Society and nature complex plan social studies. Traditional society and its features

Using social science knowledge, draw up a complex plan that allows you to essentially reveal the topic “Biosocial nature of man.” The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in sub-points.

Explanation.

1. Man as a result of biological and sociocultural evolution.

2. The body as natural base person:

a) functioning of internal organs and systems (morphophysiological, electrochemical, neuro-brain and other processes of the human body);

b) primary (physiological) needs (food, water, rest, certain temperature conditions, etc.);

c) human genotype and mechanisms of heredity.

3. Social in a person:

a) social needs;

b) interests;

c) strong-willed qualities;

d) self-awareness;

e) worldview, etc.

4. Unity of biological and social in man:

a) the influence of biological (hereditary) on the physical characteristics and mental properties of a person;

b) implementation and satisfaction of the biological in social forms.

5. The problem of the relationship between the biological and the social in man (different approaches).

Answer: None

Using social science knowledge, draw up a complex plan that will allow you to essentially reveal the topic “Worldview, its types and forms.” The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in sub-points.

Explanation.

One of the options for covering this topic.

1. Worldview as a system of generalized views on the world and man’s place in it.

2. Historical types of worldview:

a) mythological;

b) theological (religious);

c) philosophical.

3. Everyday (everyday) worldview and its features:

a) the predominance of arbitrary connections;

b) fragmented world views;

c) lack of integrity.

4. Main features of the scientific worldview:

a) logical consistency;

b) systematic;

c) versatility;

d) criticality;

d) validity.

A different number and (or) other correct wording of points and sub-points of the plan are possible. They can be presented in nominal, question or mixed forms.

Using social science knowledge, draw up a complex plan that will allow you to essentially reveal the topic “Socio-demographic problems of our time.” The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in sub-points.

Explanation.

1) Socio-demographic problems as part of the global problems of humanity.

2) The essence of the “demographic explosion” and its connection with other global problems.

3) What caused the demographic crisis in economically developed countries?

4) Manifestations and consequences of the “demographic explosion”:

a) widespread hunger, disease, illiteracy, lack of proper housing;

b) unemployment;

c) mass migrations;

d) problems of assimilation of newcomers.

5) Ways to overcome socio-demographic problems:

a) solving the problem of population regulation;

b) implementation of a well-thought-out demographic policy;

c) international cooperation in solving socio-demographic problems.

Using social science knowledge, draw up a complex plan that allows you to essentially reveal the topic “ Modern threats culture, spiritual development person." The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in sub-points.

Explanation.

When analyzing the answer, the following are taken into account:

The correctness of the wording of the plan items in terms of their compliance with the given topic;

Completeness of reflection of the main content in the plan;

Compliance of the structure of the proposed answer with a plan of a complex type.

One of the options for a plan for covering this topic: 1) Modern threats to culture and human spiritual development are one of the global problems of humanity:

a) alarming levels of ignorance, crime, drug addiction, alienation from culture;

b) material consumerism;

c) mass culture and anticulture;

d) manifestations of discomfort in Everyday life person;

e) information and people.

2) Ways to overcome the problem:

a) free human access to cultural values;

b) the opportunity to obtain education and improve it;

c) humanization of society, comprehensive development of the individual.

3) Post-industrial society and spiritual

human development.

A different number and (or) other correct wording of points and sub-points of the plan is possible. They can be presented in nominal, question or mixed forms.

Using social science knowledge, draw up a complex plan that will allow you to essentially reveal the topic “Integrity and inconsistency of the modern world.” The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in sub-points.

Explanation.

When analyzing the answer, the following are taken into account:

The correctness of the wording of the plan items in terms of their compliance with the given topic;

Completeness of reflection of the main content in the plan;

Compliance of the structure of the proposed answer with a plan of a complex type.

One of the options for a plan for covering this topic:

1) Diversity of the world and unity of humanity: a) modern world and integration;

b) globalization of the economy and the development of world trade;

c) modern communications (Internet, etc.).

2) Contradictory consequences of globalization:

a) standards of globalization in economics and culture;

b) environmental, demographic crises, AIDS, drug addiction, international terrorism, problems of economically backward countries and many others. etc.

3) Will humanity overcome the problems of its development?

A different number and (or) other correct wording of points and sub-points of the plan is possible. They can be presented in nominal, question or mixed forms.

Using social science knowledge, draw up a complex plan that will allow you to essentially reveal the topic “Socialization of the Individual.” The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in sub-points.

Explanation.

One of the options for covering this topic.

1. Socialization as the process of an individual’s assimilation of patterns of behavior, social norms and values ​​necessary for his successful functioning in a given society.

2. Stages of socialization according to D. Smelser:

a) the stage of imitation and copying of adult behavior by children;

b) the play stage, when children recognize behavior as playing a role;

c) the stage of group games, in which children learn to understand what is expected of them by a whole group of people.

3. Stages of socialization according to role theory (J. G. Mead):

a) imitation (children copy the behavior of adults);

b) play stage (children understand behavior as the performance of certain roles);

c) collective play (children learn to be aware of the expectations not only of an individual, but also of an entire group).

4. Agents (institutions) of socialization:

a) agents of primary socialization are the environment that has a direct impact on the individual (parents, relatives, family, friends, peers, etc.);

b) agents of secondary socialization: administration of a school, university, enterprise; army, court, church, etc.

5. Differences in the content of the socialization process of adults from the socialization process of children.

A different number and (or) other correct wording of points and sub-points of the plan is possible. They can be presented in nominal, question or mixed forms.

Using social science knowledge, draw up a complex plan that allows you to essentially reveal the topic “Morality and the “golden rule” of morality.” The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in sub-points.

Explanation.

When analyzing the answer, the following are taken into account:

The correctness of the wording of the plan items in terms of their compliance with the given topic;

Completeness of reflection of the main content in the plan;

Compliance of the structure of the proposed answer with a plan of a complex type.

One of the options for a plan for covering this topic:

1) Morality and its role in human life and society: historical aspect.

2) The basis of morality is universal moral norms and values:

c) principles and moral standards.

3) Is there progress in morality?

a) moral duty and the problem of choice;

b) modern realities (Internet, etc.) and moral standards.

A different number and (or) other correct wording of points and sub-points of the plan is possible. They can be presented in nominal, question or mixed forms.

Using social science knowledge, draw up a complex plan that allows you to essentially reveal the topic “Society as a system.” The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in sub-points.

Explanation.

One of the options for covering this topic.

1. A system as a set of elements that form it, which are in stable connections and relationships with each other.

2. Society as a collection of people connected by joint activities to achieve common goals.

3.Elements of society as a system:

a) spheres of social life;

b) social institutions of society.

4.Characteristics of society as a system:

a) diverse hierarchically structured relationships that make up the structure of society;

b) the integrity of society as a system (it has properties that cannot be derived from the properties of individual elements);

c) openness of society as a system (a state of continuous exchange with its natural environment);

d) the dynamism of society (changes in various spheres of life, their contradictory nature).

5. The degree to which people's needs are met is proof of the effectiveness of the functioning of society as a system.

A different number and (or) other correct wording of points and sub-points of the plan is possible. They can be presented in nominal, question or mixed forms.

Using social science knowledge, draw up a complex plan that will allow you to essentially reveal the topic “The Problem of the North and the South and ways to solve it.” The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in subparagraphs.

Explanation.

When analyzing the answer, the following are taken into account:

The correctness of the wording of the plan items in terms of their compliance with the given topic;

Completeness of reflection of the main content in the plan;

1) The problem of North and South is one of the global problems of our time.

2) The essence of the problem of North and South and its connection with other global problems.

3) Manifestations and consequences of the named problem:

a) “demographic explosion”;

b) hunger, poverty, illiteracy, disease;

c) unemployment and migration to economically prosperous countries of the world.

4) Ways to overcome economic backwardness, poverty and misery of the “third world” countries:

a) implementation of a well-thought-out demographic policy;

c) international cooperation in solving problems of the North and South.

A different number and (or) other correct wording of points and sub-points of the plan is possible. They can be presented in nominal, question or mixed forms.

Using social science knowledge, draw up a complex plan that allows you to essentially reveal the topic “Global problems of our time.” The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in subparagraphs.

Explanation.

