Napoleonic Wars and the Holy Alliance as a system of pan-European order. Holy Alliance

IN THE YEARS 1815-1830INTERNATIONAL RELATIONSHIPS

The people's struggle against Napoleon ended with the collapse of the French Empire. The victory over Napoleon was used to its advantage by a coalition of monarchical, feudal-absolutist states. The destruction of the Napoleonic Empire led to the triumph of the noble-monarchist reaction in Europe.

Peace Treaty with France, Renewed Treaty of the Quadruple Alliance and Final Act The Congress of Vienna formed the basis international relations after the Napoleonic era, which went down in history under the name “Viennese system”. The interests of the victorious powers were contradictory. But at the final stage of the Congress of Vienna, members of the anti-Napoleonic coalition had to overcome mutual contradictions and make compromise decisions. The decisions of the Congress of Vienna contributed to the strengthening of the noble-monarchist reaction in Europe. To intensify the fight against revolutionary and national liberation movements, the reactionary governments of European states concluded a Holy Alliance among themselves.

The Holy Alliance entered the history of European diplomacy as an organization with a clerical-monarchist ideology, created on the basis of the idea of ​​​​suppressing the revolutionary spirit and political and religious love of freedom, wherever they manifest themselves. The Holy Alliance of victorious countries became the stronghold of a new international political system established by the Congress of Vienna. The act of this union, drawn up by the Russian Emperor Alexander I, was signed on September 26, 1815 by the Austrian Emperor Franz 1, the Prussian King Frederick William III, and sent on their behalf to other European powers. In November 1815, the French king Louis XVIII joined the Holy Alliance. Subsequently, almost everyone joined him European states, with the exception of England, which was not formally a member of it, but its government often coordinated its policies with the general line of the Holy Alliance.

The Pope did not sign the act, fearing the discontent of Catholics in different countries. The text of the document stated that by the sacred bonds of true brotherhood and the principles of the Christian religion they undertake to provide each other with assistance, reinforcement and assistance. The goal of the participants was to preserve the European borders established by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 and to fight against all manifestations of the “revolutionary spirit”.

In the Holy Alliance, especially in the first years of its existence, the main role was played by the major diplomat and Austrian Chancellor K. Metternich, and the entire policy of the Holy Alliance is sometimes called “Metternichian”. Russian Emperor Alexander I also played a major role in the union. The participants of the Holy Alliance adhered to the principles of legitimism in their policies, i.e. possible fullest restoration of the old dynasties and regimes overthrown by the French Revolution and the armies of Napoleon, and proceeded from the recognition absolute monarchy. The struggle of the Holy Alliance, as an organ of pan-European reaction against any liberal, much less revolutionary and national liberation aspirations, was expressed in the resolutions of its congresses.

IN political life The Holy Alliance can be distinguished into three periods.

The first period - the period of actual power - lasted seven years - from September 1815, when the union was created, until the end of 1822, when the fourth congress of the Holy Alliance took place. This period of his activity is characterized by the greatest activity.

The second period of activity of the Holy Alliance begins in 1823, when it achieves its last victory by organizing an intervention in Spain. At the same time, the consequences of the coming to power of the British Foreign Minister George Canning in mid-1822 began to appear. This period lasted until the July Revolution of 1830 in France, after which the Holy Alliance was already in ruins.

The third period of activity of the Holy Alliance 1830-1856. - the period of its formal existence in the presence of serious disagreements among its participants.

In total, four congresses of the Holy Alliance took place: the Aachen Congress in 1818, the Troppau Congress in 1820, the Laibach Congress in 1821, the Verona Congress in 1822. In addition to the heads of the three powers - the founders of the Holy Alliance, representatives of England and France took part in them.

The first congress of the Holy Alliance took place in Aachen in 1818. It was convened in order to further strengthen the political balance in Europe. A proposal for a meeting of the allied courts to discuss the situation in France was made by the Austrian Chancellor K. Metternich in March 1817. He had far-reaching goals; he sought, firstly, to weaken the political opposition to the Bourbons and stop the growth of revolutionary sentiment in Europe; secondly, by advocating the return of France to the ranks of the great powers, to reduce Russia’s influence on it; thirdly, by tying France with treaty obligations with England, Austria and Prussia, to prevent the strengthening of Russian-French influence in Europe. It was he who proposed choosing the quiet German town of Aachen as the meeting place for the allies, where the German rulers could not influence the course of the meeting.

During the preparation of the Aachen Congress, disagreements emerged between the Allied powers regarding the agenda of the congress and the composition of its participants. All the Allied powers understood that French problems would take center stage at the upcoming meeting.

The Russian side believed that such a meeting should help strengthen the “Vienna system” and sought to bring a large circle of European problems. According to the St. Petersburg cabinet, the majority could take part in its work European countries. But Alexander I agreed to limit the number of participants in the meeting if only one issue was considered - the withdrawal of allied troops from France. Alexander I considered it necessary to quickly withdraw foreign troops from France, which, after their evacuation, would take its proper place in the European community.

