Helsinki Conference 1975. V.28. Helsinki Final Act. Its role in ensuring European security. security and disarmament
The detente between the West and the East made it possible to convene the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE). Consultations on it took place in 1972-1973. in the capital of Finland, Helsinki. The first stage of the meeting was held at the level of foreign ministers from July 3 to July 7, 1973 in Helsinki. Representatives from 33 European countries, as well as the USA and Canada - See: Valiullin K.B., Zaripova R.K. Russian history. XX century Part 2: Tutorial. - Ufa: RIO BashSU, 2002. P.148..
The second phase of the meeting took place in Geneva from September 18, 1973 to July 21, 1975. It represented rounds of negotiations lasting from 3 to 6 months at the level of delegates and experts appointed by the participating states. At this stage, agreements were developed and agreed upon on all items on the meeting agenda.
The third stage of the meeting took place in Helsinki on July 30 - August 1, 1975 at the level of senior political and government leaders of the countries participating in the meeting, who headed national delegations - See: History of Russia, 1945-2008. : book for the teacher / [A.V. Filippov, A.I. Utkin, S.V. Alekseev and others] ; edited by A.V. Filippova. -- 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: Education, 2008. P.247..
The Helsinki Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) from July 3 to August 1, 1975 was the result of a peaceful progressive process in Europe. Representatives of 33 European countries, as well as the USA and Canada were present in Helsinki. The meeting was attended by: general secretary Central Committee of the CPSU L. I. Brezhnev, US President J. Ford, French President V. Giscard d'Estaing, British Prime Minister G. Wilson, Federal Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany G. Schmidt, First Secretary of the Central Committee of the PUWP E. Terek; General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China , President of Czechoslovakia G. Husak, First Secretary of the Central Committee of the SED E. Honecker; First Secretary of the Central Committee of the BCP, Chairman of the State Council of the People's Republic of Belarus T. Zhivkov, First Secretary of the Central Committee of the HSWP J. Kadar; General Secretary of the RCP, President of Romania N. Ceausescu; Chairman of the UCY, President Yugoslavia Josip Broz Tito and other leaders of participating states The Declaration adopted by the CSCE proclaimed the inviolability of European borders, mutual renunciation of the use of force, peaceful settlement of disputes, non-interference in the internal affairs of participating countries, respect for human rights, etc.
The heads of delegations signed the Final Act of the meeting. This document is still in effect today. It includes agreements that must be implemented in full as a whole, on:
1) security in Europe,
2) cooperation in the field of economics, science and technology, security environment;
3) cooperation in humanitarian and other fields;
4) further steps after the meeting - See: Ratkovsky I. S., Khodyakov M. V. History of Soviet Russia - St. Petersburg: Lan Publishing House, 2001. P.414..
The Final Act contains 10 principles defining the norms of relationships and cooperation: sovereign equality, respect for the rights inherent in sovereignty; non-use of force or threat of force; inviolability of borders; territorial integrity; peaceful settlement of disputes; non-interference in internal affairs; respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms; equality and the right of peoples to control their own destinies; cooperation between states; fulfillment of international legal obligations.
The Final Act guaranteed the recognition and inviolability of post-war borders in Europe (which was to the advantage of the USSR) and imposed obligations on all participating states to respect human rights (this became the basis for using the problem of human rights against the USSR) - See: Sokolov A.K. , Tyazhelnikova V.S. Well Soviet history, 1941-1999. - M.: Higher. school, 1999. P.195..
The signing of the Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) by the heads of 33 European states, as well as the United States and Canada on August 1, 1975 in Helsinki became the apogee of détente. The Final Act included a declaration of principles for relations between the CSCE participating countries. Highest value The USSR attached recognition to the inviolability of post-war borders and the territorial integrity of states, which meant the international legal consolidation of the situation in Eastern Europe. The triumph of Soviet diplomacy was the result of a compromise: the Final Act also included articles on the protection of human rights, freedom of information and movement. These articles served as the international legal basis for the dissident movement within the country and the campaign to protect human rights in the USSR, which was actively carried out in the West.