When analyzing the answer, the following are taken into account:

The correctness of the wording of the plan items in terms of their compliance with the given topic;

Completeness of reflection of the main content in the plan;

Compliance of the structure of the proposed answer with a plan of a complex type. One of the options for a plan for covering this topic:

1) What problems have become global for humanity?

2) The essence of some global problems (ecological crisis, “demographic explosion”, economic backwardness of the “third world” countries) and their interrelation.

3) Manifestations and consequences of global problems of our time:

a) growth in the scale of human economic activity;

b) growth of world population at the expense of developing countries;

c) consumer attitude towards nature.

4) Ways to solve global problems:

a) development of scientific research on environmental and nature restoration activities of humans;

b) establishment of a new world economic order;

c) birth control in economically backward countries;

d) international cooperation in solving global problems of our time. A different number and (or) other correct wording of points and sub-points of the plan is possible. They can be presented in nominal, question or mixed forms.

Using social science knowledge, draw up a complex plan that allows you to essentially reveal the topic “Freedom and Responsibility.” The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in subparagraphs.

Explanation.

When analyzing the answer, the following are taken into account:

The correctness of the wording of the plan items in terms of their compliance with the given topic;

Completeness of reflection of the main content in the plan;

Compliance of the structure of the proposed answer with a plan of a complex type. One of the options for a plan for covering this topic:

1) Freedom in human activity:

a) personal freedom is the most important value of civilization;

b) “freedom is a conscious necessity”;

2) Responsibility is the most important regulator of human activity:

a) conscious adherence to established standards;

b) assessing one’s actions in terms of their consequences for others;

c) principles and beliefs.

3) Freedom and responsibility in a free society.

A different number and (or) other correct wording of points and sub-points of the plan is possible. They can be presented in nominal, question or mixed forms.

Using social science knowledge, draw up a complex plan that allows you to essentially reveal the topic “The purpose and meaning of human life.” The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in subparagraphs.

Explanation.

Completeness of reflection of the main content in the plan;

Compliance of the structure of the proposed answer with a plan of a complex type. One of the options for a plan for covering this topic:

1) The search for the meaning of life is a distinctive property of a person.

2) Approaches to the problem of the meaning of human life in world philosophy:

a) ancient philosophy;

b) philosophy of the Renaissance;

c) classical German philosophy;

d) Russian philosophy (S. Frank, N. Trubetskoy, etc.).

3) The role of worldview in human activity, in his search for goals and meaning in life:

a) everyday (everyday) worldview: relying on one’s life experience;

b) religious worldview and human purpose;

c) scientific worldview: a person’s understanding of the world and its development trends, as well as his place in this world.

A different number and (or) other correct wording of points and sub-points of the plan is possible. They can be presented in nominal, question or mixed forms.

Using social science knowledge, draw up a complex plan that allows you to essentially reveal the topic “Man as a spiritual being.” The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in subparagraphs.

Explanation.

When analyzing the answer, the following are taken into account:

The correctness of the wording of the plan items in terms of their compliance with the given topic;

Completeness of reflection of the main content in the plan;

Compliance of the structure of the proposed answer with a plan of a complex type. One of the options for a plan for covering this topic:

1) The spiritual world of man: knowledge, faith, feelings, aspirations.

2) Morals, values, ideals of a person:

a) the “golden rule” of morality;

c) conscience, patriotism, citizenship.

3) Worldview and its role in human life:

a) types of worldview;

b) worldview as a guideline and goals of human activity.

A different number and (or) other correct wording of points and sub-points of the plan is possible. They can be presented in nominal, question or mixed forms.

Using social science knowledge, draw up a complex plan that allows you to essentially reveal the topic “Modern science and the responsibility of scientists.” The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in sub-points.

Explanation.

When analyzing the answer, the following are taken into account:

– the correctness of the wording of the plan items in terms of their compliance with the given topic;

– compliance of the structure of the proposed answer with a plan of a complex type.

One of the options for a plan for covering this topic:

1)Modern science is the direct productive force of society.

2) Specifics of modern science:

a) increased opportunities to influence nature and society;

b) complex technical and technological potential;

c) direct impact on lifestyle and nature of work

d) the opportunity to study micro- and macroworlds.

3) Main directions of scientific and technological progress:

a) space exploration;

b) genetic engineering and biotechnology (creation of organic substances with predetermined properties);

c) research in the field of creating new types of fuel and energy;

d) studying the possibilities and prospects of artificial intelligence.

4) Factors of increasing responsibility of scientists for their research:

a) dual purpose of a number of inventions (creation of new types of weapons of mass destruction);

b) moral ambiguity of a number of studies (cloning living organisms);

c) the negative, harmful impact of a number of scientific research on nature;

5) The need to preserve the humanistic essence of science.

Using social science knowledge, draw up a complex plan that will allow you to essentially reveal the topic “Cognition is the process of man’s spiritual mastery of the material world.” The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in sub-points.

Explanation.

One of the options for a plan for covering this topic:

1) The concept of knowledge. Cognition is the process of human comprehension of objects and phenomena of the material world.

2) Goals of knowledge:

a) comprehension of the truth;

b) practical use.

3) Structure of the cognition process:

b) logical cognition (concept, judgment, inference).

4) Interaction between the cognizing subject and the cognizable object in the process of cognition.

5) Knowledge as a result of cognition.

A different number and (or) other correct wording of points and sub-points of the plan is possible. They can be presented in nominative, question or mixed form.

Using social science knowledge, draw up a complex plan that allows you to essentially reveal the topic “Society as an open system.” The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in sub-points.

Explanation.

When analyzing the answer, the following are taken into account:

The correctness of the wording of the plan items in terms of their compliance with the given topic;

Compliance of the structure of the proposed answer with a plan of a complex type.

One of the options for covering this topic

1. The concept of an open system as a system that is connected with the outside world (“exchanges matter and energy with it”).

2.Society as an open system in the context of sociological research is characterized by:

b)high mobility (members of society can change their status relatively easily);

c) the ability to innovate;

3. Openness of society: the influence of nature on society:

a) natural conditions have a significant impact on the social division of labor;

b) natural factors play an important role in people’s lives (geographical determinism);

c) nature forms natural environment human habitation.

4. The state of continuous exchange with the natural environment and environmental problems of our time:

a) greenhouse effect;

b) acid rain;

d) air pollution;

e) soil pollution;

A different number and (or) other correct wording of points and sub-points of the plan are possible. They can be presented in nominal, question or mixed forms.

Using social science knowledge, draw up a complex plan that allows you to essentially reveal the topic “The influence of nature on man and society.” The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in sub-points.

Explanation.

When analyzing the answer, the following are taken into account:

The correctness of the wording of the plan items in terms of their compliance with the given topic;

Compliance of the structure of the proposed answer with a plan of a complex type.

One of the options for covering this topic.

1. Society and nature are organic parts of the material world.

2. Man is an element of the biosphere.

3.1. Influence natural factors on the process of anthropogenesis:

a) separation of man from the animal world;

b) formation of races;

c) formation of languages;

d) features of mentality and character;

3.2 The influence of nature (environment) on social processes:

a) the pace and quality of social dynamics;

b) distribution of productive forces and economic specialization;

c) natural disasters and their social consequences.

4. Stages of interaction between nature and society:

a) appropriation of finished products;

b) growth of productive forces;

c) transition from spontaneous consumption of natural resources to the organization of the purposeful course of natural processes;

5. The importance of nature for humans and society:

a) a storehouse of resources;

c) a source of inspiration and beauty.

Using social science knowledge, draw up a complex plan that allows you to essentially reveal the topic “Human Activity”. The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in sub-points.

Explanation.

When analyzing the answer, the following are taken into account:

Availability of plan items required to cover the proposed topic;

The correctness of the wording of the plan items in terms of their compliance with the given topic;

Compliance of the structure of the proposed answer with a plan of a complex type.

The wording of plan items that are abstract and formal in nature and do not reflect the specifics of the topic are not counted in the assessment.

One of the options for covering this topic.

1. Activity as a way of existence for people.

2. Structure of activity.

a) subject of activity

b) object of activity

d) methods and means

d) process

e) result

3. Activity needs:

a) biological

b) social

c) ideal

4. Types of activities

b) communication

c) teaching

5. Classification of activities:

a) by objects and results (material and spiritual);

b) by subject of activity (individual and collective)

c) by the nature of the activity (reproductive and creative)

d) depending on the spheres of society (economic, social, political, spiritual);

e) in accordance with moral standards(moral and immoral);

6. Characteristic features of the activity:

a) conscientious character;

b) transformative nature;

c) productive nature;

d) public character;

Possible other number and (or) other correct wording of points and sub-points of the plan. They can be presented in nominative, question or mixed form.