Austrian Chancellor Metternich argued that the main purpose of the meeting should be to consider the internal political situation in France. The Austrian court expected to hold the meeting only on the basis of the Quadruple Alliance, which limited the number of its participants and did not give Russian diplomacy the opportunity to maneuver. If the St. Petersburg court sought to avoid the principle of excluding small states when holding a future meeting, the governments of Austria, Prussia and England were of the opposite opinion.

During the preparations for the Congress of Aachen, Austrian memoranda of 1818 stated that the four Allied powers had the exclusive right to change the conventions and treaties of 1815, as well as to reject requests from European countries to participate in the meeting. However, this program could undermine the political balance in Europe. Therefore, K. Metternich was forced to make changes to it. The new version indicated that all questions, except for questions about the timing of the end of the occupation of France and its role in the “Vienna system,” should have been considered with the direct participation of interested parties.

On the eve of the Congress of Aachen, diplomats from the allied countries met in the allied town of Carlsbad. The last round of diplomatic preparations for the congress took place here. main goal which was an attempt to find out the weak and strengths programs with which allies and rivals went to the upcoming meeting. By the beginning of the congress, the program of the Russian delegation had not changed. Austria's position also remained the same, but changes were made to the program of the British delegation. The memorandum, drawn up by Lord R. Castlereagh and approved as instructions for English representatives, noted the advisability of the complete withdrawal of allied troops from France while fulfilling its financial obligations. It was further emphasized that it was necessary to preserve the Quadruple Alliance in its original form, and, therefore, France could not become its full member.

The Aachen Congress opened on September 20, 1818, in which Russia, Austria, England, Prussia and France took part. Congress participants were represented accordingly Russian minister Foreign Affairs K.V. Nesselrode, Chancellor of Austria K. Metternich, Foreign Minister of England Lord R. Castlereagh, Foreign Minister of Prussia K.A. Hardenberg, Prime Minister of France, Duke of Richelieu. The delegations of Russia, Austria and Prussia were headed by Emperors Alexander I, Franz I and Friedrich Wilhelm III. In addition to them, many English, Austrian, Prussian, Russian and French diplomats of lower ranks gathered in Aachen.

During the work of the congress, French and Spanish issues, problems of prohibiting the slave trade and protecting merchant shipping, and a number of others were considered. The first to be resolved was the withdrawal of occupation forces from France. On September 27, 1818, conventions were signed between France and members of the Quadruple Alliance on the withdrawal of all allied troops by November 30, 1818 and the timely payment of indemnity in the amount of 260 million francs.

The Duke of Richelieu insisted on turning the Quadruple Alliance into an alliance of five powers, however, at the request of Lord R. Castlereagh and the German courts, a special convention of the four powers was signed on November 1, 1818, which confirmed the Quadruple Alliance, created to preserve the order established in France. Only after this, on November 3, 1818, the allies invited France to join the four powers in maintaining state borders and the political system established by the Congress of Vienna.

The Declaration of November 3, 1818, signed by all participants in the congress, proclaimed their solidarity in maintaining the principles of “International law, tranquility, faith and morals, the beneficial effect of which has been so shaken in our times.” Behind this phrase was hidden the desire of the five monarchies to jointly strengthen the absolutist system in Europe and combine their forces to suppress revolutionary movements.

Despite the fact that officially there were only two issues related to French problems on the agenda of the meeting, other aspects of international relations were simultaneously considered at the congress: the issue of mediation of powers in the conflict between Spain and its colonies, issues of freedom of merchant shipping and the cessation of the slave trade. A specific decision was made only on the issue of protecting merchant shipping from piracy. It was recommended that England and France contact the North African regencies with a warning that piracy was damaging world trade and could lead to dire consequences for them.

The Congress of Aachen was the first major event in the history of European diplomacy after the creation of the “Vienna System”. His decisions strengthened it and showed that the great powers were interested in preserving their alliance. The decisions of the Aachen Congress were aimed at preserving the Restoration order in Europe.

The second congress of the five allied powers - Austria, Russia, Prussia, France and England, opened in Troppau on October 11, 1820 (Silesia). The Congress was convened on the initiative of K. Metternich in connection with the revolution of 1820 in the Kingdom of Naples, which posed a threat to Austrian rule in Lombardy and Venice.

The Congress took place in an atmosphere of intense diplomatic struggle. At the first meeting, Chancellor K. Metternich presented a “Note”, which substantiated “the right of the Allied powers to intervene in the internal affairs of states in order to suppress revolutions in them.” He sought moral support for the Austrian proposals and emphasized that there was no other way to fight the Neapolitan revolution other than military intervention.

The Russian delegation proposed to take joint moral action against the Neapolitan revolution. Prussian representatives supported the Austrian point of view, and the representatives of England and France refused to take part in the formalization of any decisions. On November 7, 1820, Russia, Austria and Prussia signed the Preliminary Protocol and its amendments, which proclaimed the right of armed intervention in the internal affairs of other states (without an invitation from their governments) to suppress revolutionary uprisings there.

