What scientists study minerals and find them in nature. Green Scouts Plants help find minerals
Department of Education of the Lebedyansky Administration municipal district Lipetsk region
Municipal budgetary educational institution
DOD SYUNG Lebedyan
research
Fossil artifacts
Penkova Margarita Yurievna, 7th grade, MBOU DOD SYUNG Lebedyan
d/o "Young Researcher" (based on MBOUSOSH Kuiman village)
Head - Penkova Olga Anatolyevna
teacher d/o MBOU DOD SYUN Lebedyan
Lebedyan – 2014
Object of study: animal fossils.
Subject of study: places of discovery of fossils in the Lipetsk region, types of fossils.
Purpose of the study: determining the locations of animal fossils and drawing up an idea of the features of nature in prehistoric times.
Tasks:
1.Collect samples of animal fossils at designated points in the Lipetsk region.
2.Give a brief description of the places where fossils were collected in the Lipetsk region.
3. Determine the approximate species of fossils.
4. Determination of the approximate time of existence of the found fossils on a geochronological scale.
5. Compile a general description of the natural features of the Devonian period of the Paleozoic era in the Lipetsk region.
6. Suggest a route for amateur paleontologists in the Lipetsk region.
Methods:
Finding and collecting fossils in the field.
Description.
Working with geochronological scale and Internet resources.
Compiling a collection of found artifacts.
Plan
Introduction
1. Literature review.
2.Materials and methods
3. General conclusions on the study and an approximate route for amateur paleontologists in the Lipetsk region.
Conclusion
List of references and used Internet resources.
Appendix (collection of animal fossils).
Introduction.
I want to become a geologist. Not a lawyer, not an economist, not a doctor, but a geologist. I read somewhere that the oldest profession is a geologist. After all, where did human civilization begin? From the fact that man began to distinguish a stone that is suitable for making a stone ax from a stone that is unsuitable for this purpose. And these are the basics of geology. Thus, mining began in ancient times. Later, miners began to extract clay and coal. With the beginning of the era of the Great geographical discoveries exploration of the Earth began. At this time, the first geological thinkers appeared who tried to guess where minerals might be located. But the profession of a geologist is associated not only with the search for minerals. For example, I am most interested in paleontology. My passion for paleontology began when I read a book by the famous Russian geologist Vladimir Afanasyevich Obruchev, which was called “Plutonia”. Paleontology (from ancient Greek Παλαιοντολογία) is the science of organisms that existed in past geological periods and were preserved in the form of fossil remains, as well as traces of their vital activity. Ancient animals today have turned into fossils that can be found in rocks, such as limestone, which are abundant in the Lipetsk region. While making my hikes at the Amethyst geological school to interesting places in the Lipetsk region, I found a number of interesting specimens of fossilized animals; from each hike I brought back a new interesting specimen. And after studying them, I came to some conclusions about the past of the land on which I live. This work reflects my observations and conclusions.
Literature review.
Fossils are evidence of the existence of life in prehistoric times. They consist of the remains of living organisms, completely replaced by minerals - calcite, apatite, chalcedony. Fossils are usually mineralized remains or
imprints of animals and plants preserved in soil, stones,
hardened resins. Preserved tracks, such as those of an organism's feet in soft sand, clay, or mud, are also called fossils.
Fossils are formed through fossilization processes. She
is accompanied by the influence of various environmental factors during the passage of diagenesis processes - physical and chemical transformations, during the transition of sediment into rock, which includes the remains of organisms. Fossils are formed when dead plants and animals were not immediately eaten by predators or bacteria, but soon after death they were covered with silt, sand, clay, or ash, which prevented access to oxygen. During the formation of rock sediments, under the influence
mineral solutions organic matter decomposed and was replaced by minerals - most often calcite, pyrite, opal, chalcedony. At the same time, thanks to the gradual progress of the replacement process, external shape and elements of the structure of the remains were preserved. Usually only hard parts of organisms are preserved, for example, bones, teeth, chitinous shells, shells. Soft tissues decompose too quickly and do not have time to be replaced by mineral matter.
During fossilization, plants usually undergo complete destruction, leaving the so-called. imprints and cores. Also, plant tissues can be replaced by mineral compounds, most often silica, carbonate and pyrite. Such complete or partial replacement of plant trunks while maintaining the internal structure is called petrification. S. V. Obruchev highlighted the following groups fossils: 1) impressions of the body or, more often, the skeleton (shell) of an animal and trunks, stems and leaves of plants on the surface of the rock; 2) Cores are casts of the internal cavity of shells, resulting from filling the void with rock after removing the soft parts. Unprinted kernels have very little value because... systematic position molluscs and brachiopods are determined by the shape of the external sculpture and the structure of the castle. The nuclei are needed to determine muscle attachments and study other details of anatomy. 3) Solid parts of organisms - bones, teeth, scales, shells, skeletons of corals and sponges, shells of echinoderms, etc. - are mostly preserved not in their original form, but with partial or complete replacement of the primary substance with secondary substances - calcite, silica, sulfides , iron hydroxides, etc. In favorable conditions, chitinous and horny parts are also preserved. The most favorable rocks for preserving organic remains are marls, bituminous and clayey limestones, calcareous and glauconitic sands, and sometimes sandstones and clayey shales. Pure quartz sandstones and quartzites, especially those occurring in continuous strata, are very poor in fossils. Clean, thick-bedded, uniform limestones are also poor in fossils, but irregular masses of reef limestones and dolomites, sometimes very thick and without clear bedding, contain corals, bryozoans, calcareous algae, and other remains of reef-building animals. In sandstones, the appearance of interlayers of shaly clays, limestones, and marls increases the chances of finding fauna; lenses of carbonaceous shales and clays contain delicate imprints of leaves, and layers of sandstone contain imprints of trunks; the latter are found even in thick layers of coarse-grained sandstones. Concretions (concretions) often enclose clusters of fossils or individual specimens. Conglomerates, especially coarse ones, contain small quantities of only the strongest parts of organisms—vertebrate bones, thick shells, and trunks. Often abundant fossils are contained in thin layers or short lenses; in some cases, the remains of animals or plants accumulate in such quantities that they form entire layers of rocks. Marine sediments are richer in organic remains than continental ones. Heavily metamorphosed rocks contain organic remains only in extremely rare cases in very poor condition, because when the rock changes and recrystallizes, the skeletons disappear or merge with the mass of the rock. The surface of the Lipetsk region is an elevated undulating plain, dissected by river valleys, gullies and ravines. The flatness of its territory is due to its geological structure, the presence at the base of a rigid crystalline foundation covered with sedimentary deposits with horizontal layers. As a result of modern erosion in the Lipetsk region, deposits of the Upper Devonian and younger deposits are exposed, which are represented by limestones, marls, dolomites with layers of clays of various shades, with the inclusion of quartz grains. Fauna is present in large quantities in the rocks.
2.Materials and methods
2.1. Identification of points in the Lipetsk region for searching for fossils.
I collected my small collection of fossils in the Lipetsk region. It is located in the center of the European part of Russia, in the upper reaches of the Don, within the Central Russian Upland in the west (height up to 262 m) and the Oka-Don Plain in the east. In the north it borders with the Ryazan and Tula regions, in the west - with Oryol region, in the south - with the Voronezh and Kursk regions, in the east - with the Tambov region. The main rivers are the Don with its tributaries Krasivaya Mecha, Sosna, Voronezh with its tributaries Matyr, Usman, Stanovaya Ryasa.