Using social science knowledge, draw up a complex plan that allows you to essentially reveal the topic “Culture, its forms.” The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in sub-points.

Explanation.

When analyzing the answer, the following are taken into account:

Availability of plan items required to cover the proposed topic;

The correctness of the wording of the plan items in terms of their compliance with the given topic;

Compliance of the structure of the proposed answer with a plan of a complex type.

The wording of plan items that are abstract and formal in nature and do not reflect the specifics of the topic are not counted in the assessment.

One of the options for covering this topic.

1. The concept of culture.

2. Material and spiritual culture.

3. Functions of culture:

a) adaptive

b) normative

c) socialization

d) informational

d) creative

e) communicative

g) relaxation, etc.

4. Basis for classifying culture:

a) connection with religion

b) territorial affiliation

c) ethnic characteristics

d) economic structure

e) belonging to a historical type of society

5. Main forms of culture:

a) elitist

b) folk

c) massive

6. Varieties of culture:

a) subculture

b) counterculture

Possible other number and (or) other correct wording of points and sub-points of the plan. They can be presented in nominative, question or mixed form.

Using social science knowledge, draw up a complex plan that allows you to essentially reveal the topic “Scientific knowledge”. The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in sub-points.

Explanation.

When analyzing the answer, the following are taken into account:

− the presence of plan items that are required to disclose the proposed topic;

− the correctness of the wording of the plan items in terms of their compliance with the given topic;

− compliance of the structure of the proposed answer with a plan of a complex type.

The wording of plan items that are abstract and formal in nature and do not reflect the specifics of the topic are not counted in the assessment.

One of the options for covering this topic.

1. Scientific knowledge is one of the types of knowledge of the objective world.

2. Features of scientific knowledge:

a) the desire for objectivity (to study the world as it is, regardless of a person);

b) a special language, including special terms, strictly defined concepts, mathematical symbols;

c) special procedures for checking results.

3. Levels of scientific knowledge:

a) empirical knowledge;

b) theoretical knowledge.

4. Methods of scientific knowledge:

a) scientific observation;

b) description;

c) classification;

d) scientific experiment;

e) thought experiment;

f) putting forward hypotheses;

g) scientific modeling.

Possible other number and (or) other correct wording of points and sub-points of the plan. They can be presented in nominative, question or mixed form.

Using social science knowledge, draw up a complex plan that will allow you to essentially reveal the topic “The environmental crisis as a global problem of our time.” The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in sub-points.

Explanation.

1.What problems have become global for humanity?

2. The essence of the environmental crisis and its connection with other global problems

3. What caused the environmental crisis?

a) Increase in the scale of human economic activity.

b) Consumer attitude towards nature.

4. Manifestations and consequences of the environmental crisis.

5. Ways to overcome the environmental crisis:

a) changing people’s attitudes towards nature;

b) science in the service of ecology;

c) international cooperation in solving environmental problems.

Using social science knowledge, draw up a complex plan that will allow you to essentially reveal the topic “Cognition is the process of man’s spiritual mastery of the material world.” The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in subparagraphs.

Explanation.

When analyzing the answer, the following are taken into account:

Availability of plan items required to cover the proposed topic;

The correctness of the wording of the plan items in terms of their compliance with the given topic;

Compliance of the structure of the proposed answer with a plan of a complex type.

The wording of plan items that are abstract and formal in nature and do not reflect the specifics of the topic are not counted in the assessment.

One of the options for covering this topic.

1. The concept of knowledge. Cognition is the process of human comprehension of objects and phenomena of the material world.

2. Goals of knowledge:

a) comprehension of truth

b) practical use

3. Structure of the cognition process:

a) sensory cognition (sensation, perception, representation);

b) rational cognition(concept, judgment, inference);

4. Types of knowledge:

a) scientific

b) everyday (ordinary);

c) mythological;

d) aesthetic, etc.

5 Knowledge as a result of cognition.

Possible other number and (or) other correct wording of points and sub-points of the plan. They can be presented in nominative, question or mixed form.

Using social science knowledge, draw up a complex plan that allows you to essentially reveal the topic “Society and Nature”. The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in subparagraphs.

Explanation.

When analyzing the answer, the following are taken into account:

The correctness of the wording of the plan items in terms of their compliance with the given topic;

Compliance of the structure of the proposed answer with a plan of a complex type. Wording of plan items that are abstract and formal in nature and do not reflect the specifics of the topic are not counted in the assessment.

1. Society and nature are organic parts of the material world.

2. The influence of nature (environment) on social processes:

a) the pace and quality of social dynamics;

b) distribution of productive forces and economic specialization;

c) peculiarities of mentality, attitude and character of people;

d) natural disasters and their social consequences.

3. Impact of society on the natural environment:

a) changes in landscapes under the influence of human activity;

b) use of non-renewable and renewable natural resources;

c) use of flora and fauna;

d) creation of a natural environment transformed by man.

4. The importance of nature for humans and society:

a) a storehouse of resources;

b) natural habitat;

c) a source of inspiration and beauty.

5. Specifics of interaction between nature and society at the present stage of social development.

A different number and (or) other correct wording of points and sub-points of the plan is possible. They can be presented in named, question or mixed form.

Using social science knowledge, draw up a complex plan that will allow you to essentially reveal the topic “The problem of international terrorism as a global problem of our time.” The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in subparagraphs.

Explanation.

When analyzing the answer, the following are taken into account:

Availability of plan items required to cover the proposed topic;

The correctness of the wording of the plan items in terms of their compliance with the given topic;

Compliance of the structure of the proposed answer with a plan of a complex type.

The wording of plan items that are abstract and formal in nature and do not reflect the specifics of the topic are not counted in the assessment.

One of the options for covering this topic.

1. Threats and challenges of modern humanity.

2. International terrorism as a threat to the world community.

3. Causes of international terrorism:

a) the gap in levels of economic and social development between countries and regions of the world;

b) aggressive introduction of the values ​​and norms of Western society into the non-Western world, oppression of non-Western cultures and values;

c) political dominance Western countries in the global world.

4. Features of terrorism at the present stage:

a) supranational character;

b) use of modern network technologies and resources;

c) the presence of significant financial, intellectual, and human resources;

d) the use of religious and sociocultural program settings.

5. The main areas of activity of international terrorists:

a) organizing psychological attacks using media technologies;

b) preparation and conduct of terrorist acts;

c) organizing attacks on the Internet against large financial centers and banks.

6. Ways and methods of the world community’s fight against terrorists.

7. The role of the Russian Federation in countering the terrorist threat. A different number and (or) other correct wording of points and sub-points of the plan are possible. They can be presented in nominal, question or mixed forms.

The absence of the 2nd, 3rd and 4th points of the plan in this or similar formulation will not allow us to reveal the content of this topic in essence.

Using social science knowledge, draw up a complex plan that will allow you to essentially reveal the topic “Content and forms (types) of spiritual activity.” The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in subparagraphs.

Explanation.

1.Concept

2. Specifics of objects and subjects of spiritual activity

3. Main goals:

a) formation of public consciousness,

b) formation of values,

c) satisfying the ideal needs of society,

d) production of spiritual goods.

4. Forms of spiritual activity:

a) prognostic,

b) cognitive,

c) value-oriented

5. Role in the modern world

Source: Unified State Examination in Social Studies 06/10/2013. Main wave. Center. Option 6.

Using social science knowledge, draw up a complex plan that will allow you to essentially reveal the topic “The problem of the cognizability of the world.” The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in subparagraphs.

Explanation.

When analyzing the answer, the following are taken into account:

The correctness of the wording of the plan items in terms of their correspondence to the given topic and the clarity of expression of thoughts;

Reflection in terms of the main aspects of the topic in a certain (adequate to the given topic) sequence.

1. The problem of the cognizability of the world

a) What is agnosticism

b) Theories of Hume and Kant

c) Varieties of agnosticism

2. Subject and object of knowledge

3. Sensory and rational cognition

4. Sensualism and rationalism.

5. three main trends:

a) epistemological optimism,

b) skepticism

c) agnosticism.