The representatives of England and France were familiarized with the texts of the Preliminary Protocol and its additions. They recognized the right of the Allies to intervene in the Neapolitan events, but refused to officially accede to these documents. Thus, despite the formal refusal to approve the decisions taken in Troppau, neither the British nor the French representatives condemned the very right of intervention in internal affairs independent state. The protocol signed by the participants of the congress authorized the occupation of the Kingdom of Naples by Austria. At the insistence of Alexander I, the protocol ensured the preservation of the integrity of the kingdom and the possibility for the Neapolitan king to voluntarily grant a constitution to his people. Discussion of the issue of combating revolutions in Europe continued at the third congress of the Holy Alliance in Laibach, which opened on January 11, 1821.

Representatives of the Italian states invited to the congress sought to suppress the Neapolitan revolution and thought little about the consequences of the Austrian intervention for the whole of Italy. England was outwardly neutral, but in fact approved the Austrian plan, as did Prussia. France supported the very idea of ​​intervention. In February 1821, the campaign of Austrian troops against Naples began.

The official closing of the congress in Laibach took place on February 26, and in fact on May 12, 1821. Most of the participants remained in Laibach, monitoring the actions of the Austrian troops and the Viennese court in Piedmont. After the suppression of the Italian revolutions, the representatives of Austria, Prussia and Russia signed a declaration to extend the occupation of Naples and Piedmont and confirmed their determination to use violent methods to restore the power of legitimate monarchs. The Declaration, together with the Preliminary Protocol and its amendments, reflected the ideological principles of the Holy Alliance.

The situation in Europe after the suppression of the Italian revolutions continued to remain turbulent. In the spring of 1822, participants in the Troppau-Laibach Congress began a diplomatic probe in order to find out each other’s positions on the fight against the revolution in Spain. The next meeting of the monarchs of the allied powers was envisaged at the congress in Laibach. A proposal to convene a new meeting was made by Emperor Francis I to Russian Tsar Alexander I at the beginning of June 1822. Verona was chosen as the venue for the new congress. The monarchs of Russia, Austria and Prussia, Italian sovereigns, and numerous diplomats gathered in this ancient city. England was represented by a prominent statesman, Duke Arthur of Wellington.

The Congress in Verona took place from October 20 to November 14, 1822. It was the last and most representative among the diplomatic congresses of the Holy Alliance. Main role it was played by five great powers who called themselves allies. Representatives of Italian states were assigned a secondary role: they participated in the discussion of Italian problems. Formally, the alliance of the five powers still existed, but there was no longer unity between them. The beginning of the Eastern crisis led to deepening contradictions. England was the first to retreat. France pursued a cautious policy. The program of the Russian delegation was conservative in nature.

The main problem at the congress was the preparation, on the initiative of the French king, of intervention to suppress the revolution in Spain. At a meeting of the plenipotentiaries of the Five Powers on October 20, 1822, the French Foreign Minister asked for “moral support” for his government to intervene in Spain in order to protect France from the influence of the revolution. Representatives of England, Prussia and Russia reacted positively to this initiative. A. Wellington stated that the French proposal contradicts the English position of non-intervention, so it cannot be approved.

Behind this statement lay the fear of the British side that France would strengthen its position in Spain and in the Mediterranean as a whole. On November 19, 1822, a protocol was signed, which was a secret agreement between the four powers on measures to overthrow the revolutionary government in Spain. A. Wellington refused to sign it under the pretext that it could create a danger to the life of the Spanish king.

On September 14 (26), 1815, Russian Emperor Alexander I, Austrian Emperor Franz I and Prussian King Frederick William III signed the “Act of the Holy Alliance” in Paris.

The act on the formation of the Holy Alliance was drawn up in a religious spirit with references to the teachings of Jesus Christ, “who preaches to people to live like brothers, not in enmity and malice, but in peace and love.” The monarchs who signed it pledged “in every case and in every place... to provide each other with benefits, reinforcements and assistance.” In other words, the Holy Alliance was a kind of mutual assistance agreement between the monarchs of Russia, Austria and Prussia, which was extremely broad in nature. The main goal of the Union was to maintain the inviolability of the post-war borders in Europe and to fight by all means against revolutionary uprisings.

In November 1815, King Louis XVIII of France joined the Holy Alliance, and then the leaders of most countries Western Europe. Only the Prince Regent of Great Britain, the Turkish Sultan and the Pope refused to sign the treaty, but representatives of England were constantly present at the congresses of the Union and influenced their decisions. The Russian Emperor Alexander I played a leading role in the activities of the Holy Alliance - ideological inspirer unification process - and the Austrian Chancellor Metternich.

During the existence of the Holy Alliance, four congresses were held, at which the principle of intervention in the internal affairs of European countries was developed. In practice, this principle was implemented when Austrian troops were introduced into Italy to suppress uprisings in Naples (1820-1821) and Piedmont (1821) and French troops for a similar purpose - into Spain (1820-1823). Based on the main tasks of the Holy Alliance, its members had a purely negative attitude towards liberation war Greeks against the Turkish yoke.

The Congress of Verona in 1822 and the intervention in Spain were essentially the last major acts of the Holy Alliance, after which it virtually ceased to exist. In 1825 and 1826, due to the Greek issue, relations between Russia and Austria began to deteriorate. Alexander I (towards the end of his reign) and then Nicholas I gave support to the Greeks, while Metternich continued his previous line regarding the Greek "rebels". Contradictions began to escalate between the Holy Alliance and Great Britain, which, being interested in the markets of Spain's American colonies, demonstratively recognized their independence. Contradictions also emerged between other participants in the Holy Alliance.

