are respectfully addressed in You. Sometimes you acts as a sign of trust or belonging to one "caste", a group connected by common interests (for example, speaking in you motorists). On the you appeal to all small children, as they have not yet had time to master the rules of etiquette. You more characteristic of male than female communication.
Colloquial syntax. Colloquial syntax is different. The above conditions for the implementation of colloquial speech (unpreparedness of the utterance, ease of verbal communication, the influence of the situation) affect its syntactic structure with particular force. The main syntactic features of the colloquial style of speech include 7:
1) the predominance of simple sentences;2) widespread use of interrogative and exclamatory sentences;
3) the use of sentence words ( Yes. Not.);
4) the use of incomplete sentences on a large scale, the so-called "chopped speech" ( This dress/nowhere. No / well, nothing at all / if with a belt);
5) in the syntactic construction of colloquial speech, pauses are allowed due to various reasons (search for the right word, the speaker's excitement, an unexpected transition from one thought to another, etc.), repeated questions, repetitions.
These syntactic features in combination with expressive vocabulary create a special, unique flavor of colloquial speech:
A: Are you cold? B: Not at all!; A: Have you wet your feet again? B: But how! What a rain!; A: How interesting it was! B: Charm!-,
etc.................