It should be said that, starting from 1973, there was an independent negotiation process between representatives of NATO and the Department of Internal Affairs on arms reduction. However, the desired success was not achieved here due to the tough position of the Warsaw Pact countries, which were superior to NATO in common types weapons and those who did not want to reduce them.
After the signing of the Helsinki Final Act Soviet Union felt like a master in Eastern Europe and began installing new SS-20 medium-range missiles in the GDR and Czechoslovakia, restrictions on which were not provided for by the SALT agreements. .Under the conditions of the campaign to protect human rights in the USSR, which sharply intensified in the West after Helsinki, the position of the USSR became extremely tough. This prompted retaliatory measures from the United States, which, after Congress refused to ratify SALT II in the early 1980s, placed Western Europe"cruise missiles" and Pershing missiles capable of reaching the territory of the Soviet Union. Thus, a military-strategic balance was established between the blocs in Europe - See: History of Russia. 1917--2004: Educational. manual for university students / A. S. Barsenkov, A. I. Vdovin. - M.: Aspect Press, 2005. P.514..
The arms race had an extremely negative impact on the economies of countries whose military-industrial orientation did not decrease. The general extensive development increasingly affected the defense industry. The parity with the United States achieved in the early 1970s concerned primarily intercontinental ballistic missiles. Already from the late 1970s, the general crisis of the Soviet economy began to have an impact negative impact to the defense industries. The Soviet Union began to gradually fall behind in certain species weapons. This was discovered after the emergence of the US " cruise missiles"and became even more obvious after the United States began working on the" strategic defense initiative"(SOI). Since the mid-1980s, the leadership of the USSR has begun to clearly realize this lag. The depletion of the regime's economic capabilities is becoming more and more apparent.
Helsinki Final Act), Helsinki Accords(English) Helsinki Accords) or Declaration of Helsinki(English) Helsinki Declaration) - a document signed by the heads of 35 states in the capital of Finland, Helsinki, on July 30 - August 1 of the year. It was convened at the proposal (1965) of the socialist states parties to the Warsaw Pact. From the political side, this was necessary to contain German revanchism. The Federal Republic of Germany had not previously recognized the Potsdam Agreements, which changed the borders of Poland and “Germany,” and did not recognize the existence of the GDR. Germany actually did not even recognize the occupation of Kaliningrad and Klaipeda by the USSR.Final Act
The text of the final act is available in many languages, and in particular in Russian
Interstate agreements grouped into several sections:
- in the international legal field - consolidating the political and territorial results of the Second World War, setting out the principles of relations between participating states, including the principle of the inviolability of borders; ter. integrity of states; non-interference in internal affairs;
- in the military-political field - coordination of confidence-building measures in military field(pre-notification of military exercises and major troop movements, presence of observers at military exercises); peaceful settlement of disputes;
- in the economic field - coordination of the main areas of cooperation in the field of economics, science and technology and environmental protection;
- in the humanitarian field - coordination of obligations on issues of human rights and fundamental freedoms, including freedom of movement, contacts, information, culture and education, the right to work, the right to education and health care.
see also
Links
- Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe. Final Act. Helsinki, August 1, 1975.
- http://bse.sci-lib.com/article104049.html Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe.