Revolutionary and liberation movement continued to develop, despite all the efforts of European monarchs. In 1825, the Decembrist uprising took place in Russia, in 1830 revolutions broke out in France and Belgium, and an uprising against tsarism began in Poland (1830-1831). This dealt a heavy blow not only to the principles, but also to the very existence of the Holy Alliance. The contradictions between the participants turned out to be so great that they led to its collapse in the late 20s - early 30s. XIX century

THE SACRED ALLIANCE is a reactionary association of European monarchs that arose after the fall of Napoleon's empire. 26. IX 1815, Russian Emperor Alexander I, Austrian Emperor Franz I and Prussian King Frederick William III signed the so-called “Act of the Holy Alliance” in Paris. The real essence of the “Act”, designed in a pompous religious style, boiled down to the fact that the monarchs who signed it pledged “in every case and in every place ... to provide each other with benefits, reinforcements and assistance.” In other words, the Holy Alliance was a kind of mutual assistance agreement between the monarchs of Russia, Austria and Prussia, which was extremely broad in nature.

On November 19, 1815, the French king Louis XVIII joined the Holy Alliance; Later, most of the monarchs of the European continent joined him. England did not formally join the Holy Alliance, but in practice England often coordinated its behavior with the general line of the Holy Alliance.

The pious formulas of the “Act of Holy Alliance” covered up the very prosaic goals of its creators. There were two of them:

1. Maintain intact the redrawing of European borders that was carried out at the Congress of Vienna in 1815 (...).

2. Conduct an irreconcilable struggle against all manifestations of the “revolutionary spirit.”

In fact, the activities of the Holy Alliance focused almost entirely on the fight against the revolution. The key points of this struggle were the periodically convened congresses of the heads of the three leading powers of the Holy Alliance, which were also attended by representatives of England and France. Alexander I and K. Metternich usually played the leading role at the congresses. There were four congresses of the Holy Alliance - the Aachen Congress of 1818, the Troppau Congress of 1820, the Laibach Congress of 1821 and the Verona Congress of 1822 (...).

The powers of the Holy Alliance stood entirely on the basis of “legitimism,” that is, the most complete restoration of the old dynasties and regimes overthrown by the French Revolution and Napoleon’s armies, and proceeded from the recognition of an absolute monarchy. The Holy Alliance was the European gendarme that kept the European peoples in chains. This was most clearly manifested in the position of the Holy Alliance in relation to the revolutions in Spain (1820-1823), Naples (1820-1821) and Piedmont (1821), as well as the uprising of the Greeks against the Turkish yoke, which began in 1821.

19.XI 1820, shortly after the outbreak of the revolution in Spain and Naples, Russia, Austria and Prussia at the congress in Troppau signed a protocol that openly proclaimed the right of intervention of the three leading powers of the Holy Alliance in the internal affairs of other countries in order to fight the revolution. England and France did not sign this protocol, but did not go beyond verbal protests against it. As a result of the decisions taken in Troppau, Austria received the authority to armedly suppress the Neapolitan revolution and at the end of March 1821 occupied the Kingdom of Naples with its troops, after which the absolutist regime was restored here. In April of the same 1821, Austria forcibly suppressed the revolution in Piedmont.

At the Congress of Verona (October - December 1822), through the efforts of Alexander I and Metternich, a decision was made on armed intervention in Spanish affairs. The authority to actually carry out this intervention was given to France, which on IV 7, 1823 actually invaded Spain with an army of 100,000 under the command of the Duke of Angoulême. The Spanish revolutionary government resisted foreign invasion for six months, but in the end the interventionist forces, supported by the Spanish domestic counter-revolution, were victorious. In Spain, as before in Naples and Piedmont, absolutism was restored.

No less reactionary was the position of the Holy Alliance on the Greek question. When a delegation of Greek rebels arrived in Verona to ask Christian sovereigns and especially Tsar Alexander I for help against the Sultan, the congress even refused to listen to it. England immediately took advantage of this and, in order to strengthen its influence in Greece, began to support the Greek rebels.

The Congress of Verona in 1822 and the intervention in Spain were essentially the last major acts of the Holy Alliance. After that, he virtually ceased to exist. The collapse of the Holy Alliance was due to two main reasons.

Firstly, within the union very soon contradictions between its main participants were revealed. When in December 1823 the Spanish king Ferdinand VII turned to the Holy Alliance for help in bringing his “rebellious” colonies in America to submission, England, interested in the markets of these colonies, not only declared a strong protest against all attempts of this kind, but also defiantly recognized independence American colonies of Spain (XII 31, 1824). This drove a wedge between the Holy Alliance and England. Somewhat later, in 1825 and 1826, on the basis of the Greek question, relations between Russia and Austria began to deteriorate - the two main pillars of the Holy Alliance, Alexander I (towards the end of his reign), and then Nicholas I supported the Greeks, while Metternich continued its previous line regarding the Greek "rebels". 4. IV 1826, the so-called St. Petersburg Protocol on coordination of actions in the Greek issue was even signed between Russia and England, clearly directed against Austria. Contradictions also emerged between other participants in the Holy Alliance.