The relief is erosive. The climate is moderate continental. The west of our region - the Don River basin is distinguished by a large number of limestone outcrops, I observed this during excursions to the Dankovsky, Lebedyansky, Zadonsky and Khlevensky districts. I looked for fossilized remains of animals in limestones and dolomites, because these are the rocks that predominate in the Lipetsk region and you can often find them outcropping on the surface. In the summer, together with other geostudents, I visited the lower reaches of the river. Beautiful Mecha (Lebedyansky district), on the Don conversations (Zadonsky district), on a karst field in the vicinity of the village. Kon-Kolodez (Khlevensky district), on the rivers and streams of Lipetsk, at the Dankovsky dolomite plant (Dankovsky district), at the outcrops of Devonian limestones in the village of Kamennaya Lubna (Lebedyansky district). In rock outcrops I found the following fossils - ammonites and crinoids in the village of Kamennaya Lubna (Lebedyansky district), corals - in the village of Pokrovskoye (Terbunsky district), brachiopods - in Dankovo. It is these settlements that I would suggest visiting fossil seekers. The village of Pokrovskoye, Terbunsky district, Lipetsk region, is located in the center of the Russian Plain on the Central Russian Upland in the southwestern part of the Lipetsk region, located within the black earth strip in the forest-steppe zone. It stands on the right bank of the Olym River. Here the Sredny Korotysh stream flows into it. The city of Dankov is the administrative center of the Dankovsky district of the Lipetsk region, located 86 km northwest of Lipetsk, on the picturesque banks of the Don River, not far from the place where, presumably, the Battle of Kulikovo took place in 1380. The geological structure of the Dankovsky dolomite deposit was formed over many millions of years on the ancient Russian platform, which is a huge tectonic structure, the crystalline foundation of which is composed of rocks such as granite, crystalline schists, gneisses and other rocks of Archaean-Proterozoic age, and on top they are covered by a layer of sedimentary rocks sediments represented by limestones, dolomites, marls, clays, sandstones and other rocks. The thickness of these deposits in the area of the Dankovskoye deposit is more than 600 m. Kamennaya Lubna is a village in the Doktorovskoye rural settlement of the Lebedyansky district of the Lipetsk region. Previously the village was called Lubna. Both names are based on the Lubna River. The definition of stone is by the emergence of stone to the surface in these places.
2.2. Rules for collecting fossils.
Before setting out to search for and collect fossilized remains, it is important to think through and select the equipment for the job. Rocks such as clays, sands, some sandstones and occasionally even limestones can be broken or crushed by hand, but this is the exception rather than the strict rule. Most rocks cannot be split without special tools. In addition, it is necessary not only to split the stone, but to remove the fossil from it, which is about to crumble. A paleontologist's kit should include: a geological hammer, a chisel, a knife, a shovel, brushes, needles, and sometimes a crowbar. The geological hammer can be replaced with any other hammer that is pointed on one side and has a flat surface on the other. Chisels should also be of different sizes. A chisel can be used to break off large pieces of rock and remove rock around the fossil. For the most delicate, thorough processing, very small chisels and needles are needed - they are used to prepare the sample. A well-sharpened knife won't hurt either. Sometimes it can be used to successfully peel off rocks. A shovel or trowel will be very effective when digging through loose sand or clay rocks. Brushes are good for dissecting or extracting fossils from loose rocks. They will allow you to very carefully remove the adjacent rock without damaging the fossil. In this way, bone remains are sometimes removed. To wrap samples, you can use newsprint or thicker Kraft paper. Particularly fragile samples can be padded with cotton wool or gauze. It is also possible to pack samples in various boxes and geological fabric bags with a pulling rope. If a fossil has fallen apart, it can be glued together using PVA or Moment glue.
If only an imprint of a fossil remains in the rock, you can make a counterimprint or cast of it using plaster. Prints can be valuable because they reflect the external sculpture of shells and shells, which is not always preserved.
To describe and sketch the section you need paper and simple pencils, an eraser and a ruler. And in my opinion, nothing can convey the features of a geological section like photography, so it’s good to have a camera with you. A compass is needed to determine the location of the cut. A backpack is required for transportation. Paleontologists have many rules for studying the locations of fossil organisms and the fossils themselves. But among them there are the main ones, the failure of which greatly reduces the value of research and collections. Two of them are a description of the geological section being studied and the preparation of detailed labels. First you need to do general description the location of the cut, recording its features in detail; where it is located, in what region, in what city, village, on the bank of a river or lake, find out its location relative to the cardinal points. The label is the fossil's passport. The label contains basic information about it. The label is made from thick paper. Records are made using a pencil or pen. Each of them must indicate the institution that conducts the excursion. The field identification of the residue is recorded first, then the age, indicating the layer from which the sample was taken. This is followed by the name of the excursion site and its exact address (region, region, nearby settlements, bodies of water), the date of collection, the name of the person who collected and identified the fossil. Each fossil is assigned a field number.
2.3.Description of fossil collection sites.
Above, I indicated that I was looking for my artifacts in Dankov, Kamennaya Lubnya and Pokrovskoye. Externally, the limestone outcrops at these points are similar. The outcrops are outcrops of ancient limestone of Devonian age, covered with a layer of chernozem on top. The color of limestone ranges from beige to light brown. It is difficult to accurately determine the mineral composition of the rock without laboratory tests; one can make an assumption: the chemical composition of pure limestones approaches the theoretical composition of calcite (56% CaO and 44% CO2), the studied limestones are not pure, because they are not white, but have a yellow and brown tint, which means that in addition to CaCO3 they also contain impurities of iron oxides. The structure of limestone is cryptocrystalline, sometimes clastic, organogenic. Texture - homogeneous, layered, banded, porous (samples do not scratch glass). Strength can be judged by its ability to split under a hammer. To test the strength, a sample of limestone with a volume of about 200 cm3 (approximately 6x6x6 cm) was crushed into crushed stone with one or two blows of a hammer. A strong sample will split into 2-3 pieces, and a weak one will split into many small pieces. The limestones under study are durable. The systems of cracks in the limestone mass initially determine the block structure, which allows the separation of blocks - slabs (natural units), the thickness (thickness) of the slabs from several tens of centimeters to several meters. In the thickness of limestone one can distinguish inclusions - lithomorphic, in the form of clay and sand, biomorphic, in the form of fossilized remains of shells of marine animals and corals. It is not possible to determine the total thickness of limestone deposits, but the textbook “Geography of the Lipetsk Region” says that the thickness reaches hundreds of meters. Moreover, the upper, younger layers are more widespread than the lower, previously deposited horizons; the latter lie on underlying older rocks.
2.4.Description and determination of the approximate species of the found animal fossils.
I found fossils of four species of marine animals: ammonites, corals, brachiopods, and crinoids. The ammonite fossil is located in limestone, its size is 10 * 7 cm, the shell relief pattern is clearly visible on it, and on the fracture you can see the partitions between the chambers, their diameter is small, so we can assume that the found area was closer to the end of the shell.
Ammonites (Ammonoidea) are an extinct subclass of cephalopods that existed from the Devonian to the Cretaceous. In 1789, the French zoologist Jean Bruguier gave them Latin name“ammonitos” in honor of the ancient Egyptian solar deity Amon of Thebes, depicted with twisted ram horns, which resemble the shell of ammonites. In those days, only one genus of ammonites was known, but now there are about 3 thousand of them, descriptions of new species are constantly appearing. Most ammonites had an external shell consisting of several whorls, located in the same plane, touching each other or overlapping each other to varying degrees. Such shells are called monomorphic. The ammonite shell was divided into many chambers; the one closest to the mouth was the living chamber. The length of the living chamber varies from 0.5 to 2 turns. Most of the chambers were filled with gas (air chambers), and a few were filled with liquid (hydrostatic chambers). Most ammonites belong to the ecological group of nekton, that is, organisms freely floating in the water column. However, some forms were representatives of the benthic (bottom) community. By their feeding method, ammonites were predators. Ammonites became prey for other mollusks and small fish. Ammonites are the guiding fossils of the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous sediments. The simplest ammonites appeared in the Silurian period, and greatest development true ammonites reached in the Jurassic and Cretaceous, at the end Cretaceous era this diverse and rich group of mollusks completely disappeared. The fossilized remains of sea lilies are sections of the stem 2.5 cm and 3.5 cm long, on which segments are clearly visible; in one specimen the intestinal cavity is visible.
Sea lilies or crinoids (Crinoidea) are bottom-dwelling animals with a predominantly sedentary lifestyle. These are animals belonging to the phylum Echinodermata, and not plants at all, as the name might suggest. Exists from the Ordovician to the present. The body consists of a stem, a calyx and brachioles - arms. The stems and arms consist of segments of various shapes; during the life of the animal they are connected by muscles; in the fossil state they often fall apart. Filters by power type. Now these are deep-water animals; previously, when there was less pressure from predators, they also lived in shallow water. They experienced maximum prosperity at the end of the Paleozoic. Most often, segments of various shapes and pieces of stems are found, much less often - calyxes. Sometimes you come across whole crinoids in limestone, but such finds are very rare. The diameter of the segments ranges from a few millimeters to 2 centimeters. The length of the stem is up to 20 meters in fossil forms. I came across brachiopod fossils in limestone very often; one of the found specimens contained 15 clearly defined shells, on which the relief was clearly visible, and a lot of fragments. On other samples there are either several prints or single copies. Shell size 0.6 - 2 cm * 0.4 - 1.5 cm.