- http://www.hrono.ru/sobyt/1900sob/1965helsinki.html Helsinki meeting
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For medical principles, see Declaration of Helsinki Article Germany from the encyclopedia. Bertelsman Publishing House 1964. Germany is depicted without taking into account the Potsdam Agreements. Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe... ... Wikipedia
For medical principles, see Declaration of Helsinki Article Germany from the encyclopedia. Bertelsman Publishing House 1964. Germany is depicted without taking into account the Potsdam Agreements. Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe... ... Wikipedia
Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe- The fundamental document on security and cooperation in Europe is the Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE), signed in Helsinki on August 1, 1975 by the leaders of 33 European countries, USA and... ... Encyclopedia of Newsmakers
For medical principles, see the Declaration of Helsinki Entry "Germany" from the encyclopedia. Publishing house "Bertelsmann" 1964. Germany is depicted without taking into account the Potsdam Agreements... Wikipedia
For medical principles, see Declaration of Helsinki Article Germany from the encyclopedia. Bertelsman Publishing House 1964. Germany is depicted without taking into account the Potsdam Agreements. Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe... ... Wikipedia
For medical principles, see Declaration of Helsinki Article Germany from the encyclopedia. Bertelsman Publishing House 1964. Germany is depicted without taking into account the Potsdam Agreements. Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe... ... Wikipedia
Years 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 Decades 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s ... Wikipedia
- (OSCE) was created in accordance with the decisions contained in the Paris 1990, Vienna and Helsinki Declarations 1992. The goals of the OSCE: to promote improvement mutual relations, as well as creating conditions to ensure lasting peace: support… … Encyclopedia of Lawyer
BREZHNEV Leonid Ilyich- Leonid Ilyich (12/6/1906, Kamenskoye village, Ekaterinoslav province (now Dneprodzerzhinsk, Dnepropetrovsk region, Ukraine) 11/10/1982, Moscow), Soviet state. and politician; from 14 Oct. 1964 until the end of his life he occupied the highest political position in the USSR... ... Orthodox Encyclopedia
Final Act
The text of the final act is available in many languages, and in particular in Russian
Interstate agreements grouped into several sections:
- in the international legal field - consolidating the political and territorial results of the Second World War, setting out the principles of relations between participating states, including the principle of the inviolability of borders; ter. integrity of states; non-interference in internal affairs;
- in the military-political field - coordination of confidence-building measures in the military field (preliminary notifications of military exercises and major movements of troops, the presence of observers at military exercises); peaceful settlement of disputes;
- in the economic field - coordination of the main areas of cooperation in the field of economics, science and technology and environmental protection;
- in the humanitarian field - coordination of obligations on issues of human rights and fundamental freedoms, including freedom of movement, contacts, information, culture and education, the right to work, the right to education and health care.
see also
Links
- Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe. Final Act. Helsinki, August 1, 1975.
- http://bse.sci-lib.com/article104049.html Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe.
- http://www.hrono.ru/sobyt/1900sob/1965helsinki.html Helsinki meeting
Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.
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Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe- The fundamental document on security and cooperation in Europe is the Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE), signed in Helsinki on August 1, 1975 by the leaders of 33 European countries, the United States and... ... Encyclopedia of Newsmakers
FINAL ACT of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe- signed on August 1, 1975 in Helsinki by the leaders of 33 European states, the USA and Canada. Includes agreements that must be implemented in full as a whole, on 1) security in Europe, 2) cooperation in the field of economics, science and ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe- signed on August 1, 1975 in Helsinki by the leaders of 33 European states, the USA and Canada. Includes agreements that must be implemented in full as a whole on security in Europe, cooperation in the field of economics, science and... ... Political science. Dictionary.
Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe- For medical principles, see the Declaration of Helsinki Article "Germany" from the encyclopedia. Publishing house "Bertelsmann" 1964. Germany is depicted without taking into account the Potsdam Agreements... Wikipedia
Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe- Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe... Russian spelling dictionary
Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe - (1975) … Spelling dictionary of the Russian language
Final Act of the Helsinki Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe- For medical principles, see the Declaration of Helsinki Article Germany from the encyclopedia. Bertelsman Publishing House 1964. Germany is depicted without taking into account the Potsdam Agreements. Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe... ... Wikipedia
Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe- (OSCE) Organization for Security and Co operation in Europe (OSCE) Organization pour la sécurité et la coopération en Europe Organization für Sicherheit und Zusammenarbeit in Europa Organizzazione per la Sicurezza e la Cooperazione in Europa... ... Wikipedia
ORGANIZATION FOR SECURITY AND COOPERATION IN EUROPE- (English Organization on Security and Cooperation in Europe) (until 1994 Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe), pan-European political organization(featuring USA and Canada). The CSCE was originally conceived as an international... ... encyclopedic Dictionary
ORGANIZATION FOR SECURITY AND COOPERATION IN EUROPE (OSCE)- (Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe OSCE) is the successor to the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE), which began its activities in the first half of the 70s. during the discharge process, the tension between... ... Political science: dictionary-reference book
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Restructuring process European system international relations on principles designed to ensure peace, security and cooperation. It began with the Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe, the final stage of which took place in Helsinki in 1975. The Conference was attended by the leaders of 33 European states, as well as the USA and Canada.