Secondly, and this was especially important, despite all the efforts of the reaction, the growth of revolutionary forces in Europe continued. In 1830, revolutions took place in France and Belgium, and an uprising against tsarism broke out in Poland. In England, the violent movement of the popular masses forced the Conservatives to accept the electoral reform of 1832. This dealt a heavy blow not only to the principles, but also to the very existence of the Holy Alliance, which actually disintegrated. In 1833, the monarchs of Russia, Austria and Prussia tried to restore the Holy Alliance, but this attempt ended in failure (see Munich Convention).

Diplomatic Dictionary. Ch. ed. A. Ya. Vyshinsky and S. A. Lozovsky. M., 1948.

In 1814, a congress was convened in Vienna to decide the post-war system. The main roles at the congress were played by Russia, England and Austria. The territory of France was restored to its pre-revolutionary borders. A significant part of Poland, along with Warsaw, became part of Russia.

At the end of the Congress of Vienna, at the suggestion of Alexander I, the Holy Alliance was created to jointly fight the revolutionary movement in Europe. Initially, it included Russia, Prussia and Austria, and later many European states joined them.

Holy Alliance- a conservative union of Russia, Prussia and Austria, created to maintain what was established at the Congress of Vienna (1815) international order. The statement of mutual assistance of all Christian sovereigns, signed on September 14 (26), 1815, was subsequently gradually joined by all the monarchs of continental Europe, except the Pope and the Turkish Sultan. Not being, in the exact sense of the word, a formalized agreement between the powers that would impose certain obligations on them, the Holy Alliance, nevertheless, went down in the history of European diplomacy as “a cohesive organization with a sharply defined clerical-monarchist ideology, created on the basis of the suppression of revolutionary sentiments, wherever they never showed up."

After the overthrow of Napoleon and the restoration of pan-European peace, among the powers that considered themselves quite satisfied with the distribution of “rewards” at the Congress of Vienna, a desire arose and strengthened to preserve the established international order, and the means for this was a permanent union of European sovereigns and the periodic convocation of international congresses. But since the achievement of this was contradicted by the national and revolutionary movements of peoples seeking freer forms of political existence, such aspiration quickly acquired a reactionary character.

The initiator of the Holy Alliance was Russian Emperor Alexander I, although when drawing up the act of the Holy Alliance, he still considered it possible to patronize liberalism and grant a constitution to the Kingdom of Poland. The idea of ​​a Union arose in him, on the one hand, under the influence of the idea of ​​becoming a peacemaker in Europe by creating a Union that would eliminate even the possibility of military clashes between states, and on the other hand, under the influence of the mystical mood that took possession of him. The latter also explains the strangeness of the editors themselves. union treaty, not similar either in form or content to international treatises, which forced many specialists international law to see in it only a simple declaration of the monarchs who signed it.

Signed on September 14 (26), 1815 by three monarchs - Emperor Francis I of Austria, King Frederick William III of Prussia and Emperor Alexander I, at first it did not arouse anything other than hostility towards itself in the first two.

The content of this act was extremely vague and flexible, and the most varied practical conclusions could be drawn from it, but its general spirit did not contradict, but rather favored, the reactionary mood of the then governments. Not to mention the confusion of ideas belonging to completely different categories, in it religion and morality completely displace law and politics from indisputably belonging to these latest areas. Built on the legitimate basis of the divine origin of monarchical power, it establishes a patriarchal relationship between sovereigns and peoples, and the former are charged with the obligation to rule in the spirit of “love, truth and peace,” and the latter must only obey: the document does not at all talk about the rights of the people in relation to power mentions.

Finally, obliging sovereigns to always “ give each other aid, reinforcement and help", the act does not say anything about exactly in what cases and in what form this obligation should be carried out, which made it possible to interpret it in the sense that assistance is obligatory in all those cases when subjects show disobedience to their “legitimate” sovereigns.

This is exactly what happened - the very Christian character of the Holy Alliance disappeared and only the suppression of the revolution, whatever its origin, was meant. All this explains the success of the Holy Alliance: soon all other European sovereigns and governments joined it, not excluding Switzerland and the German free cities; Only the English Prince Regent and the Pope did not sign to it, which did not prevent them from being guided by the same principles in their policies; only the Turkish Sultan was not accepted into the Holy Alliance as a non-Christian sovereign.

Signifying the character of the era, the Holy Alliance was the main organ of the pan-European reaction against liberal aspirations. Practical significance it was expressed in the resolutions of a number of congresses (Aachen, Troppaus, Laibach and Verona), at which the principle of intervention in the internal affairs of other states was fully developed with the aim of forcibly suppressing all national and revolutionary movements and maintaining the existing system with its absolutist and clerical-aristocratic tendencies.