6. Relative and absolute truth.

A different number and (or) other correct wording of points and sub-points of the plan is possible. They can be presented in nominal, question or mixed forms.

Source: Unified State Examination in Social Studies 06/10/2013. Main wave. Far East. Option 2.

Using social science knowledge, draw up a complex plan that allows you to essentially reveal the topic “Society as a system.” The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in subparagraphs.

Explanation.

When analyzing the answer, the following are taken into account:

The correctness of the wording of the plan items in terms of their compliance with the given topic;

Compliance of the structure of the proposed answer with a plan of a complex type.

One of the options for covering this topic

1. The concept of society as a system that is connected with the outside world (“exchanges matter and energy with it”).

2.Society as an open system in the context of sociological research is characterized by:

a) dynamic social structure;

b)high mobility (members of society can change their status relatively easily);

c) the ability to innovate;

d) democratic pluralistic ideology.

3. Openness of society: the influence of nature on society:

a) natural conditions have a significant impact on the social division of labor;

b) natural factors play an important role in people’s lives (geographical determinism);

c) nature forms the natural habitat for humans.

4. The state of continuous exchange with the natural environment and environmental problems of our time:

a) greenhouse effect;

b) acid rain;

c) pollution of seas and oceans;

d) air pollution;

e) soil pollution;

f) reducing the amount of water suitable for drinking.

Source: Unified State Examination in Social Studies 06/10/2013. Main wave. Siberia. Option 2.

Using social science knowledge, draw up a complex plan that allows you to essentially reveal the topic “Forms and varieties of culture.” The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in subparagraphs.

Explanation.

When analyzing the answer, the following are taken into account:

The correctness of the wording of the plan items in terms of their correspondence to the given topic and the clarity of expression of thoughts;

Reflection in terms of the main aspects of the topic in a certain (adequate to the given topic) sequence.

One of the options for a plan for covering this topic:

1. The concept of culture

2. Forms of culture:

a) elitist

b) folk

c) massive

d) screen

3.Diversity of cultures:

a) subcultures

b) counterculture

4. The role of culture in the development of modern society.

A different number and (or) other correct wording of points and sub-points of the plan is possible. They can be presented in nominal, question or mixed forms.

Source: Unified State Examination in Social Studies 06/10/2013. Main wave. Ural. Option 6.

Using social science knowledge, draw up a complex plan that allows you to essentially reveal the topic “Problem social progress" The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in subparagraphs.

Explanation.

One of the options for covering this topic

a) progress;

b) regression.

2. Theories of social development:

a) theories of progressive development;

b) theories of cyclical development;

c) ideas of the end of history.

3. Inconsistency of progress:

a) uneven progress in various areas;

b) progress in some areas is accompanied by regression in others.

4. Criteria for social progress:

a) development of science and technology;

b) growth of personal freedom of a person;

c) the development of the human mind.

5. The price of progress.

A different number and (or) other correct wording of points and sub-points of the plan are possible. They can be presented in nominal, question or mixed forms.

Using social science knowledge, draw up a complex plan that will allow you to essentially reveal the topic “The influence of mass culture on the spiritual life of society.” The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in subparagraphs.

Explanation.

One of the options for covering this topic

1. The concepts of “culture” and “spiritual life”.

2. Forms of culture:

a) elitist;

b) folk;

c) massive.

3. The reasons for the emergence of mass culture.

4. Distinctive features of mass culture:

a) focus on mass sales and profit;

b) replicability;

c) entertaining form;

d) intended for a wide audience.

5. Positive impact on the spiritual life of society:

a) affirms simple and understandable ideas about the world around us;

b) directly focused on the interests of society;

c) is democratic;

d) meets the needs for rest, psychological relaxation, etc.

6. Negative impact on society:

a) aimed at mass tastes;

b) leads to standardization and unification of culture;

c) designed for passive consumption;

d) plants myths in people’s minds;

e) creates artificial needs, etc.

A different number and (or) other correct wording of points and sub-points of the plan are possible. They can be presented in nominal, question or mixed forms.

Using social science knowledge, draw up a complex plan that allows you to essentially reveal the topic “Social control”. The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in subparagraphs.

Explanation.

One of the options for covering this topic

1. Social control. Definition.

2. Elements of social control:

Social norms.

Social sanctions.

3. Types of social norms:

Moral.

Legal.

Corporate.

Religious, etc.

4. Types of social sanctions:

Formal.

Informal.

5. Formal social sanctions:

Positive.

Negative.

6. Informal social sanctions:

Positive.

Negative.

7. Forms of social control:

Internal (conscience).

External (formal and informal).

A different number and (or) other correct wording of points and sub-points of the plan are possible. They can be presented in nominal, question or mixed forms.

Using social science knowledge, draw up a complex plan that allows you to essentially reveal the topic “Small groups and their role in society.” The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in subparagraphs.

Explanation.

One of the options for a plan for covering this topic:

1. The concept of a “small group”.

2. Features of small groups:

a) behavioral and psychological community of group members;

b) the presence of common interests and values;

c) general group norms.

3. Types of small groups:

a) formal;

b) informal.

4. Examples of small groups:

b) a group of friends;

c) labor collective.

5. Functions of small groups:

a) socializing;

b) supportive;

c) psychological;

d) active.

6. Interpersonal relationships in a small group.

A different number and (or) other correct wording of points and sub-points of the plan are possible. They can be presented in nominal, question or mixed forms.

Using social science knowledge, draw up a complex plan that will allow you to essentially reveal the topic “The role of needs in human activity.” The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in subparagraphs.

Explanation.

One of the possible plans.

1. The concept of activity.

2. Motives for activity

A. needs

b. interests

V. attractions

3. Classification of needs.

A. biological

b. social

V. perfect

4. Classification of needs by A. Maslow

A. physiological

b. existential

V. social

prestigious

d. spiritual

5. Connection of needs with activities

A. creative

b. labor

V. gaming (leisure)

educational

6. Need as the main motive of human activity.

Source: Unified State Examination in Social Studies 05/05/2014. Early wave. Option 2.

Using social science knowledge, draw up a complex plan that will allow you to essentially reveal the topic “Worldview and its role in human life.” The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in subparagraphs.

Explanation.

One of the options for a plan for covering this topic:

1. The concept of “worldview”.

2. Structure:

a) knowledge;

b) principles;

c) beliefs;

d) spiritual values.

3. Ways to form a worldview:

a) spontaneous

b) conscious

4. Main types of worldview:

a) mythological;

b) religious;

c) philosophical;

d) scientific.

5. The role of worldview in human life.

A different number and (or) other correct wording of points and sub-points of the plan are possible. They can be presented in nominal, question or mixed forms.

Using social science knowledge, draw up a complex plan that allows you to essentially reveal the topic “Activity and Thinking.” The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in subparagraphs.

Explanation.

One of the options for a plan for covering this topic:

1. Activity as a way of life for a person and society.

2. Structure of activity:

a) subject;

b) object;

d) motives;

e) actions;

e) result.

3. Types of activities:

a) labor;

b) cognitive;

c) aesthetic, etc.

4. Thinking as a process of cognitive activity.

5. Thinking is the basis of rational knowledge.

6. Types of thinking:

a) verbal-logical;

b) visually figurative;

c) visually effective.

A different number and (or) other correct wording of points and sub-points of the plan are possible. They can be presented in nominal, question or mixed forms.

Using social science knowledge, draw up a complex plan that will allow you to essentially reveal the topic “Social conflicts and ways to resolve them.” The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in subparagraphs.

Explanation.

– compliance of the structure of the proposed answer with a complex type plan;

– the presence of plan points indicating the examinee’s understanding of the main aspects of this topic, without which it cannot be revealed in essence;

– correctness of wording of plan items.

Wording of plan items that are abstract and formal in nature and do not reflect the specifics of the topic are not counted in the assessment

One of the options for a plan for covering this topic:

1. Social conflict is a clash of interests of individuals and groups.

2. The main causes of conflicts:

a) unfavorable working conditions;

b) dissatisfaction with pay;

c) psychological incompatibility of people;

d) difference in essential interests and principles;

e) redistribution of influence within a group or between groups;

f) ideological differences (political and religious);

g) unfair distribution of values ​​(income, knowledge,

information, benefits).

3. Types of social conflicts:

a) intrapersonal;

b) interpersonal;

c) intergroup;

d) conflict of belonging;

e) conflict with the external environment.