On August 1, 1975, the signing ceremony of the Final Act took place in the plenary hall of the Finlandia Palace.
The signing of the Final Act became possible in the context of the ensuing détente of international tension. He marked the beginning of the end of " cold war"and eliminating its consequences. Historically, the act is associated with the decisions of the powers of the anti-Hitler coalition on post-war structure Europe, which certain forces tried to reconsider in their favor during the Cold War. The Soviet Union initiated the convening of the Conference and was an active participant at all its stages.
The Final Act, signed in Helsinki, opens with a Declaration of Principles on which pan-European system international relations: sovereign equality, mutual refusal to use force or the threat of force, inviolability of borders, territorial integrity of states, peaceful settlement of disputes, non-interference in internal affairs, respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, equality and the right of peoples to decide their own destinies, cooperation between states, conscientious fulfillment obligations under international law. The Declaration was an authoritative confirmation and development of the basic principles international law, enshrined in the UN Charter (see United Nations).
The Helsinki Act also includes the Document on Confidence-Building Measures and Certain Aspects of Security and Disarmament, which contains provisions on advance notification of military exercises and major troop movements, the exchange of military observers, other confidence-building measures and disarmament issues. Many of these measures are unprecedented in international relations.
Considerable attention is paid to cooperation in the fields of economics, science, technology and environmental protection. Provisions have been established for the development of trade and industrial cooperation. Special attention to cooperation in the field the latest trends science and technology. An important place is occupied by provisions on cooperation in humanitarian fields: contacts between people, information, culture, education. Finally, further steps after the Meeting are outlined. In other words, from the very beginning we were talking about a continuous process during which common security would be strengthened and comprehensive cooperation would be developed.
The USSR did a lot of work to implement the act in its internal and foreign policy. Article 29 was included in the Constitution of the USSR, which established that the basis for relations with other states are principles that completely coincide with those listed in the act. IN humanitarian sphere laws were adopted on citizenship, on the legal status of foreign citizens, rules for the stay of foreign citizens in the USSR and the transit passage of foreign citizens through the territory of the USSR, etc. Numerous agreements were concluded on economic, scientific, technical and other types of cooperation with European countries.
The Helsinki Act not only marked a turning point in the development of international relations in Europe, but also provided the rest of the world with a model for solving complex problems. He influenced world system international relations in general. However, the opportunities opened to him were not used sufficiently. A new aggravation of international tension stood in the way of the implementation of the provisions of the act. The former Soviet leadership also bore its share of responsibility for this. The introduction of Soviet troops to Afghanistan. During the period of stagnation, many provisions of a humanitarian nature were not implemented in the USSR.
And yet, despite the escalation of tensions, the Helsinki process did not stop, but continued to develop. This is evidenced by meetings and conferences in Belgrade (1977-1978), Madrid (1980-1983), Stockholm (1984-1986), Vienna (1986-1989). At the Madrid meeting, it was decided to convene a Conference on Confidence-Building Measures, Security and Disarmament in Europe. Its first stage took place in Stockholm (1984-1986) and opened in conditions of sharp deterioration international situation. The situation changed radically with the beginning of transformations in the USSR, which marked the beginning of fundamental changes in international relations. The results were reflected in the adopted Stockholm Document, which was a huge achievement in the development of the Helsinki process. The document obliged states to provide advance notification of exercises and troop movements beyond established parameters, and to exchange annual plans military activities subject to notification, invite observers and even conduct foreign on-site inspections. Special meaning had an agreement confirming the obligation not to use force in all its forms, including armed force.