Brachiopod shells are as integral a component of the marine fauna of the Paleozoic (they were very widespread in the Devonian and Carboniferous periods) as ammonites in the Mesozoic, and are currently represented on Earth by only 200 species. In some places, brachiopods still form huge accumulations, it’s just that now the ecological niches that brachiopods occupied in the Paleozoic and early Mesozoic are occupied by bivalves, and brachiopods are pushed to the depths and into cold waters. Brachiopods are not mollusks, although they have a bivalve shell, but an independent type of marine shelled animals (Brachiopoda). According to many paleontologists, they are related to bryozoans, although at first glance they have little in common. As a rule, brachiopods are attached to the bottom with a thick, muscular stalk. Filters by power type. Sometimes brachiopods are called brachiopods - Brachiopoda, from the Greek. brachion - shoulder and podos - leg. The shell valves of brachiopods are different; they are called ventral and dorsal. This distinguishes them from mollusks, whose shell valves, right and left, are symmetrical to each other. In brachiopods, the valves are not identical; the right and left parts of one valve are symmetrical. The size of brachiopod shells rarely exceeds 7-10 centimeters.
Coral fossils were found on limestone, size 10 cm * 6 cm. These corals are colonial, reproduced by budding, individual segments are visible, the size of which is about 1 cm.
Representatives of the coral class are already known from very ancient Silurian deposits and are found in more or less significant quantities in the sediments of all systems up to and including the Quaternary, and in some places they form significant reef-like accumulations among marine sediments. The organization of Paleozoic corals is so unique that their place in the system adopted for the classification of living corals has not yet been precisely established. The now non-existent groups of Paleozoic corals are divided into - Zoantharia rugosa, which had the shape of bowls or cones, more or less curved, sometimes reached a significant size, had numerous, well-developed star-shaped plates and a wrinkled outer shell; Zoantharia tabulata - colonies of fused columns with a few short star-shaped plates parallel to transverse partitions, from which they get their name; and tubular corals - consisted of tube-shaped cells, sometimes free-lying, sometimes intertwined, forming turf-like masses. Corals Z. rugosa are the leading form of the lower horizons of the middle section of the Devonian system.
2.5. General characteristics of the nature of the Devonian period of the Paleozoic era of the Lipetsk region.
On the stratigraphic scale, the Devonian period is the period following the Silurian and preceding the Carboniferous. It lasted about 55 million years and ended about 345 million years ago. The Devonian is divided into 3 sections (upper, middle, lower). The name of this period comes from the name "Devonshire" - a county in southwestern England, where the system of Devonian strata was first identified by scientists in 1839. The beginning of the period was characterized by the retreat of the sea and the accumulation of thick continental red-colored sediments; The climate was continental and arid. In the Early Devonian, the Caledonian folding ended, and later large transgressions occurred. Mid-Devonian - the era of immersions; increase in marine transgressions, intensification of volcanic activity; climate warming. The end of the period - a reduction in transgressions, the beginning of the Hercynian folding, sea regression. The Devonian is considered one of the most interesting stages in the evolution of life on Earth. At the beginning of this period, organisms that appeared in previous geological eras slowly and gradually continued to develop in the seas. And in the middle of the Devonian, an unprecedented flourishing of marine fauna occurred. The warm waters of the Devonian seas were abundantly populated cephalopods, corals and brachiopods. Among the echinoderms, the most common in this period were crinoids, sea stars and sea urchins. Cephalopods felt great in the Devonian seas. Corals, sea lilies, as well as bottom-attached animals - brachiopods and bryozoans - reached extraordinary development. Together they created colossal reef structures. Of particular interest to modern paleontologists are the arthropods that lived in the Devonian seas - trilobites, which lived on Earth for 300 million years and became completely extinct for unknown reasons. Unfortunately, I did not find a fossilized trilobite, but I studied its features from the literature. But still, scientists consider the Devonian to be primarily the “age of fish.” I also did not find their fossilized remains, but I believe that this is still to come, since I have just started doing this work. In the literature I found a description of a major event in the Devonian biosphere - the Devonian extinction - mass extinction species at the end of the Devonian, one of the largest extinctions of flora and fauna in Earth's history. In total, 19% of families and 50% of genera became extinct. The extinctions were accompanied by widespread oceanic anoxia, that is, a lack of oxygen, which prevented the decay of organisms and predisposed the preservation and accumulation of organic matter. Probably, it is thanks to this that we can now get acquainted with the nature of the Devonian from fossils. The Devonian crisis primarily affected marine ecosystems, and affected shallow-water, heat-loving organisms much more strongly than organisms that preferred cold water. The most important group affected by the extinction were the reef-building organisms, in addition, the following groups were greatly affected by the extinction: brachiopods, trilobites, ammonites. Among the most likely causes of extinction in the literature is the fall of meteorites. It is argued that a meteorite impact was the primary cause of the Devonian extinction, but no reliable evidence of an extraterrestrial impact has been found. Although some indirect evidence of a meteorite fall in Devonian sediments is observed (iridium anomalies and microspheres (microscopic balls of melted rock)), it is possible that the formation of these anomalies is caused by other reasons.
3. General conclusions on the study and an approximate route for amateur paleontologists in the Lipetsk region.
After analyzing my observations, findings and literature, I came to the conclusion that:
On the territory of the Lipetsk region there are a large number of limestone outcrops, especially along the river valleys - the Don and its tributaries
the age of the limestones is determined to be Devonian (according to the literature)
limestones are sedimentary organic rock - uh these are the skeletons and shells of ancient organisms that lived millions of years ago. As they settled to the bottom of the seas and oceans, they caked and became cemented.
the predominant fossils in Devonian limestones are brachiopods, crinoids, ammonites and corals
the presence of a large number of fossils of marine animals suggests that the territory of the region was the bottom of the sea some time ago
knowing that corals cannot live at great depths and in cold waters, it can be assumed that the Devonian seas were shallow and warm
the large thickness of limestone deposits indicates a high density of inhabitants of the Devonian seas
the nature of the Devonian in the Lipetsk region is absolutely different from the modern one
Amateur paleontologists who want to travel around the Lipetsk region can recommend the Don Valley. There are a huge number of objects where you can try to find fossil artifacts. I would suggest the following travel route: Dankov (dolomite plant quarry) - Lebedyan (Tyapkina Mountain - Lebedyansky Devonian) - village. Kamennaya Lubna and a quarry in the village of Znobilovka (Lebedyansky district) - Don Conversations and a safari park in the village of Kamenka (Zadonsky district) - the right bank of the Olym River in the village of Pokrovskoye (Terbunsky district). I believe there are many more interesting fossils to be found at these points (maybe even fish and trilobites), you just need a little luck and some effort and care.
Conclusion
Paleontology is the science of how life originated and developed on our planet, what and why happened on our Earth. By definition, paleontology is the science of the biological cycle: paleos - ancient, ontos - being; the science of ancient beings. Fundamentally, paleontology is supposed to answer questions; where we come from, who we are, where we are going. The past is a window to the future. After conducting my little research, I realized that nothing is permanent in nature - everything develops, becomes more complex, and changes. It is possible that in a million years the nature of my native land will change beyond recognition and someone, like me, will try to touch the past. Man is a very inquisitive creature, which means that paleontology, like all geology, is doomed to exist for a long, long time. And of course, I will continue to search and study fossils in order to learn even more about the distant past of the region in which I live - the Lipetsk region. I would like to finish my work with a poem by Anatoly Tsepin:
You won't find any traces on our roads -
We are the first to lay them.
From noisy, tired, big cities
We run away every summer. We graze in freedom by the blue water, We walk through the taiga distance, We are not looking for reward for our labors, And you cannot lure us to Antalya.
Our stove and fireplace are replaced by a fire,
And a bed of pine needles is feather beds,
But the heart is a living piece, not a motor,
Sometimes he feels sad for no reason.
Through noisy, tired big cities, Through the faces of loved ones and home, And we retreat in our footsteps, Because there is no other way.
List of Internet resources
http://geomem.ru/mem_obj.php?id=12908&objcoord=&objokrug=%D6%E5%ED%F2%F0%E0%EB%FC%ED%FB%E9&objoblast=%CB%E8%EF%E5% F6%EA%E0%FF%20%EE%E1%EB%E0%F1%F2%FC&objregion
For a long time, veterinarians in the county of Somersetshire, located in southwest England, could not find out the cause of frequent and rather strange diseases in cattle. Beautiful pastures with lush, nutritious grasses did not at first arouse any Suspicion. However, in 1938, after careful investigation, it was discovered that clover and some other leguminous plants that were sown in Somersetshire pastures contained large amounts of molybdenum.