4. Stages of development of intergroup conflict.

5. Constructive and destructive ways of resolving conflicts.

6. Improving social culture, readiness for negotiations

process and compromise are the leading methods of conflict resolution in the modern world. A different number and (or) other correct wording of points and sub-points of the plan are possible. They can be presented in nominal, question or mixed forms.

Using social science knowledge, draw up a complex plan that will allow you to essentially reveal the topic “Socialization of the Individual.” The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in subparagraphs.

Explanation.

One of the options for a plan for covering this topic:

1. Socialization is the process of a person’s entry into the world of social connections and interactions.

2. Socialization functions:

a) mastering a system of knowledge about the world, man, human society;

b) acquiring experience of human interaction with society;

c) assimilation of moral values ​​and ideals;

d) mastering practical skills.

3. Stages of socialization:

a) primary socialization;

b) secondary socialization

Explanation.

One of the options for a plan for covering this topic:

1. Political participation - the influence of citizens on the adoption, implementation of government decisions and the selection of representatives to government institutions.

2. Types of political participation:

a) indirect (representative);

b) immediate (direct).

3. Forms of direct political participation:

a) participation in the activities of political parties, organizations, movements;

b) participation in meetings, rallies, demonstrations, pickets;

c) contacting government authorities;

d) participation in elections and referendums;

e) the activities of political leaders.

4. Classifications of political participation:

a) by the number of participants (individual, group, mass);

Explanation.

Plan on the topic: “Pricing in market conditions.”

1. Pricing - setting prices for goods and services. The market is a mechanism that connects buyer and seller.

2. Pricing depending on the type of economic system:

a) command-administrative economic system: directive pricing.

b) market - pricing depends on supply and demand. (from seller and consumer)

c) traditional - absence of commodity-money relations

d) mixed - partial control over pricing by the state.

3. Pricing depending on supply and demand:

a) law of demand: The lower the price, the higher the demand.

b) law of supply: The higher the price, the higher the supply.

Explanation.

One of the options for a plan for covering this topic:

1. Leadership Concepts:

a) outstanding qualities of individuals;

b) dependence of leadership on the current social situation;

c) psychoanalytic concepts of leadership, etc.

2. Functions of a political leader:

a) group integration based on common interests and values;

b) development of a political course;

c) mobilizing the group to achieve its goals;

d) social arbitration, etc.

3. Types of leaders:

a) ruling and opposition leaders;

b) democratic, authoritarian and liberal leaders;

c) traditional, rational-legal and charismatic leaders, etc.

A different number and (or) other correct wording of points and sub-points of the plan is possible. They can be

of which two or more are detailed in sub-clauses.

Explanation.

When analyzing the answer, the following is taken into account:

− correctness of wording of plan items. The wording of plan items that are abstract and formal in nature and do not reflect the specifics of the topic are not counted in the assessment.

One of the options for a plan for covering this topic:

1. The concept of family.

2. Family types by composition:

A) extended (multi-generation); B) nuclear.

3. Types of family according to the nature of family responsibilities: A) Traditional (patriarchal);

Explanation.

When analyzing the answer, the following is taken into account:

− compliance of the structure of the proposed answer with a complex type plan;

− the presence of plan points indicating the examinee’s understanding of the main aspects of this topic, without which it cannot be revealed in essence;

− correctness of wording of plan items. The wording of plan items that are abstract and formal in nature and do not reflect the specifics of the topic are not counted in the assessment.

One of the options for a plan for covering this topic:

1. The concept of human needs.

2. Classification of human needs:

A) human biological needs; B) social needs;

B) ideal needs.

3. Structure of human activity:

A) needs and motives;

Explanation.

One of the options for a plan for covering this topic:

1. International economic relations in the era of globalization:

a) international trade;

b) labor migration;

c) international capital movement;

d) economic integration;

e) monetary, financial and credit relations.

2. Factors of the international division of labor:

a) scientific and technological progress;

b) structure of national production;

c) demand on the world market.

3. State policy in the field of international trade:

a) protectionism;

b) free trade.

4. The international division of labor is the basis for the development of the world economy.

Using social science knowledge, draw up a complex plan that allows you to essentially reveal the topic “The media in the political system.” The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in subparagraphs.

Explanation.

One of the options for a plan for covering this topic:

1. Functions of the media in the political life of society:

a) selection and commenting on information;

b) political socialization;

c) formation of public opinion.

2. The role of the media in election campaigns:

a) election campaigning;

b) informing about the political programs of parties and candidates;

c) psychological impact on the voter.

3. Types of media:

b) Pure monopoly

c) Monopolistic competition

d) Oligopoly

5. State regulation of the economy

6. Consequences:

a) price reduction

b) quality improvement

c) expanding the range of goods and services

Elements of the answer can be given in other formulations that are similar in meaning.

1. 
   1. Society as a system.
2. 
   2. Society and nature.
3. 
   3. Social institutions.
4. 
   4. Forms of social change.
5. 
   5. Revolution as a form social change.
6. 
   6. Social progress.
7. 
   7. Traditional society and its features.
8. 
   8. Information society and its features.
9. 
   9. The problem of international terrorism as a global problem of our time.
10. 
    10. Socio-demographic problems of our time.
11. 
    11. The process of globalization and its contradictions.

C8.1.1.

Society as a system

C8.1.2.

You have been instructed to prepare a detailed answer on the topic “ Society and nature" Make a plan according to which you will cover this topic. The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in sub-points.

C8.1.3.

You have been instructed to prepare a detailed answer on the topic “ Social institutions" Make a plan according to which you will cover this topic. The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in sub-points.

C8.1.4.

You have been instructed to prepare a detailed answer on the topic “ Forms of social change" Make a plan according to which you will cover this topic. The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in sub-points.

C8.1.5.

You have been instructed to prepare a detailed answer on the topic “ Revolution as a form of social change" Make a plan according to which you will cover this topic. The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in sub-points.

1. Topics of plans for the section “Sociology” Social stratification and its types

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We live in a world of people. Our desires and plans cannot be realized without the help and participation of those who surround us and are nearby. Parents, brothers, sisters and other close relatives, teachers, friends, classmates, neighbors - they all make up our closest social circle.

Please note: not all of our desires can be fulfilled if they run counter to the interests of others. We must coordinate our actions with the opinions of other people, and for this we need to communicate. After the first circle of human communication there are subsequent circles that become ever wider. Outside our immediate circle, we are looking forward to meeting new people, entire teams and organizations. After all, each of us is not only a family member, a resident of the house, but also a citizen of the state. We can also be members of political parties, interest clubs, professional organizations, etc.

The world of people, organized in a certain way, constitutes society. What's happened society? Can any group of people be called this word? Society develops in the process of interaction between people. Its signs can be considered the presence of overall goals and objectives set for it, as well as activities aimed at their implementation.

So, society- this is not just a chaotic multitude of people. It has a core, integrity; it has a clear internal structure.

The concept of “society” is fundamental to social knowledge. In everyday life we ​​use it quite often, saying, for example, “he fell into a bad society” or “these people are the elite - high society" This is the meaning of the word “society” in everyday life everyday sense. Obviously, the key meaning of this concept is that this is a certain group of people, distinguished by special signs and characteristics.

How is society understood in the social sciences? What is its basis?

Science offers different approaches to solving this issue. One of them is the assertion that the original social cell is living, active people, whose joint activities form society. From this point of view, the individual is the primary particle of society. Based on the above, we can formulate the first definition of society.

Society- is a collection of people carrying out joint activities.

But if society consists of individuals, then the question naturally arises: shouldn’t it be considered as a simple sum of individuals?

Such a formulation of the question casts doubt on the existence of such an independent social reality as society as a whole. Individuals really exist, and society is the fruit of the conclusions of scientists: philosophers, sociologists, historians, etc.

Therefore, in the definition of society, it is not enough to indicate that it consists of individuals; it should also be emphasized that the most important condition for the formation of society is their unity, community, solidarity, and connection between people.

Society is a universal way of organizing social connections, interactions and relationships between people.

According to the degree of generalization, the broad and narrow meaning of the concept “society” are also distinguished. In the broadest sense society it could be considered:

• separated from nature in the process historical development, but a part of the material world closely connected with it;
• the totality of all relationships and interactions of people and their associations;
• a product of the joint life activity of people;
• humanity as a whole, taken throughout human history;
• form and method of joint life activity of people.