74. Foreign policy of the Russian Empire in 1814–1853.

Option 1. In the first half of the 19th century. Russia had significant opportunities for effective solution their foreign policy objectives. They included the protection of their own borders and expansion of territory in accordance with the geopolitical, military-strategic and economic interests of the country. This implied the folding of the territory of the Russian Empire within its natural borders along the seas and mountain ranges and, in connection with this, the voluntary entry or forcible annexation of many neighboring peoples. The Russian diplomatic service was well-established, and its intelligence service was extensive. The army numbered about 500 thousand people, was well equipped and trained. Russia's military-technical lag behind Western Europe was not noticeable until the early 50s. This allowed Russia to play an important and sometimes decisive role in the European concert.

After 1815, the main task of Russian foreign policy in Europe was to maintain the old monarchical regimes and fight the revolutionary movement. Alexander I and Nicholas I were guided by the most conservative forces and most often relied on alliances with Austria and Prussia. In 1848, Nicholas helped the Austrian emperor suppress the revolution that broke out in Hungary and strangled revolutionary protests in the Danube principalities.

In the south, very difficult relations developed with the Ottoman Empire and Iran. Türkiye could not come to terms with the Russian conquest in late XVIII V. Black Sea coast and, first of all, with the annexation of Crimea to Russia. Access to the Black Sea was of particular economic, defensive and strategic importance for Russia. The most important problem was to ensure the most favorable regime for the Black Sea straits - the Bosporus and Dardanelles. The free passage of Russian merchant ships through them contributed to economic development and the prosperity of the vast southern regions of the state. Preventing foreign military vessels from entering the Black Sea was also one of the tasks of Russian diplomacy. An important means Russia's interference in the internal affairs of the Turks was the right it received (according to the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi and Yassy treaties) to protect Christian subjects of the Ottoman Empire. Russia actively used this right, especially since the peoples of the Balkans saw in it their only protector and savior.

In the Caucasus, Russia's interests collided with the claims of Turkey and Iran to these territories. Here Russia tried to expand its possessions, strengthen and make stable the borders in Transcaucasia. Russia’s relationship with the peoples played a special role North Caucasus, whom she sought to completely subordinate to her influence. This was necessary to ensure free and safe communication with the newly acquired territories in Transcaucasia and the lasting inclusion of the entire Caucasian region within the Russian Empire.

To these traditional directions in the first half of the 19th century. new ones were added (Far Eastern and American), which at that time were of a peripheral nature. Russia developed relations with China, with the countries of Northern and South America. Mid-century Russian government began to look closely at Central Asia.

Option 2. In September 1814 - June 1815, the victorious powers decided on the issue of post-war structure Europe. It was difficult for the allies to come to an agreement among themselves, as sharp contradictions arose, mainly over territorial issues.

The resolutions of the Congress of Vienna led to the return of old dynasties in France, Italy, Spain and other countries. The resolution of territorial disputes made it possible to redraw the map of Europe. The Kingdom of Poland was created from most of the Polish lands as part of the Russian Empire. The so-called “Viennese system” was created, which implied a change in the territorial and political map of Europe, the preservation of noble-monarchical regimes and European balance. This system was aimed at foreign policy Russia after the Congress of Vienna.

In March 1815, Russia, England, Austria and Prussia signed an agreement to form the Quadruple Alliance. He was aimed at implementing the decisions of the Congress of Vienna, especially as it related to France. Its territory was occupied by the troops of the victorious powers, and it had to pay a huge indemnity.

In September 1815, Russian Emperor Alexander I, Austrian Emperor Franz and Prussian King Frederick William III signed the Act of Formation of the Holy Alliance.

The Quadruple and Holy Alliances were created due to the fact that all European governments understood the need to achieve concerted action to solve controversial issues. However, the alliances only muted, but did not remove the severity of the contradictions between the great powers. On the contrary, they deepened, as England and Austria sought to weaken the international authority and political influence of Russia, which had increased significantly after the victory over Napoleon.

In the 20s of the XIX century. The European policy of the tsarist government was associated with the desire to counteract the development of revolutionary movements and the desire to shield Russia from them. Revolutions in Spain, Portugal and a number of Italian states forced members of the Holy Alliance to consolidate their forces in the fight against them. Alexander I's attitude towards revolutionary events in Europe gradually changed from restrained wait-and-see to openly hostile. He supported the idea of ​​collective intervention of European monarchs in the internal affairs of Italy and Spain.

In the first half of the 19th century. Ottoman Empire was experiencing a severe crisis due to the rise of the national liberation movement of its constituent peoples. Alexander I, and then Nicholas I, were put in a difficult situation. On the one hand, Russia has traditionally helped its coreligionists. On the other hand, its rulers, observing the principle of preserving the existing order, had to support the Turkish Sultan as the legitimate ruler of their subjects. Therefore, Russia’s policy on the eastern question was contradictory, but, ultimately, the line of solidarity with the peoples of the Balkans became dominant.

In the 20s of the XIX century. Iran, with the support of England, was actively preparing for war with Russia, wanting to return the lands it had lost in the Peace of Gulistan of 1813 and restore its influence in Transcaucasia. In 1826, the Iranian army invaded Karabakh. In February 1828, the Turkmanchay Peace Treaty was signed. According to it, Erivan and Nakhichevan became part of Russia. In 1828, the Armenian region was formed, which marked the beginning of the unification of the Armenian people. As a result of the Russian-Turkish and Russian-Iranian wars of the late 20s of the 19th century. The second stage in the annexation of the Caucasus to Russia was completed. Georgia, Eastern Armenia, Northern Azerbaijan became part of the Russian Empire.