Turns out, local soils were underlain by rocks rich in this element. Plants, feeding on subsoil solutions, absorbed the molybdenum present in them and gradually accumulated it in the leaves and stems. He was the one who destroyed internal organs animals. “Molybdenosis” is what scientists called this terrible disease.
The ability of some plant species to concentrate iron, tin, copper, gold, etc. in their tissues was noticed at the beginning of the 18th century by the Swedish chemist Urban Ierne.
Geologists have pondered the remarkable features of piggy bank plants. Delicate galmaine violets, which collect zinc in their stems, grow, as a rule, where zinc ores are found... Prickly thickets of cachima, simply called tumbleweeds, prefer to live where copper is hidden... A new, original one was opening up before geologists a way to search for minerals with the help of green friends.
Nowadays, a lot of interesting information has been collected about indicator plants, as scientists call them.
In 1956-1957, in one of the southern regions of our country, geobotanists discovered a strange variety of wild poppy. The petals of its flowers seemed to be cut into small pieces by a sharp lancet. It turned out that the poppy tissue contained lead, which apparently affected the appearance of the plant. Having unraveled the secret of the disease of wild poppy, geologists carefully studied the area in which it grew, and soon discovered deposits of lead ores.
In the steppes you can often find the biyurgun plant. It has an elongated stem with characteristic narrow leaves. However, sometimes biyurgun is quite difficult to recognize. The plant loses its slenderness, looks stunted and stunted. It has been established that the culprit of this metamorphosis is the chemical element boron.
The flower, widespread in the South Ural steppes, helps geologists in their search for nickel deposits. The average breast has small yellow flowers form a kind of panicle at the end of the stem. If the baby grows where nickel ores are hidden, the appearance of the flower changes dramatically. The panicle disappears, and the flowers are located throughout the stem. The color of the petals also changes - from yellow they become crimson. A similar phenomenon occurs with anemones, which, like hairy breastworts, accumulate nickel in their stems. The anemone's corolla consists of blue petals. In “nickel” anemones, the petals become very pointed and turn pale, turning light blue.
This means that the presence of new elements in the tissues of the plant leaves an imprint on its appearance. Therefore, any changes in a familiar plant should alert a geobotanist.
However, not only flowers help geologists find minerals. Shrubs and trees can serve as excellent indicators.
Thus, in the US state of Ohio, prospectors noticed that honeysuckle bushes grew on the soils that covered gold-bearing veins. Chemical analysis discovered the presence of gold and silver in the leaves of this plant. Later, the honeysuckle bushes served as an excellent reference point for gold miners. But another shrub - astrogalus - helps to search for deposits of selenium and uranium ores.
An interesting pattern was noticed by geobotanists in the location coal deposits on Sakhalin. They are mainly concentrated where there are many birch forests. As you know, birches prefer clay soils, and coal seams on Sakhalin lie in clays and limestones. However, a reservation should be made: this “birch” method of searching for coal deposits cannot be blindly applied in all areas.
Every year geobotanists find more and more indicator plants. Those who participate in hikes and dream of becoming a geologist need to be well aware of the green scouts who help uncover the secrets of the underground storeroom.
The department is led by S. Glushnev
You can also read about green scouts - the inseparable companions of metals in the following books and magazines:
1. Vinogradov A.P., Searches for ore deposits using plants and soils. Proceedings of the biochemical laboratory. That X. Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1954.
2. Malyuga D.P., About soils and plants as a search feature for metals. Proceedings of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Geological Series K" 3, 1947
3. Malakhov A.A., Secret signs of earth treasures. Magazine "Ural" No. 8 for 1958.
4. Viktorov A., The mystery of treasure hunting. Magazine "Technology for Youth" No. 3 for 1957.
If you ski and are outside the city, of course, not where dozens and hundreds of skiers have furrowed the snow in all directions with their tracks, but further away, where the surface of recently fallen snow is untouched, pay attention to the tracks of animals and try to explain who they are left. Learn to distinguish the tracks left by a hare, fox, dog, wolf, crow, sparrows or other small birds.
Bird tracks are easy to distinguish by their shape and by the fact that they end suddenly and near the paw prints you can see the stripes left by the wings during takeoff.
It is also interesting to observe traces on the surface of loose sand away from wells, where they are not trampled by cattle going to water. There you can see traces of a hare, fox, gopher, lizards, various birds and even beetles and snakes. If you spend a few hours hiding in the bushes to test your guesses, you might see some of those who leave these traces.
On the wet sand or silt of the flat shores of lakes and seas, on the viscous clay of takyr, freed from water, you can also observe traces of various animals, which will be more durable than traces on snow or sand. The latter will be destroyed by the next snowfall or wind, and the traces on the clay will dry out along with the clay and will remain until the next flooding, which will not destroy them, but will cover them with a new layer of clay, that is, make them fossils (Fig. 272).
Many years later, when the sea recedes or modern coastal sediments are raised higher, weathering or erosion processes destroy the clay that covered the traces, and some researcher will notice and describe them.
Scientists have already come across such fossil traces different countries and described by them. These are traces of large and small reptiles wandering along the wet shore of a lake or sea (Fig. 273), the soft soil of which was deeply pressed under their weight, traces of worms and crustaceans crawling along the wet silt of the coast. They were covered with fresh sediment during flooding and were preserved.
And so we accidentally learned that there are not only fossil animals and plants, but even surviving fossil traces, ephemeral, that is, easily disappearing: the prints of the feet of a running animal or the body of a crawling animal. Now we will not be surprised that even the imprints of individual raindrops that fell on the dry shore of a lake or sea are preserved in fossil form, representing round flat depressions of different diameters, surrounded by a barely noticeable roller, which the drop knocked out on the surface of silt or clay (Fig. 274) .
Traces of the wave movement of water are preserved in the form of the so-called wave ripples and current ripples, i.e. those irregularities that are created on the surface of a sandy or clay bottom by a slight disturbance of the water of a lake or sea or the flow of a river (Fig. 275). These traces consist of flat ridges, separated from each other by grooves, flat depressions and similar to the ripples that the wind creates on the surface of the sand, as we already know (). They are often incorrectly called wave marks, that is, they are associated with scallops that form on the shore; the latter are much less common and have different outlines (Fig. 276).
By carefully studying their structure, the shape of the scallops and the coarseness of the grains on the scallops and in the grooves, it is possible to determine whether these ripples are created by wind on land, current or waves under water, and determine the direction of the current, waves and wind.
In a cliff of a river bank or on the slope of a ravine, in the wall of a pit in which sand or brick clay is mined, you can see gray and black round or irregular spots of different sizes under a layer of dark plant soil or black soil, in the yellow subsoil. These are fossil molehills or animal burrows filled with material from above; they contain the bones of these animals or the remains of their food. On blocks of some rocks, especially limestones, on the seashore, above its modern level, one often comes across a large number of strange, deep pits. These are holes drilled by bivalves that sat in these holes at a time when the water level was higher and covered them. Even the valves can be found in the pits. They prove that the shore has risen, or that the sea has retreated, that its bottom has sank.
All these traces represent documents by which one can judge the distant past of our Earth. They are similar to those manuscripts that are stored in archives and by which the historian judges the past events in the life of a given state. The historian studies not only the contents of the manuscript, but also the typeface, the image of individual letters, which has changed over time; he studies the color and quality of the paper, the color of the ink or ink with which the manuscript is written. More ancient documents were written not on paper, but on parchment made from leather, on papyrus made from the lotus plant.
Even more ancient documents were not written with ink or ink, but were carved on wooden tablets or pressed onto clay tablets, which were then fired. And even more ancient ones, from those times when man had not yet invented signs to depict the words of his speech, but had already learned to draw the animals he hunted or fought with for his life, represent drawings made in red or black paint on the walls of caves, on the smooth surface of the cliffs or gouged out on them with a chisel (Fig. 277). All these documents are necessary for the historian, archaeologist and anthropologist to find out the history of man.
And the drawings ancient man are also interesting for a geologist, since they give an idea of the animals that existed at the same time as him. Thus, the image of a mammoth (Fig. 277), for all its roughness, still correctly conveys the general shape of the body, the position of the tusks, especially the hairiness, which indicates its life in a cold climate. In this regard, it is indicative to compare this ancient drawing with the reconstruction of a mammoth made by modern scientists based on the findings of entire corpses of this animal in permafrost soil in northern Siberia ().