"Russian Sociological Encyclopedia" ed. G.V. Osipova gives the following definition of the concept “society”: “ Society- is a relatively stable system of social connections and relations between both large and small groups of people, determined in the process of historical development of mankind, supported by the power of customs, traditions, laws, social institutions, based on a certain method of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material and spiritual benefits."

This definition seems to be a generalization of those particular definitions given above. Thus, in a narrow sense, this concept means any group of people in size that has common features and characteristics, for example, a society of amateur fishermen, a society of wildlife defenders, an association of surfers, etc. All “small” societies are equally like individuals, they are the “building blocks” of a “big” society.

Society as an integral system. System structure of society. Its elements

In modern science, a systematic approach to understanding various phenomena and processes. It arose in natural science, one of its founders was the scientist L. von Bertalanffy. Much later than in the natural sciences, the systems approach was established in social science, according to which society is a complex system. In order to understand this definition, we need to clarify the essence of the concept of “system”.

Signs systems:

1. a certain integrity, a commonality of conditions of existence;
2. the presence of a certain structure - elements and subsystems;
3. the presence of communications - connections and relationships between elements of the system;
4. interaction of this system and other systems;
5. qualitative certainty, i.e. a sign that allows you to separate this system from other systems.

In social sciences, society is characterized as dynamic self-developing system, that is, a system that is capable of seriously changing, but at the same time maintaining its essence and qualitative certainty. Dynamism social system includes the possibility of change over time both in society as a whole and in its individual elements. These changes can be either progressive, progressive in nature, or regressive in nature, leading to degradation or even the complete disappearance of certain elements of society. Dynamic properties are also inherent in the connections and relationships that permeate social life. The essence of changing the world was brilliantly captured by the Greek thinkers Heraclitus and Cratylus. In the words of Heraclitus of Ephesus, “everything flows, everything changes, you cannot step into the same river twice.” Cratylus, complementing Heraclitus, noted that “you cannot enter the same river even once.” People's living conditions are changing, people themselves are changing, the nature of social relations is changing.

A system is also defined as a complex of interacting elements. element integral part system is called some further indecomposable component that is directly involved in its creation. To analyze complex systems, such as the one that society represents, scientists have developed the concept of “subsystem”. Subsystems called “intermediate” complexes, more complex than the elements, but less complex than the system itself.

Society represents complex system, since it includes different types of components: subsystems, which themselves are systems; social institutions, defined as a set of social roles, norms, expectations, social processes.

As subsystems The following spheres of public life are represented:

1. economic(its elements are material production and relations arising in the process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of goods). This is a life support system, which is a kind of material basis of the social system. In the economic sphere, it is determined what exactly, how and in what quantity is produced, distributed and consumed. Each of us is in one way or another involved in economic relations, plays a specific role in them - the owner, producer, seller or consumer of various goods and services.
2. social(consists of social groups, individuals, their relationships and interactions). In this area there are significant groups of people who are formed not only by their place in economic life, but also by demographic (gender, age), ethnic (national, racial), political, legal, cultural and other characteristics. In the social sphere, we distinguish social classes, strata, nations, nationalities, various groups united by gender or age. We distinguish people by their level of material well-being, culture, and education.
3. sphere of social management, political(its leading element is the state). Political system of society includes a number of elements, the most important of which is the state: a) institutions, organizations; b) political relations, communications; c) political norms, etc. The basis of the political system is power.
4. spiritual(covers various shapes and levels of social consciousness that give rise to phenomena in the spiritual life of people and culture). Elements of the spiritual sphere - ideology, social psychology, education and upbringing, science, culture, religion, art - are more independent and autonomous than elements of other spheres. For example, the positions of science, art, morality and religion can differ significantly in assessing the same phenomena, and even be in a state of conflict.

Which of the following subsystems is the most significant? Each scientific school gives its own answer to the question posed. Marxism, for example, recognizes the economic sphere as the leading and determining one. Philosopher S. E. Krapivensky notes that “it is the economic sphere, as a basis, that integrates all other subsystems of society into integrity.” However, this is not the only point of view. There are scientific schools that recognize the sphere of spiritual culture as their basis.

Each of the named sphere-subsystems, in turn, is a system in relation to the elements that make it up. All four spheres of public life are interconnected and interdependent. It is difficult to give examples of such phenomena that affect only one of the areas. Thus, great geographical discoveries entailed significant changes in the economy, public life, and culture.

The division of society into spheres is somewhat arbitrary, but it helps to isolate and study individual areas of a truly integral society, diverse and complex social life; recognize various social phenomena, processes, relationships.

An important characteristic of society as a system is its self-sufficiency, understood as the ability of a system to independently create and recreate the conditions necessary for its own existence, as well as to produce everything necessary for human life.

Besides the concept itself systems we often use the definition systemic, trying to emphasize the unified, holistic, complex nature of any phenomena, events, processes. So, for example, when talking about the last decades in the history of our country, they use such characteristics as “systemic crisis”, “systemic transformations”. Systematic nature of the crisis means that it affects more than one particular area, for example, political, public administration, but covers everything - economics, social relations, politics, and culture. Same with systematic changes, transformations. At the same time, these processes affect both society as a whole and its individual spheres. The complexity and systematic nature of the problems facing society requires a systematic approach to finding ways to resolve them.

Let us also emphasize that in its life activity society interacts with other systems, primarily with nature. It receives external impulses from nature and, in turn, influences it.

Society and nature

Since ancient times, an important issue in the life of society has been its interaction with nature.

Nature- the habitat of society in all the infinite variety of its manifestations, which has its own laws, independent of the will and desires of man. Originally, humans and human communities were an integral part of the natural world. In the process of development, society became isolated from nature, but retained a close connection with it. In ancient times, people were completely dependent on the world around them and did not claim a dominant role on earth. The earliest religions proclaimed the unity of humans, animals, plants, natural phenomena - people believed that everything in nature has a soul and is connected family relations. For example, success in hunting, the harvest, the success of fishing, and ultimately the life and death of a person and the well-being of his tribe depended on the weather.

Gradually, people began to change the world around them for their economic needs - cutting down forests, irrigating deserts, raising domestic animals, building cities. It was as if another nature was created - a special world in which humanity lives and which has its own rules and laws. If some people tried to adapt to them using the surrounding conditions as much as possible, others transformed and adapted nature to their needs.

In modern science, the concept is firmly established environment. Scientists distinguish two types of environment in it - natural and artificial. Nature itself constitutes the first, natural habitat on which man has always depended. In the process of development of human society, the role and importance of the so-called artificial environment increases, "second nature", which consists of objects created with human participation. These are plants and animals bred thanks to modern scientific opportunities, nature transformed by human efforts.

Today there are practically no places left on earth where a person would not leave his mark or change something with his intervention.

Nature has always influenced human life. Climate and geographical conditions are all significant factors that determine the development path of a particular region. People living in different natural conditions will differ in their character and way of life.

The interaction between human society and nature has gone through several stages in its development. The place of man in the world around him has changed, and the degree of people’s dependence on natural phenomena has changed. In ancient times, at the dawn of human civilization, people were completely dependent on nature and acted only as consumers of its gifts. The first occupations of people, as we remember from history lessons, were hunting and gathering. Then people did not produce anything themselves, but only consumed what nature produced.

Qualitative changes in the interaction of human society with nature are called technogenic revolutions. Each such revolution, generated by the development of human activity, led to a change in the role of man in nature. The first of these revolutions was neolithic revolution, or agricultural. Its result was the emergence of a productive economy, the formation of new types of economic activity of people - cattle breeding and agriculture. With the transition from an appropriating economy to a producing one, people were able to provide themselves with food. Following agriculture and cattle breeding, crafts emerged and trade developed.

The next technological revolution was industrial (industrial) revolution. Its beginning dates back to the Age of Enlightenment. The essence industrial revolution consists in the transition from manual labor to machine labor, in the development of large-scale factory industry, when machines and equipment gradually replace a number of human functions in production. The industrial revolution contributed to the growth and development of large cities - metropolises, the development of new types of transport and communications, and the simplification of contacts between residents of different countries and continents.