In 1814 ᴦ. A congress was convened in Vienna to decide the post-war system. The main roles at the congress were played by Russia, England and Austria. The territory of France was restored to its pre-revolutionary borders. A significant part of Poland, along with Warsaw, became part of Russia.

At the end of the Congress of Vienna, at the suggestion of Alexander I, the Holy Alliance was created to jointly fight the revolutionary movement in Europe. Initially, it included Russia, Prussia and Austria, and later many European states joined them.

Holy Alliance- a conservative union of Russia, Prussia and Austria, created with the aim of maintaining the international order established at the Congress of Vienna (1815). The declaration of mutual assistance of all Christian sovereigns, signed on September 14 (26), 1815, was subsequently gradually joined by all the monarchs of continental Europe, except the Pope and the Turkish Sultan. Not being, in the exact sense of the word, a formalized agreement between the powers that would impose certain obligations on them, the Holy Alliance, nevertheless, went down in the history of European diplomacy as a “close-knit organization with a sharply defined clerical-monarchist ideology, created on the basis of the suppression of revolutionary sentiments, wherever they neither showed up.

After the overthrow of Napoleon and the restoration of all-European peace, among the powers that considered themselves completely satisfied with the distribution of “rewards” at the Congress of Vienna, the desire to preserve the established international order arose and strengthened, and the means for this were the permanent union of European sovereigns and the periodic convening of international congresses. But since the achievement of this was contradicted by the national and revolutionary movements of peoples seeking freer forms of political existence, such aspiration quickly acquired a reactionary character.

The initiator of the Holy Alliance was the Russian Emperor Alexander I, although when drawing up the act of the Holy Alliance, he still considered it possible to patronize liberalism and grant a constitution to the Kingdom of Poland. The idea of ​​a Union arose in him, on the one hand, under the influence of the idea of ​​becoming a peacemaker in Europe by creating a Union that would eliminate even the possibility of military clashes between states, and on the other hand, under the influence of the mystical mood that took possession of him. The latter also explains the strangeness of the very wording of the union treaty, which was not similar either in form or in content to international treaties, which forced many specialists in international law to see in it only a simple declaration of the monarchs who signed it.

Signed September 14 (26), 1815. three monarchs - Emperor Francis I of Austria, King Frederick William III of Prussia and Emperor Alexander I, at first in the first two he did not arouse anything other than a hostile attitude towards himself.

The content of this act was extremely vague and flexible, and the most varied practical conclusions could be drawn from it, but its general spirit did not contradict, but rather favored, the reactionary mood of the then governments. Not to mention the confusion of ideas belonging to completely different categories, in it religion and morality completely displace law and politics from the areas that undoubtedly belong to the latter. Built on the legitimate basis of the divine origin of monarchical power, it establishes a patriarchal relationship between sovereigns and peoples, and the former are charged with the obligation to rule in the spirit of “love, truth and peace,” and the latter must only obey: the document does not speak at all about the rights of the people in relation to power mentions.

Finally, obliging sovereigns to always ʼʼ give each other allowance, reinforcement and help", the act does not say anything about exactly in what cases and in what form this obligation should be carried out, which made it possible to interpret it in the sense that assistance is obligatory in all those cases when subjects show disobedience to their “legitimate” sovereigns.

This is exactly what happened - the very Christian character of the Holy Alliance disappeared and only the suppression of the revolution, whatever its origin, was meant. All this explains the success of the Holy Alliance: soon all other European sovereigns and governments joined it, not excluding Switzerland and the German free cities; Only the English Prince Regent and the Pope did not sign to it, which did not prevent them from being guided by the same principles in their policies; only the Turkish Sultan was not accepted into the Holy Alliance as a non-Christian sovereign.

Signifying the character of the era, the Holy Alliance was the main organ of the pan-European reaction against liberal aspirations. Its practical significance was expressed in the resolutions of a number of congresses (Aachen, Troppaus, Laibach and Verona), at which the principle of intervention in the internal affairs of other states was fully developed with the aim of forcibly suppressing all national and revolutionary movements and maintaining the existing system with its absolutist and clerical -aristocratic tendencies.

74. Foreign policy of the Russian Empire in 1814–1853.

Option 1. In the first half of the 19th century. Russia had significant capabilities to effectively solve its foreign policy problems. Οʜᴎ included the protection of their own borders and expansion of territory in accordance with the geopolitical, military-strategic and economic interests of the country. This implied the folding of the territory of the Russian Empire within its natural borders along the seas and mountain ranges and, in connection with this, the voluntary entry or forced annexation of many neighboring peoples. The Russian diplomatic service was well-established, and its intelligence service was extensive. The army numbered about 500 thousand people, was well equipped and trained. Russia's military-technical lag behind Western Europe was not noticeable until the early 50s. This allowed Russia to play an important and sometimes decisive role in the European concert.