The history of the Earth is also studied from documents, from the traces that we have indicated, and from even more numerous ones that are left by all geological processes, carrying out their work of creating and transforming the face of the Earth. The totality of these traces represents a huge geological archive, which the geologist must learn to disassemble and interpret, just as a historian disassembles and interprets the manuscripts of the state archive.
The geologist follows these traces step by step, carefully studying them, comparing them with each other, combining his observations in order to ultimately come to certain conclusions. A geologist is essentially a pathfinder.
Thus, the first task of the geologist-pathfinder is to study outcrops - natural outcrops of rocks, wherever they are found in the area under study. He must determine what rocks make up the outcrop, in what order they lie on top of each other, what their composition and color are, whether they lie horizontally or dislocated, conformably or disconformably. He must determine the strike and dip of layers, if they are broken, as well as cracks, if the latter form regular systems, crossing all layers.
If the outcrop consists of igneous rock, the pathfinder's tasks change somewhat. The intrusive rock will either be a monotonous mass in which you will have to measure cracks and the location of crystals, from which you can determine the direction of the flow of magma; or it will be possible to notice in it inclusions of some other rocks captured during the invasion, or the so-called schlieren - accumulations of one of the minerals that make up the rock (dark, for example black mica, less often light - feldspar, quartz).
Layering can be found in volcanic rocks - the intermittency of lava flows of different composition and structure, or the intermittency of lava and tuff. Then you need to determine their occurrence.
The presence of igneous and sedimentary rocks in the same outcrop complicates the pathfinder's tasks. We found, for example, that granite is in contact with a layer of sedimentary rock consisting of sandstone (Fig. 281). A careful study of the boundary between them, the so-called contact, will show that the sandstone near the granite is not normal, but altered, metamorphosed, and that in some places thin veins are separated from the granite, cutting into the sandstone layers. This will be enough to say that granite is younger than sandstone, and fossils in the latter will help determine the age of granite; for example, if they are Upper Devonian, then the granite will be younger than Devonian.
In another outcrop of the same area we will find the same granite in contact with a layer of sandstone, at first glance the same as in the previous case (Fig. 282); but a study of the contact will show that there are no veins of granite in the sandstone and that the sandstone is not altered, but near the contact contains small fragments and individual grains of granite. This proves that the granite is ancient: it not only hardened, but even as a result of erosion it came to the surface of the earth, and sandstone was deposited on its eroded slope (Fig. 283).
If the latter contains fossils, for example, of Lower Permian age, we will conclude that the granite is older than the Permian, and from the totality of both exposures we will establish that the granite intrusion occurred during the Carboniferous period and rather at the beginning than at the end, since for the erosion of the intrusion it is necessary allow sufficient time.
Study of the relief
The second task of the pathfinder-geologist, carried out in parallel with the first, is to study the terrain, the relationship of which to the composition and structure of the earth’s crust must be known in order to clarify the history of the development of this area. It is necessary to determine whether it is part of a mountainous country, a plateau or a plain, or a combination of these forms; whether the mountainous country has sharp, so-called alpine forms or more rounded, smoothed, called mountains of medium height, or wide ridges, or chains and groups of hills . The shapes of the hills, the nature of the slopes of river valleys, their width, the presence or absence of river terraces, features of the bed and flow of rivers, etc. will allow us to determine at what stage of the erosion cycle the study area is located. The age, composition and conditions of occurrence of rocks protruding in outcrops, together with the relief, will help to determine in more or less detail, depending on the bad or good exposure, the degree of detail of the study, as well as the experience and diligence of the tracker, the history of development.Let us take for example the almost-plain, the decrepitude stage of the erosion cycle. In some places there are flat hills, the so-called residual mountains or outcrops; in some places there will be a bed of hard stones, here and there a smoothed outcropping of granite sticks out among the grass, or all the soil between the grass is strewn with its debris; the ravine exposes several eroded layers of limestone, sandstone or shale. The pathfinder-geologist will study all these, at first glance, unimportant documents, measure how the layers lie, where they stretch, in which direction they are tilted, determine the composition of all the outcrops, find fossils in them, determine the age of the layers and the sequence of past events, and plot his observations on map of the area and tell his unscientific companion (who helps him in his work) the whole history of this country: what mountains once stood on the site of this plain, what rocks they consisted of, where the mountain folds stretched, whether there were volcanoes on them or in the depths igneous massifs, when these mountains were formed and when they were destroyed. The pathfinder-geologist, studying traces - documents of previous events, unravels the history of the area where his companion walked for many years and did not know that he was trampling the last remnants of the Alpine mountains, passing unnoticed through the former high ridges and sitting calmly on the grass in the place where The molten lava of the volcano once bubbled.
The third task of the pathfinder-geologist, performed simultaneously with the first two, is to find and study minerals of all kinds that may be found among the rocks of the area under study. He must determine their quality, conditions of occurrence and, depending on these data, find out whether the found deposit deserves preliminary exploration, without which in many cases it is impossible to decide whether there is a sufficient amount of the mineral found in individual outcrops, i.e. whether it has practical significance. With good exposure, it is possible to resolve the question of the probable amount of the mineral in general terms based on observations on site and after studying and analyzing samples of the fossil in the laboratory; analysis will determine the percentage of ore or other mineral in a vein, deposit, or rock. If there is insufficient exposure, exploration is necessary - deepening pits, making more or less deep ditches on slopes or on the plain, drilling wells. This constitutes the task of preliminary reconnaissance, in which last years, thanks to the invention of precision instruments, geophysical methods began to be used, based on the determination of magnetism, electrical conductivity, gravity and the propagation of seismic waves caused by explosions in various rocks and minerals.
When searching for minerals, you should pay attention to the remains of ancient ore workings - funnel-shaped pits, slot-shaped excavations, blocked shafts and adits, accumulations of ancient slag and foundry molds, etc.; Near such old mines one can find deposits from which ore was mined in prehistoric times.
Fossils, their collection and storage
We already know that the remains of pre-existing animals and plants buried in layers of sedimentary rocks are of great importance in determining the relative age of the strata containing them. They indicate not only age, but also the environment in which these organisms existed. Thus, the remains of algae indicate that the rocks were deposited in water, the remains of land plants indicate that they were deposited in lakes, swamps, or in the sea, but near the shore (if the layers containing them alternate with layers containing marine organisms).Bones land mammals found in sediments on land or in lakes. Shells with thick valves live in shallow seas, where waves extend to the bottom, and shells with thin valves live at great depths. Fossil corals indicate warmth sea water, and some mollusks - on her low temperature. Shark teeth are found only in marine sediments, and the shells of Paleozoic fish are found in sediments of river mouths, lagoons and shallow seas. Insect prints are known exclusively from continental sediments.
Marine sediments, especially shallower ones, are richer in fossils than continental ones, and their fauna is the most diverse; sponges, corals, sea lilies, stars, urchins, various mollusks, brachiopods, and crustaceans are found in abundance there. In the deepest-sea sediments, only lower forms can be found - various foraminifera, radiolarians and diatoms.
In continental sediments, plant remains are more common than animal remains; but in some places the latter are abundant, and the bones of vertebrates form whole layers, for example, in the Permian deposits on Northern Dvina, in the Triassic Kirov region, in Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits of North America, Mongolia, Kazakhstan.
From sedimentary rocks the most commonly fossiliferous are marls, bituminous and argillaceous limestones, calcareous and glauconitic sands, but often also sandstones and shales. Quartzites and quartz sandstones are usually very poor in organic remains; conglomerates can contain only large and hard remains that have withstood the friction and impacts of pebbles and boulders in the surf or in the stream bed, for example, the bones and teeth of vertebrates, thick shell valves, and plant trunks. Organic remains, especially of animals, often cause the formation of nodules, that is, concretions rich in lime and completely enveloping the fossil, which is revealed when the nodules are broken up. The latter contain ammonites and other mollusks, fish, bones of vertebrates, even their entire skeletons, around which the constriction gradually increased. Therefore, nodules in sedimentary rock layers must be broken up to discover whether they contain fossils. In intrusive rocks, of course, there are no organic remains; in volcanic rocks they are extremely rare, but in tuffs, especially fine-grained and clear-layered ones, very good imprints, mainly of plants, are sometimes found.
Fossils are found in rocks either separately, in single specimens, or individual layers are rich in them or even consist entirely of them. Such layers are formed, for example, from corals, algae, brachiopods, mollusks, bones and their fragments; corals make up entire fossil reefs, algae make up thick layers, shells make up shell jars. Plants most often form imprints in a thin layer of rock, which can be rich in them over its entire surface. The layers and interlayers of coal consist entirely of plant material, but it is transformed into a continuous mass, and individual forms (leaves, stems) are rarely distinguishable; but in the soil or roof of a coal seam there are often good imprints.