Witnesses of the third technogenic revolution were people who lived in the twentieth century. This post-industrial, or informational, a revolution associated with the emergence of “smart machines” - computers, the development of microprocessor technologies, and electronic communications. The concept of “computerization” has firmly entered into everyday life - the massive use of computers in production and in everyday life. The World Wide Web has emerged, opening up enormous opportunities for searching and obtaining any information. New technologies have significantly facilitated the work of millions of people and led to an increase in labor productivity. For nature, the consequences of this revolution are complex and contradictory.

The first centers of civilization arose in the basins of the great rivers - the Nile, Tigris and Euphrates, Indus and Ganges, Yangtze and Yellow River. The development of fertile lands, the creation of irrigated farming systems, etc. are experiments in the interaction of human society with nature. The rugged coastline and mountainous terrain of Greece led to the development of trade, crafts, the cultivation of olive trees and vineyards, and, to a much lesser extent, grain production. Since ancient times, nature has influenced the occupations and social structure of people. For example, the organization of irrigation work throughout the country contributed to the formation of despotic regimes and powerful monarchies; crafts and trade, the development of private initiative of individual producers led to the establishment of republican rule in Greece.

With each new stage of development, humanity exploits natural resources more and more comprehensively. Many researchers note the threat of the death of earthly civilization. The French scientist F. San-Marc writes in his work “The Socialization of Nature”: “A four-engine Boeing flying on the Paris-New York route consumes 36 tons of oxygen. The supersonic Concorde uses over 700 kilograms of air per second during takeoff. The world's commercial aviation burns as much oxygen annually as two billion people consume. The world's 250 million cars require as much oxygen as the entire population of the Earth."

While discovering new laws of nature and increasingly intervening in the natural environment, man cannot always clearly determine the consequences of his intervention. Under the influence of humans, the landscapes of the Earth are changing, new zones of deserts and tundras are appearing, forests - the “lungs” of the planet - are being cut down, many species of plants and animals are disappearing or are on the verge of extinction. For example, in an effort to turn steppe expanses into fertile fields, people created the threat of desertification of the steppe, destruction of unique steppe zones. There are fewer and fewer unique ecologically clean corners of nature left, which have now become the object of close attention of travel companies.

The appearance of atmospheric ozone holes can lead to changes in the atmosphere itself. Significant damage to nature is caused by the testing of new types of weapons, primarily nuclear weapons. Chernobyl disaster 1986 has already shown us what devastating consequences the spread of radiation can lead to. Life almost completely dies where radioactive waste appears.

Russian philosopher I. A. Gobozov emphasizes: “We demand from nature as much as it essentially cannot give without violating its integrity. Modern machines allow us to penetrate into the most distant corners of nature and remove any minerals. We are even ready to imagine that everything is allowed to us in relation to nature, since it cannot offer us serious resistance. Therefore, we, without hesitation, invade natural processes, disrupt their natural course and thereby take them out of balance. Satisfying our selfish interests, we care little about future generations, who will have to face enormous difficulties because of us.”

Studying the consequences of the unwise use of natural resources, people began to comprehend the harmfulness of the consumer attitude towards nature. Humanity will have to create optimal strategies for environmental management, as well as take care of the conditions for its continued existence on the planet.

Society and culture

Closely related to the history of mankind are such concepts as culture And civilization. The words “culture” and “civilization” are used in different meanings, found in both singular and plural, and the question involuntarily arises: “What is this?”

Let's look into dictionaries and try to learn from them about these concepts widely used both in everyday and scientific speech. Various explanatory dictionaries provide various definitions these concepts. First, let's look at the etymology of the word “culture.” The word is Latin and means “cultivation of the land.” The Romans used this word to describe the cultivation and care of the land, which could bear fruits useful to humans. Subsequently, the meaning of this word changed significantly. For example, culture is already written about as something that is not nature, something created by humanity throughout its existence, about “second nature” - a product of human activity. Culture- the result of the company’s activities throughout its existence.

According to the Austrian scientist S. Freud, “culture is everything in which human life has risen above its biological circumstances, how it differs from the life of animals.” Today, there are more than a hundred definitions of culture. Some understand it as the process of a person gaining freedom, as a way of human activity. With all the diversity of definitions and approaches, they are united by one thing - a person. Let us also try to formulate our understanding of culture.

Culture- a way of creative, creative activity of a person, a way of accumulating and transmitting human experience from generation to generation, its evaluation and comprehension; this is what sets man apart from nature and opens the way for his development. But this scientific, theoretical definition differs from what we use in everyday life. We talk about culture when we mean certain human qualities: politeness, tact, respect. We consider culture as a certain guideline, a norm of behavior in society, a norm of attitude towards nature. At the same time, culture and education cannot be equated. A person can be very educated, but uncultured. Created and “cultivated” by man are architectural complexes, books, scientific discoveries, paintings, and musical works. The world of culture is formed by the products of human activity, as well as the methods of activity itself, values, and norms of interaction between people and with society as a whole. Culture also influences natural, biological properties and the needs of people, for example, people inextricably linked the need for food with the high art of cooking: people have developed complex rituals of cooking, formed numerous traditions of national cuisine (Chinese, Japanese, European, Caucasian, etc.), which have become an integral part of the culture of peoples . For example, which of us will say that the Japanese tea ceremony is just satisfying a person’s need for water?

People create culture and themselves improve (change) under its influence, mastering norms, traditions, customs, passing them on from generation to generation.

Culture is closely related to society because it is created by people connected to each other complex system public relations.

When talking about culture, we always turned to people. But it is impossible to limit culture to one person. Culture is addressed to a person as a member of a certain community, team. Culture in many ways shapes the collective, “cultivates” the community of people, and connects us with our departed ancestors. Culture imposes certain obligations on us and sets standards for behavior. Striving for absolute freedom, we sometimes rebel against the institutions of our ancestors, against culture. In a revolutionary impulse or out of ignorance, we throw off the veneer of culture. What then remains of us? A primitive savage, a barbarian, but not liberated, but, on the contrary, chained in the chains of his darkness. By rebelling against culture, we thereby rebel against ourselves, against our humanity and spirituality, we lose our human appearance.

Each nation creates and reproduces its own culture, traditions, rituals, and customs. But cultural scientists also identify a number of elements that are inherent in all cultures - cultural universals. These include, for example, language with its grammatical structure, rules for raising children. Cultural universals include the commandments of most world religions (“thou shalt not kill,” “thou shalt not steal,” “thou shalt not bear false witness,” etc.).

Along with considering the concept of “culture,” we must touch upon one more problem. What is pseudoculture, ersatz culture? With ersatz products that are widely sold in the country, as a rule, during a crisis, everything is clear. These are cheap substitutes for valuable natural products. Instead of tea - dried carrot peelings, instead of bread - a mixture of bran with quinoa or bark. A modern ersatz product is, for example, plant-based margarine, which advertising producers diligently pass off as butter. What is ersatz (fake) culture? This is an imaginary culture, imaginary spiritual values, which can sometimes look outwardly very attractive, but in essence distract a person from the true and lofty. They may tell us: go into this comfortable world of pseudo-values, escape from the difficulties of life in primitive fake joys and pleasures; immerse yourself in the illusory world of “soap operas”, numerous television sagas like “My Fair Nanny” or “Don’t Be Born Beautiful”, the world of animated comics like “The Adventures of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles”; profess the cult of consumerism, limit your world to “Snickers”, “Sprites”, etc.; Instead of communicating with genuine humor, a product of the human mind, intellect, style, be content with vulgar humorous television programs - a vivid embodiment of anticulture. So: this is convenient only for those who want to live exclusively by simple instincts, desires, and needs.

A number of scientists divide culture into material And spiritual. Material culture refers to buildings, structures, household items, tools - what is created and used by a person in the process of life. And spiritual culture is the fruits of our thoughts and creativity. Strictly speaking, such a division is very arbitrary and not even entirely correct. For example, when talking about a book, a fresco, or a statue, we cannot clearly say what kind of culture it is a monument to - material or spiritual. Most likely, these two sides can only be distinguished regarding the embodiment of culture and its purpose. The lathe, of course, is not a Rembrandt canvas, but it is also a product of human creativity, the result of sleepless nights and vigils of its creator.

The relationship between the economic, social, political and spiritual spheres of society

Social life includes all phenomena caused by the interaction of society as a whole and individual people located in a certain limited territory. Social scientists note the close relationship and interdependence of all major social spheres, reflecting certain aspects of human existence and activity.