At the Vienna meeting, which became a new stage in the development of the Helsinki process, much attention was paid to cooperation in the field of economics, science and technology, the environment, etc.
An important step in the development of the Helsinki process was the Paris Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe in 1990. It was timed to coincide with the signing of the Treaty on the Reduction of Conventional Armed Forces in Europe. The treaty provided for a significant reduction in the armed forces of NATO and the Warsaw Pact Organization (WTO) members, thereby achieving a balance at a significantly reduced level. As a result, the possibility of a surprise attack was practically excluded.
A Joint Declaration of 22 states was adopted, representing a multilateral political commitment to non-aggression.
The central document of the Meeting is the Charter of Paris for new Europe, under which the leaders of 35 states put their signatures. The signatories of the Charter committed themselves to building and strengthening democracy as the only system of government in their countries; provide assistance to each other in order to make democratic gains irreversible.
The Conference participants proceeded from the indivisibility of security, believing that the security of each of them is connected with the security of the others. Further development of cooperation in the field of economics and environmental protection is envisaged. We are talking about deeper integration into the international economic and financial system.
The Paris Conference is especially important for the formation organizational structure the Helsinki process, for its institutionalization. The USSR was the initiator here. A mechanism has been established for regular meetings and consultations at the level of heads of state and government. The central forum for political consultation will be the Council of Foreign Ministers, to which a Committee of Experts will be attached as a subsidiary body. To serve these bodies, a Secretariat is created in Prague.
The Conflict Prevention Center established in Vienna, designed to monitor the military-political situation in Europe, deserves special attention. An office for free elections is being created in Warsaw, whose task is to facilitate the exchange of information about elections. To be created parliamentary assembly CSCE (now OSCE), consisting of representatives of the parliaments of all participating countries.
The Paris meeting played important role in defining pan-European values and principles, established far-reaching goals of cooperation, including integration. Participants made broad security commitments. Were laid organizational foundations Helsinki process. All this marks the onset of a new stage in the development of the process, which reflects its vitality and meaning.
The key event of détente in Europe was the meeting on security and cooperation on the continent, which took place in the capital of Finland, Helsinki, in three stages:
At the first stage, July 3-7, 1973, a meeting of foreign ministers developed an agenda and determined the main directions of work.
At the second (September 18, 1973 - July 21, 1975), experts prepared the main documents of the meeting on security, economic and humanitarian issues.
On August 1, 1975, the leaders of 33 European states, as well as the USA and Canada, signed the Final Act of the meeting. Its core is the Declaration of Principles that will guide the participating States in their mutual relations.
The Declaration includes the following principles:
1. Respect for sovereignty.
2. Non-use of force or threat of force.
3. Inviolability of borders.
4. Territorial integrity of states.
5. Peaceful settlement of disputes.
6. Non-interference in internal affairs.
7. Respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.
8. Equality and the right of peoples to control their own destinies.
9. Cooperation between states.
10. Conscientious fulfillment of obligations under international law.
In addition to the Declaration, the following documents were adopted: “Cooperation in the field of economics, technology, environment”, “Cooperation in humanitarian and other fields”, “The issue of security cooperation in the Mediterranean”, “On confidence-building measures and some aspects of security and disarmament” .
The Helsinki Conference was a turning point in the period of détente. Even the return to confrontation in the early 1980s could not overcome the significance of the Helsinki process.