The remains of invertebrates represent the solid parts of their bodies - shells of mollusks and brachiopods, stems and arms of crinoids, shells and needles of urchins, shells of foraminifera and shells of crustaceans; the original material is replaced by carbonated lime, less often by silica, sometimes by sulfur pyrites, and the place occupied by the soft parts of the body is also filled with rock.
From mammals, their bones are preserved separately or in the form of whole skeletons; the shields of the shells of fish, reptiles, amphibians, teeth, their needles, horns and teeth of mammals are also preserved. Only in exceptional cases, in the perpetually frozen soil of Siberia and in asphalt, are soft parts of the body, entrails, and skin preserved.
Such finds are especially significant scientific significance. They made it possible to recreate with complete accuracy the appearance of the hairy rhinoceros and mammoth, while numerous reconstructions of other higher animals made by different scientists are not so reliable; they were made on the basis of skeletons, often very incomplete, and without data on the nature and color of the skin.
The remains of animals can most easily be found on the weathered surface of rocks in outcrops and in screes at their feet, since they have a different composition and sometimes greater hardness than the rocks containing them, and therefore protrude somewhat during weathering and are released when the rock is destroyed. Therefore, the pathfinder-geologist first of all carefully examines the small weathering products in the screes, the surface of the blocks lying at the foot, and the surface of the outcrop itself. If the rock contains fauna, the latter will almost always be discovered during such an inspection. Only fossils collected in screes and individual blocks should not be mixed with those obtained from the outcrop itself, since they could have fallen out of different horizons of the latter. During geological research, each outcrop receives a separate number in the description and on the map, and the layers of different rocks that make up it are designated by separate letters with the same number. Therefore, fauna collected in the outcrop itself will have a number with a letter corresponding to the layer from which it was taken, while fauna collected in the scree will have only one number.
Pebbles in the bed of a stream or river often represent rounded fossils and serve as an indication for searching for outcrops of the corresponding rock upstream.
Having discovered organic remains in an outcrop, they are extracted using a hammer and chisel, trying to turn out a large piece containing the remains, and then carefully split it into layers or chip it in the corners if the rock is not layered. Of course, you can’t hit the fossil itself with a hammer. It is better to take away a piece rich in residues entirely so that you can carefully process it at home at your leisure. In soft rocks, the fossils are carefully removed using a chisel along with the surrounding rock. When collecting, fossils taken from different layers of the same outcrop, much less those collected in different outcrops, should not be mixed with each other. You can't rely on memory; Each sample must immediately receive its number with a letter written in pencil on it or on a label, and must be wrapped in paper.
Vegetative impressions on the bedding planes of shale or sandstone mostly consist of a thin film of coal that falls off easily. Therefore, to carry and transport them, they must be covered with a layer of cotton wool and then wrapped in paper. Cotton wool is also used to protect fragile shells, small bones, insect prints, etc. It is better to collect small shells and other remains in boxes or cans, layering them with cotton wool and inserting a label with the number of the exposure and layer. Fossils, wrapped in paper, are taken home (or to the ranger's camp) in a backpack, duffel bag or shoulder bag (or in a simple bag or basket), then examined, neatly labeled with the exact location of collection, and stored in boxes. In order not to be confused when viewing and comparing, you need to write its number and letter on each sample with a chemical pencil or ink. To be sent by mail to another city, the samples, wrapped in cotton wool and paper, are packed in a box, placing them tightly next to each other.
It is best to place concretions in which the presence of fossils is suspected in the fire of a small fire, but do not heat them, but only heat them very much and then throw them into water or pour water on them; they fall apart, cracking along the surface of the fossil and releasing the latter. The bones of vertebrates are often enclosed in enormous nodules, which can only be obtained by special excavations and experienced people. Therefore, in the event of the discovery of such nodules, the pathfinder only accurately records and marks on the map their location in order to report it to the Academy of Sciences or the university, which can organize excavations. In other cases, such bones are enclosed in clay, loam, sand or sandstone, but in such a decayed state that they are destroyed when an attempt is made to extract them; an inexperienced tracker should also not mine them, but write down and mark the place on the map and report it, since the extraction of such remains requires special techniques and experience.
Pathfinder Equipment
We, of course, will not describe here the equipment of a geologist going on an expedition, since this is discussed in the relevant manuals. We can only indicate the equipment of an amateur who wishes to become acquainted with the techniques of field work and with the geology of the surroundings of the place where he lives.The geological pathfinder's equipment consists of a hammer, chisel, mountain compass, notebook, magnifying glass, bag or net and a small supply of wrapping paper and cotton wool.
The hammer (if it is possible to get it) is the so-called geological one, in which one end of the head, the striker, is blunt, and the other is sharpened with a wedge across the handle or pointed with a pyramid, like a pick; the latter style is convenient for working in loose rocks, the first - in hard rocks. The hammer size should be medium, its head should weigh about 500 grams. If you don’t have a geological hammer, you can take a small blacksmith’s or wallpaper hammer; but to work in hard rocks, it is necessary that the hardening is not too soft, otherwise it will be flattened by impacts and will soon become unusable.
The chisel is a strip of steel with a round or rectangular cross section, elongated at one end in the form of a sharp wedge; the iron chisel at the sharp end must be welded with steel. The length of the chisel is 12-15 centimeters, weight from 250 to 500 grams. A chisel is needed to knock out minerals and fossils, to break off pieces of rock; during operation, it is inserted with the end of the wedge into the crack and hit with a hammer on the blunt end.
A mountain compass differs from an ordinary pocket compass in that the box with a dial and a magnetic needle is attached to a brass or aluminum square or rectangular plate and that the signs B and 3 or O and W, i.e., east and west, are rearranged one in place of the other. The divisions on the dial go from 0 to 360° counterclockwise. In addition, under the arrow on its axis there is a weight with a pointer, and on the dial on both sides of the letter B (or O) there are further divisions from 0 to 90° to determine the angle of incidence of the layers. When buying a compass, you need to make sure whether the arrow has a clamp in the form of a screw outside the box (which should press the arrow to the glass when carrying the compass in your pocket), whether it operates freely, whether the arrow swings well, gradually reducing its swing. The compass box should have a brass or aluminum lid. It is good if the compass has a case made of leather or strong material. Currently, there are compasses made of plastic.
A pocket magnifying glass is useful for viewing fine-grained rocks, fossils and minerals; magnifying glasses come in metal, horn or bone frames; The magnification is preferably about five times.
A notebook with a pencil - for recording observations, preferably with squared paper for sketching outcrops.
The bag is needed to carry collected specimens, provisions for long excursions, and a supply of paper and cotton wool. The duffel bag (backpack) is spacious and does not interfere with work, but it must be removed to take out and put in something. Nets used by hunters to place killed game, or field bags on a belt, are also good.
Paper and cotton wool are required for wrapping rock and fossil specimens, labeled with a number to ensure they are not mixed up when being transported.
For loose and crumbling rocks, you need to have several small bags that can be easily glued together from paper. It’s even better to prepare yourself such bags from canvas or calico, 10 centimeters wide, 15-16 centimeters long, with twine ties, 20-30 pieces, number them in order with a chemical pencil and put the collected rock samples in them in the order of collection, marking The notebook contains only the number of the bag containing the sample from this outcrop. This eliminates the need to wrap the sample in paper and write a label in the field. All these operations are done at home, when sorting out the collected collection, and the bags are freed for the next excursion.
It is very useful to keep a diary, setting out in more detail (in ink in a notebook) all the observations made during the excursion. In the field, you can write them down in a notebook quickly, briefly, when sketching outcrops. At home, for fresh memory, all the details will be outlined and the drawing drawn up carefully, with coloring with colored pencils.
The size of the samples can be very different, from 3X5 to 7X10 centimeters (width and length; thickness depends on the quality of the rock, but generally no more than width). A young tracker can limit himself to small ones. It is necessary that the sample be chipped on several sides, that is, it has fresh fractures and not a weathered surface. Fossils, of course, cannot be crushed. To store collections, you need to create flat cardboard boxes according to the size of the samples.
You should have a penknife in your pocket for sharpening a pencil and testing the hardness of minerals and rocks. It doesn’t hurt to have at least a small tape measure with a 1 meter long tape to measure the thickness of layers and veins.