After 1815 ᴦ. The main task of Russian foreign policy in Europe was to maintain the old monarchical regimes and fight the revolutionary movement. Alexander I and Nicholas I were guided by the most conservative forces and most often relied on alliances with Austria and Prussia. In 1848 ᴦ. Nicholas helped the Austrian emperor suppress the revolution that broke out in Hungary and strangled revolutionary protests in the Danube principalities.

In the south, very difficult relations developed with the Ottoman Empire and Iran. Türkiye could not come to terms with the Russian conquest at the end of the 18th century. Black Sea coast and, first of all, with the annexation of Crimea to Russia. Access to the Black Sea was of particular economic, defensive and strategic importance for Russia. The most important problem was to ensure the most favorable regime for the Black Sea straits - the Bosporus and Dardanelles. The free passage of Russian merchant ships through them contributed to the economic development and prosperity of the vast southern regions of the state. Preventing foreign military vessels from entering the Black Sea was also one of the tasks of Russian diplomacy. An important means of Russia's intervention in the internal affairs of the Turks was the right it received (under the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi and Yassy treaties) to protect Christian subjects of the Ottoman Empire. Russia actively used this right, especially since the peoples of the Balkans saw in it their only protector and savior.

In the Caucasus, Russia's interests collided with the claims of Turkey and Iran to these territories. Here Russia tried to expand its possessions, strengthen and make stable the borders in Transcaucasia. A special role was played by Russia’s relationship with the peoples of the North Caucasus, whom it sought to completely subordinate to its influence. This was extremely important to ensure free and safe communication with the newly acquired territories in Transcaucasia and the lasting inclusion of the entire Caucasian region within the Russian Empire.

To these traditional directions in the first half of the 19th century. new ones were added (Far Eastern and American), which at that time were of a peripheral nature.
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Russia developed relations with China and the countries of North and South America. In the middle of the century, the Russian government began to look closely at Central Asia.

Option 2. In September 1814 – June 1815 ᴦ. The victorious powers decided on the issue of the post-war structure of Europe. It was difficult for the allies to come to an agreement among themselves, as sharp contradictions arose, mainly over territorial issues.

The resolutions of the Congress of Vienna led to the return of old dynasties in France, Italy, Spain and other countries. The resolution of territorial disputes made it possible to redraw the map of Europe. The Kingdom of Poland was created from most of the Polish lands as part of the Russian Empire. The so-called “Viennese system” was created, which implied a change in the territorial and political map of Europe, the preservation of noble-monarchical regimes and European balance. Russian foreign policy was oriented towards this system after the Congress of Vienna.

In March 1815 ᴦ. Russia, England, Austria and Prussia signed an agreement to form the Quadruple Alliance. He was aimed at implementing the decisions of the Congress of Vienna, especially as it related to France. Its territory was occupied by the troops of the victorious powers, and it had to pay a huge indemnity.

In September 1815 ᴦ. Russian Emperor Alexander I, Austrian Emperor Franz and Prussian King Frederick William III signed the Act of Formation of the Holy Alliance.

The Quadruple and Holy Alliances were created due to the fact that all European governments understood the critical importance of achieving concerted action to resolve controversial issues. At the same time, the alliances only muted, but did not remove the severity of the contradictions between the great powers. On the contrary, they deepened, as England and Austria sought to weaken the international authority and political influence of Russia, which had increased significantly after the victory over Napoleon.

In the 20s of the XIX century. The European policy of the tsarist government was associated with the desire to counteract the development of revolutionary movements and the desire to shield Russia from them. Revolutions in Spain, Portugal and a number of Italian states forced members of the Holy Alliance to consolidate their forces in the fight against them. Alexander I's attitude towards revolutionary events in Europe gradually changed from restrained wait-and-see to openly hostile. He supported the idea of ​​collective intervention of European monarchs in the internal affairs of Italy and Spain.

In the first half of the 19th century. The Ottoman Empire was experiencing a severe crisis due to the rise of the national liberation movement of its peoples. Alexander I, and then Nicholas I, were put in a difficult situation. On the one hand, Russia has traditionally helped its coreligionists. On the other hand, its rulers, observing the principle of preserving the existing order, had to support the Turkish Sultan as the legitimate ruler of their subjects. For this reason, Russia's policy on the eastern question was contradictory, but, ultimately, the line of solidarity with the peoples of the Balkans became dominant.

In the 20s of the XIX century. Iran, with the support of England, was actively preparing for war with Russia, wanting to return the lands it had lost in the Peace of Gulistan of 1813 and restore its influence in Transcaucasia. In 1826 ᴦ. The Iranian army invaded Karabakh. In February 1828 ᴦ. The Turkmanchay Peace Treaty was signed.
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According to it, Erivan and Nakhichevan became part of Russia. In 1828 ᴦ. The Armenian region was formed, which marked the beginning of the unification of the Armenian people. As a result of the Russian-Turkish and Russian-Iranian wars of the late 20s of the 19th century. The second stage in the annexation of the Caucasus to Russia has ended. Georgia, Eastern Armenia, Northern Azerbaijan became part of the Russian Empire.

Holy Alliance. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Holy Alliance." 2017, 2018.