Final Act: Interstate agreements, grouped into several sections:
In the international legal field: consolidating the political and territorial results of the Second World War, setting out the principles of relations between participating states, including the principle of the inviolability of borders; territorial integrity of states; non-interference in the internal affairs of foreign states;
In the military-political field: coordination of confidence-building measures in the military field (pre-notification of military exercises and major troop movements, presence of observers at military exercises); peaceful settlement of disputes;
In the economic field: coordination of the main areas of cooperation in the field of economics, science and technology and environmental protection;
In the humanitarian field: harmonization of obligations on issues of human rights and fundamental freedoms, including freedom of movement, contacts, information, culture and education, the right to work, the right to education and health care.
53. End of the Vietnam War. "Nixon's Guam Doctrine". Paris Conference on Vietnam. Basic solutions.
After the signing of the armistice agreement, the South Vietnamese troops numbered more than a million people, the armed forces of North Vietnam stationed on the territory of the South numbered more than two hundred thousand soldiers.
The ceasefire agreements in South Vietnam were not implemented. Both the communists and the South Vietnamese government troops divided the territory under their control during the battles. Northern Vietnam continued to transfer reinforcements to his troops in the south along the Ho Chi Minh Trail, which was facilitated by the cessation of American bombing. The crisis in the economy of South Vietnam, as well as the decrease in the volume of American military assistance under pressure from the US Congress in 1974, contributed to the decline in the fighting qualities of the South Vietnamese troops. An increasing number of territories of South Vietnam de facto fell under the rule of North Vietnam. South Vietnamese government troops suffered losses. In December 1974 - January 1975, the North Vietnamese army conducted a test operation to capture Phuoc Long Province to test the US response. Convinced that the United States did not intend to resume its participation in the war, in early March 1975, North Vietnamese troops launched a large-scale offensive. The South Vietnamese army was disorganized and in most areas failed to provide adequate resistance. As a result of a two-month campaign, North Vietnamese troops occupied most South Vietnam and approached Saigon. On April 30, 1975, the communists raised the banner over the Independence Palace in Saigon - the war was over.
The Guam Doctrine is a doctrine put forward by Richard Nixon on June 25, 1969, during a speech to military personnel on the island of Guam. The essence of the Guam Doctrine was that the United States abandoned its obligation to defend its allies from external aggression with the help of its army, except in cases of aggression from major powers such as China or the USSR. In this case, they were guaranteed protection from nuclear strikes and air and naval support. US allies had to deal with local communist movements or hostile neighbors on their own.
This US step was positively received by the rest of the world. By 1973, the United States completed its withdrawal from Vietnam, and in 1975 the Vietnam War ended in complete victory for the Vietnamese communists.
During the war, 56,555 American military personnel were killed, 303,654 Americans were injured, and after the withdrawal of American troops, US opponents won a complete and unconditional victory in the war. All this had a negative impact on the state of American society - the result of the Vietnam War was seen as a defeat for the United States, and psychological trauma was inflicted on the entire country. However, even during the war, the United States began to look for ways to relieve international tension, and this, together with the new foreign policy doctrine, made détente in international relations possible. As a result, the United States was able to improve relations with China and the USSR and subsequently play on the contradictions between them, which strengthened the US position on the world stage.
The 1973 Paris Agreement on ending the war and restoring peace in Vietnam, signed on January 27 by the foreign ministers of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, the United States, the Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam (PRG RYV) and the Saigon administration; text P. s. developed during the Paris negotiations of the four parties on Vietnam, which took place in January 1969. In accordance with Art. 1 P. p. The United States is committed to respecting the independence, sovereignty, unity and territorial integrity Vietnam
Subsequent articles stipulated the immediate cessation of military operations in South Vietnam, as well as all US military operations against the Democratic Republic of Vietnam; complete withdrawal from South Vietnam within 60 days of troops and military personnel of the United States and other foreign states allied to the United States and the Saigon administration.
Signing P. s. was an important victory for the Vietnamese people, the peace-loving forces of the whole world in the fight against imperialist aggression, and a significant contribution to the easing of international tension.