If possible, you should purchase a good topographic map terrain. It will be very useful for orientation, choosing routes and plotting the examined outcrops on it. The map needs to be pasted onto canvas or calico, cut into pocket-sized pieces, since a paper map folded into this format will soon wear out on the folds when carried in a pocket. The card must be very protected from dampness, and once wet, carefully dry and smooth it.
A portable camera is useful to have with you for photographing terrain and outcrops in addition to describing them.
In conclusion, we will indicate how to determine the conditions of occurrence of sedimentary rocks using a compass. With its inclined position, each layer has a known strike and dips in one direction or another at a certain angle; measurements of the strike line, direction and angle of incidence determine the burial conditions. You need to select a flat area on the bedding plane of one of the strata in the outcrop and apply the compass to it with the long side of its board in a horizontal position; By drawing a line with a pencil along the edge of the board, we get the strike line AB. Having lowered the clamp of the compass needle and waited until it calms down, we record the reading of one of its ends. Let's assume that one end shows NE (NO) 40°, and the other SW (SW) 220°. The strike line therefore has an azimuth of NE 40° or SW 220°; They prefer to write down northern directions for consistency. Now let’s turn the compass board by 90°, i.e., put its narrow side to the line of strike, but so that the northern end of the board, i.e., the part of the limb where the sign C (N) stands, is directed in that direction, towards which the layer is inclined. Let us record the reading of the northern end of the arrow, and not the southern one. Let it be NW (NW) 310°; The formation, extending from southwest to northeast, dips to the northwest. The dip azimuth should always differ by 90° from the strike azimuth, since the dip line is perpendicular to the strike line (Fig. 285).
Now let's turn the compass board on its side and place it vertically with its long side to the line of incidence of the VG; a weight rotating around the arrow axis will show us the angle of inclination, i.e., the dip of the formation, for example 32°. We write the measurement results as follows:
Simple NE (NO) 40°; pad. NW (NW) Z 32°.
We do not write down the dip azimuth, since it differs by 90° from the strike azimuth. Therefore, you can limit yourself to recording one fall, but then you need to write its azimuth, i.e. NW (NW) 310° Z 32°. This record fully determines that the strike will be NE (NO) 40°.
If the pathfinder has only an ordinary pocket compass in a round box, then he can determine the strike and fall only approximately, by eye, by comparing in which direction the strike line deviates from the north-south line of the compass, with which the arrow should coincide, and in which direction the layer is inclined. The angle of incidence will also be determined by eye.
The strike and fall of veins and cracks are measured separately, just like for strata, on a flat area. If the latter is not present, the measurement is made by eye in the air and, of course, not so accurately.
We are finishing our book, in which we tried to show the reader the interest and practical significance of Earth science, as well as explain what and how can be observed on the vast territory of our homeland, with some preparation and the simplest instruments. The natural conditions of the USSR are so diverse that a young explorer living in any area will find around him enough material to observe the composition and structure of the Earth and its relationship with modern relief. He may discover and collect fossils, describe interesting outcrops, look for signs of minerals, and become an expert in the immediate vicinity of his place of residence. Helping him in this work, introducing him to the basics of geology, was the purpose of this book. And to further deepen and expand geological knowledge, the following guides and manuals can be recommended to young explorers.
Since ancient times, plant signs have been passed down from generation to generation, indicating the emergence of gold-bearing veins and oil, copper ores and coal to the surface.
In the last century, peasants looked for marl in places where coltsfoot and bindweed grew abundantly, preferring soil rich in calcium. In this regard, we can recall a story that happened in France, in the vicinity of Orleans. Botanists noticed that in a certain area, the soil of which is poor in calcium, bindweed grows abundantly on a narrow strip of regular shape. Excavations at the site revealed a Roman-built road paved with limestone.
Scientists have found scientifically based connections between certain plants and deposits of certain minerals. Thus, in Australia and China, with the help of plants that choose soils with a high copper content for their growth, copper ore deposits were discovered.
Plants care about what kind of rock is under the soil in which they grow. Groundwater gradually dissolves metals to one degree or another and, seeping upward into the soil, is absorbed by plants.
Most metals are always accumulated by plants in very small quantities; they are necessary for the normal functioning of plant organisms. However, strong solutions of the same metals act as poison on many plants. Therefore, in the areas of deposits metal ores almost all vegetation dies. Only those trees and herbs remain that can withstand the accumulation of large quantities of any metal in their bodies.
Thus, thickets of certain plants appear in these areas, from which preliminary maps of their distribution are drawn up and the locations of supposed copper deposits are determined.
Large amounts of molybdenum are capable of accumulating some plants from the legume family - Sophora and commonweed.
Larch needles and wild rosemary leaves easily tolerate large amounts of manganese and niobium.
In the Karakum Desert, sulfur deposits emerge close to the surface. The soil is so saturated with sulfur that, apart from a special type of lichen, nothing grows there. But lichens form large spots, clearly visible on aerial photographs.
There is almost no vegetation at the gold deposits in central Kyzylkum, but wormwood and harelips thrive. These plants accumulate such amounts of gold in their bodies that they can rightfully be called “golden”.
In order to prove and determine how much and what metals the plant has accumulated, it is burned and the ash is subjected to chemical analysis.
The use of the accumulative properties of plants is called a phytogeochemical research method.
Where the bronze cliffs hung
Above the greens mountain river,
A geologist in a checkered shirt stood up
And he swung his pickaxe at the rocks.
V. Soloukhin
Our planet is great and rich. In its depths are buried countless treasures - oil and coal, gold and diamonds, copper and rare metals. At the cost of enormous amounts of time and labor, humanity over the thousands of years of its existence has managed to extract only a small fraction of underground wealth from the earth. In all countries of the world, a large army of exploration geologists is examining, tapping, and feeling the Earth, trying to find new deposits of minerals. The experience of many generations and first-class technology, the erudition of great scientists and complex instruments - everything is put at the service of searching for earthly treasures. And yet these searches are rarely crowned with success. Nature jealously guards its secrets, yielding only to the most inquisitive and persistent.
Since ancient times, signs have been passed down from generation to generation indicating the emergence of gold-bearing veins and oil, copper ores and coal to the surface. The idea of using plants to search for minerals has long been conceived. Ancient folk beliefs speak of herbs and trees capable of detecting various deposits. For example, it was believed that rowan, buckthorn and hazel growing nearby hide gems, and the intertwined roots of pine, spruce and fir indicate gold placers beneath them. Of course, these legends remained a beautiful dream, and nothing more.
Geologists have resorted to the help of plants only in recent decades, when scientifically based connections were found between certain plants and deposits of certain minerals. Thus, in Australia and China, with the help of plants that select soils with a high copper content for growth, deposits of copper ore were discovered, and in America, deposits of silver were found using the same method.
In recent years, in our country, scientists have conducted thorough studies of the vegetation settling in areas where metal-bearing ores are located. The conclusions that scientists came to were truly amazing. The connection between the plant, the soil and the subsoil rock turned out to be so close that by the appearance or chemical composition of some plants it was possible to judge what ores lie in the place where they grow. After all, the plant is not at all indifferent to what species is under the soil on which it grew. Groundwater gradually dissolves metals to one degree or another and, seeping upward into the soil, is absorbed by plants. Therefore, grass and trees growing above copper deposits will drink copper water, and above nickel deposits - nickel water. Whatever substances are hidden in the ground - beryllium or tantalum, lithium or niobium, thorium or molybdenum, water will dissolve their smallest particles and bring them to the surface of the earth; the plants will drink these waters, and microscopic amounts of beryllium or tantalum, lithium or niobium, thorium or molybdenum will be deposited in every blade of grass, in every leaf. Even if metals lie deep under the soil, at a depth of twenty or thirty meters, plants will sensitively respond to their presence by accumulating these substances in their organs. In order to determine how much and what metals a plant has accumulated, it is burned and the ash is studied. chemical methods. It happens that over large deposits of some ore, this metal accumulates in a plant a hundred times more than in the same plant growing in another area. Most metals are always accumulated by plants in very small quantities. The living organism of the plant needs them, and without them the plant gets sick. However, strong solutions of the same metals act as poison on many plants. Therefore, in areas of metal ore deposits, almost all vegetation dies. Only those trees and herbs remain that can withstand the accumulation of large quantities of any metal in their bodies. Thus, thickets of certain plants appear in these areas that can drink metallic water. They indicate the places where you need to look for minerals.
For example, some plants from the legume family, such as sophora and commonweed, are able to accumulate large amounts of molybdenum in their bodies. Larch needles and wild rosemary leaves easily tolerate large amounts of manganese and niobium. Neither deposits of strontium or barium, willow and birch leaves accumulate these metals thirty to forty times more than normal. Thorium is deposited in the leaves of aspen, bird cherry and fir.
In the Altai Mountains, where copper ore has long been mined, you can often find a perennial herbaceous plant with narrow bluish leaves, above which rises an indistinct cloud of numerous pale pink flowers. This is downloading Patren. Sometimes kachim forms large thickets that stretch in wide stripes for several tens of kilometers. It turned out that in most cases copper ore lies just under the kachima thickets. Therefore, geologists, before starting underground work, draw up maps of the distribution of kachim and use the maps to determine the locations of supposed copper deposits. The powerful, woody, twisted cachima root goes deep into the ground. It penetrates through the soil and through cracks in the underlying rock reaches groundwater in which copper is dissolved. Copper water rises up to the bluish leaves and light flowers. From June to August, the kachima thickets appear from an airplane as a pink lace, draped by nature over the scorched steppe rocky slopes. On aerial photographs, this lace will be indicated by a clear stripe, indicating the places where copper ore occurs.
In the east of our country dense thickets over deposits of rare metals that contain beryllium, dwarf stellera forms. Stellera is a very graceful plant with straight thin stems, densely covered with bright green oval leaves pressed to the stem. The stem is crowned with a bright light crimson head, consisting of two dozen small tubular flowers; the outside of the tube is crimson, and the tip of the rim is white. Just like cachima, this extremely elegant and delicate plant has a powerful root developed underground, penetrating with its branches deep into the cracks of solid rock and sucking up water with beryllium dissolved in it. 
Steller perfectly withstands the beryllium “menu”. Wide stripes of its continuous thickets indicate on aerial photographs the location of underground deposits of rare metals.
Everyone knows what enormous technical significance uranium has. Many countries around the world are searching for this radioactive element. And here plants help geologists. If the uranium content in the ash of burnt branches of bushes and trees is high, it means that uranium can be found in this area. Junipers are especially good at collecting uranium. Their powerful, long roots manage to penetrate to great depths during the two to three hundred years of life of each individual. Even if the uranium deposits are not rich, the juniper will accumulate quite a lot of uranium in its branches. The well-known blueberry bush indicates the presence of uranium even better. If this plant drinks uranium waters, its oblong fruits acquire a wide variety of irregular shapes, and sometimes even turn from dark blue to white or greenish. Pink fireweed, growing on uranium deposits, can give the plant a range of colors - from white to bright purple. For example, fireweed flowers of eight different shades were collected near uranium mines in Alaska.
As a rule, uranium is accompanied by sulfur and selenium. Therefore, plants that accumulate these substances are also taken into account as an indicator of possible uranium deposits. If geologists know plants well, they will always distinguish selenium astragalus from all others. And where there is selenium, there may be uranium.
In some areas of the Karakum Desert, sulfur deposits emerge close to the surface. The soil is so saturated with sulfur that, except for one type of lichen, nothing grows there. But lichens form large bald patches, clearly visible from an airplane.
Almost no vegetation grows in desert gold deposits. But wormwood and harelips feel excellent here. These plants accumulate such quantities of gold in their bodies that they can rightfully be called golden.
It is interesting that some plants living above ore deposits change their appearance in one way or another. Therefore, geologists in search of minerals must pay attention to the ugly shapes of trees and grasses. For example, where a large nickel deposit was discovered, the nickel waters affected herbaceous plants so much that they “ dear mother won't know." The well-known furry lumbago with a large flower has completely changed here. Above the nickel deposits, you can collect a bouquet of lumbago with flowers of the most varied colors - white, blue, and indigo. In addition, you can find here individuals whose petals seem to be torn into narrow ribbons or have none at all. Only bare, uncovered stamens stick out at the top of the stem.
The hairy breast has changed even more noticeably. This perennial plant resembles a small aster. Its small yellow baskets rise like a shield above a woolly white-felt stem framed by numerous oblong leaves. But nickel, which from the beginning of life penetrated into all her organs, did its dirty deed - the baby was unrecognizable. The tiny yellow flowers, which should have been collected into an inflorescence, are scattered throughout the stem and hidden in the axils of the leaves. The leaves and stems also lost their shape and color. Every plant is a freak; one more unusual than the other. Ugly individuals of the hairy breast are so confined to deposits of nickel ores that, having encountered these forms somewhere in large numbers, geologists begin to carefully examine this area and almost always find nickel there.
It has also been noted that hollyhock flowers with abnormally dissected narrow petals may indicate deposits of copper or molybdenum.
Rocky slopes in Armenia blaze with tongues of fire in spring. The poppy is in bloom, coloring the foothills in festive red. The poppy petals with a large black spot at the base are wide, almost kidney-shaped. However, the poppy that grows in some areas is not similar to its relatives. Its petals are dissected into lobes in a way that is observed in most individuals growing in these areas. What's the matter? The fact is that deposits of lead and zinc are hidden in the ground here. These metals, constantly absorbed by the plant, changed the entire course of its development, and as a result, the shape of the petals also changed.
And the petals of poppies growing on copper-molybdenum deposits can be completely black, with a narrow red border - this is how a black spot grows on them. In other individuals, the spots on the petals become long and narrow, forming a kind of black cross in the center of the flower, or, conversely, move to the outer edge of the petal. In general, these poppies look so unusual that they immediately catch the eye of even an unobservant person. And for geologists they are a godsend!
Sometimes, with an increased content of metals in the soil, plants take on an unusual dwarf form. When cold wormwood grows over a lithium deposit, it appears undersized with its twisted stem and small, abnormally bluish leaves. Plants that absorb large amounts of boron also do not grow upward, but take on a form spread out on the ground, which differs sharply from the usual appearance of this plant. The gumweed that drinks lead water also grows small and stocky, and its leaves and stems become dark red, while its flowers become small and inconspicuous.
However, the opposite also happens. For example, in some areas of our country you can find giant aspens. The leaves of these tall, thick-trunked aspens are several times larger than usual. Can you imagine an aspen leaf thirty centimeters long? Giant leaves on equally gigantic petioles flutter like flags. Maybe these extraordinary trees drink “living” water? In a way, yes. They drink water saturated with thorium - here, under the soil, lies a deposit of rare metals.
Narrow rivers flow through the cold lands of Yakutia, among swampy swamps and open larch forests, flowing into deep rivers.
Summer is short and stormy in the Arctic. The ice floes, colliding, float along the spring waters of the rivers, and already on their banks low thickets of rhododendrons are covered with a purple-pink foam of small flowers, blueberries are blooming tender leaves, wild rosemary smells intoxicating. Above all this spring splendor from dawn to dusk there is a tedious ringing of mosquitoes. Somewhere here, among the larches, under a dense lichen carpet, the richest diamond deposits lie deep in the ground. Diamonds are interspersed with small raisins in the rock containing coal. This type of rock with diamonds is called a kimberlite pipe. How to look for it, this kimberlite pipe, if it is hidden by nature under seven locks? Only occasional exposures of kimberlite to the surface help geologists discover diamond deposits. Either a powerful landslide will expose ancient layers of the earth, or a long-ago earthquake or volcanic eruption. True, in recent years, new smart devices have come to the aid of geologists, allowing them to “see” underground, but they cannot accurately indicate the locations of natural treasure troves. Is it possible to use vegetation as assistants, scientists wondered. It turned out it was possible. It was noticed that directly above the kimberlite pipes both trees and shrubs look much better than their counterparts growing on limestone. This is understandable. In rocks that include diamonds, in addition to coal, apatites containing phosphorus, mica containing potassium, and various rare metals necessary for the plant body were found. All these elements, in greater or lesser quantities, are dissolved by groundwater, which then penetrates the soil. Therefore, plants that are lucky enough to grow above diamond deposits feed much better than trees and shrubs growing on skinny limestone. That is why above the diamond deposits the larch is taller and thicker, the alder is curly, and the blueberry thickets are thicker. Where one hundred frail larches grew on limestone or a swamp, two hundred healthy ones grew on kimberlite pipes. If you rise above these places by plane, you can see among larch forests denser and more lush thickets are exactly in those places where kimberlite pipes lie. But in such an important matter as the search for diamonds, the human eye is not trusted. Much more objective is the eye of the camera, dispassionately looking down at the ground. On the film, the camera carefully marks with dark spots on the gray background of light forests areas of denser and higher forest, and therefore, places where you need to look for diamonds.
No, it is not an easy task to search for minerals. And, of course, one cannot completely trust the testimony of trees and herbs alone. However, plants, like real scouts, have more than once helped geologists in search of underground treasures.