Economic sphere social life includes material production and relationships that arise between people in the process of production of material goods, their exchange and distribution. It is difficult to overestimate the role that economic, commodity-money relations and professional activities play in our lives. Today they have even come to the fore too actively, and material values sometimes the spiritual ones are completely replaced. Many people now say that a person first needs to be fed, provided with material well-being, maintenance of his physical strength, and only then - spiritual benefits and political freedoms. There is even a saying: “It is better to be full than to be free.” This, however, can be argued. For example, an unfree person, spiritually undeveloped, will continue to worry only about physical survival and satisfying his physiological needs until the end of his days.

Political sphere, also called political-legal, is primarily associated with the management of society, government, problems of power, laws and legal norms.

In the political sphere, a person one way or another faces established rules of behavior. Today, some people are disillusioned with politics and politicians. This happens because people do not see positive changes in their lives. Many young people also have little interest in politics, preferring to meet with friends and enjoy music. However, it is impossible to completely isolate ourselves from this sphere of public life: if we do not want to participate in the life of the state, then we will have to submit to someone else’s will and someone else’s decisions. One thinker said: “If you don’t get involved in politics, then politics will get involved in you.”

Social sphere includes the relationships between different groups of people (classes, social strata, nations), considers the position of a person in society, the basic values ​​and ideals established in a particular group. A person cannot exist without other people, therefore the social sphere is that part of life that accompanies him from the moment of birth until the last minutes.

Spiritual realm covers various manifestations of a person’s creative potential, his inner world, his own ideas about beauty, experiences, moral principles, religious views, the opportunity to realize himself in various types of art.

Which sphere of society's life seems more significant? Which one is less? There is no clear answer to this question, since social phenomena are complex and in each of them one can trace the interconnection and mutual influence of spheres.

For example, one can trace the close relationship between economics and politics. The country is undergoing reforms and reducing taxes for entrepreneurs. This political measure promotes production growth and facilitates the activities of businessmen. And vice versa, if the government increases the tax burden on enterprises, it will not be profitable for them to develop, and many entrepreneurs will try to withdraw their capital from industry.

The relationship between the social sphere and politics is no less important. The leading role in the social sphere of modern society is played by representatives of the so-called “middle strata” - qualified specialists, information workers (programmers, engineers), representatives of small and medium-sized businesses. And these same people will form the leading political parties and movements, as well as their own system of views on society.

The economy and the spiritual sphere are interconnected. For example, the economic capabilities of society, the level of human mastery natural resources allows the development of science, and vice versa, fundamental scientific discoveries contribute to the transformation of the productive forces of society. There are many examples of the relationship between all four public spheres. Let’s say that in the course of the market reforms being carried out in the country, a variety of forms of ownership have been legalized. This contributes to the emergence of new social groups - the entrepreneurial class, small and medium-sized businesses, farming, and specialists with private practice. In the field of culture, the emergence of private media, film companies, and Internet providers contributes to the development of pluralism in the spiritual sphere, the creation of spiritual products that are different in nature, and multidirectional information. There are an infinite number of similar examples of relationships between spheres.

Social institutions

One of the elements that make up society as a system is various social institutions.

The word "institute" here should not be taken to mean any specific institution. This is a broad concept that includes everything that is created by people to realize their needs, desires, and aspirations. In order to better organize its life and activities, society forms certain structures and norms that allow it to satisfy certain needs.

Social institutions- these are relatively stable types and forms of social practice through which social life is organized and the stability of connections and relationships within society is ensured.

Scientists identify several groups of institutions in each society: 1) economic institutions , which serve for the production and distribution of goods and services; 2) political institutions regulating public life, related to the implementation of power and access to it; 3) institutions of stratification, determining the distribution of social positions and public resources; 4) kinship institutions, ensuring reproduction and inheritance through marriage, family, education; 5) cultural institutions, developing the continuity of religious, scientific and artistic activities in society.

For example, society’s need for reproduction, development, preservation and enhancement is fulfilled by institutions such as family and school. The social institution that carries out the functions of security and protection is the army.

The institutions of society are also morality, law, and religion. The starting point for the formation of a social institution is society’s awareness of its needs.

The emergence of a social institution is due to:

• the need of society;
• the availability of means to satisfy this need;
• availability of necessary material, financial, labor, organizational resources;
• the possibility of its integration into the socio-economic, ideological, value structure of society, which makes it possible to legitimize the professional and legal basis of its activities.

The famous American scientist R. Merton identified the main functions of social institutions. Explicit functions are written down in charters, formally enshrined, and officially accepted by people. They are formalized and largely controlled by society. For example, we can ask government agencies: “Where do our taxes go?”

Hidden functions are those that are actually carried out and may not be formally fixed. If hidden and explicit functions disagree, a certain double standard is formed when one thing is stated, but another is done. In this case, scientists talk about the instability of the development of society.

The process of development of society is accompanied institutionalization, i.e., the formation of new relationships and needs leading to the creation of new institutions. The American sociologist of the 20th century G. Lansky identified a number of needs that lead to the formation of institutions. These are the needs:

• in communication (language, education, communications, transport);
• in the production of products and services;
• in the distribution of benefits;
• in the safety of citizens, protection of their lives and well-being;
• in maintaining a system of inequality (placement of social groups according to positions, statuses depending on various criteria);
• in social control over the behavior of members of society (religion, morality, law).

Modern society is characterized by the growth and complexity of the system of institutions. The same social need can give rise to the existence of several institutions, while certain institutions (for example, the family) can simultaneously realize several needs: for reproduction, for communication, for security, for the production of services, for socialization, etc.

Multivariate social development. Typology of societies

The life of each person and society as a whole is constantly changing. Not a single day or hour we live is similar to the previous ones. When do we say that a change has occurred? Then, when it is clear to us that one state is not equal to another and something new has appeared that did not exist before. How do all the changes occur and where are they directed?

At any given moment in time, a person and his associations are influenced by many factors, sometimes inconsistent with each other and multidirectional. Therefore, it is difficult to talk about any clear, distinct arrow-shaped line of development characteristic of society. Processes of change occur in complex, uneven ways, and their logic is sometimes difficult to grasp. The paths of social change are varied and winding.

We often come across such a concept as “social development”. Let's think about how change will generally differ from development? Which of these concepts is broader and which is more specific (it can be included in another, considered as special case another)? It is obvious that not every change is development. But only that which involves complication, improvement and is associated with the manifestation of social progress.

What drives the development of society? What could be hidden behind each new stage? We should look for answers to these questions, first of all, in the system of complex social relations itself, in internal contradictions, conflicts of different interests.

Development impulses can come from society itself, its internal contradictions, and from the outside.

External impulses can be generated, in particular, by the natural environment and space. For example, climate change on our planet, the so-called “global warming,” has become a serious problem for modern society. The response to this “challenge” was the adoption by a number of countries of the world of the Kyoto Protocol, which requires reducing emissions of harmful substances into the atmosphere. In 2004, Russia also ratified this protocol, committing itself to environmental protection.

If changes in society occur gradually, then new things accumulate in the system quite slowly and sometimes unnoticed by the observer. And the old, the previous, is the basis on which the new is grown, organically combining the traces of the previous. We do not feel conflict and denial of the old by the new. And only after some time has passed we exclaim in surprise: “How everything has changed around us!” We call such gradual progressive changes evolution. The evolutionary path of development does not imply a sharp break or destruction of previous social relations.

The external manifestation of evolution, the main way of its implementation is reform. Under reform we understand the action of power aimed at changing certain areas and aspects of social life in order to give society greater stability and stability.

The evolutionary path of development is not the only one. Not all societies could solve pressing problems through organic gradual transformations. In conditions of an acute crisis affecting all spheres of society, when accumulated contradictions literally explode the existing order, revolution. Any revolution taking place in society presupposes a qualitative transformation of social structures, the destruction of old orders and rapid innovation. A revolution releases significant social energy, which cannot always be controlled by the forces that initiated the revolutionary changes. It’s as if the ideologists and practitioners of the revolution are letting the “genie out of the bottle.” Subsequently, they try to drive this “genie” back, but this, as a rule, does not work. The revolutionary element begins to develop according to its own laws, often perplexing its creators.

That is why spontaneous, chaotic principles often prevail in the course of a social revolution. Sometimes revolutions bury those people who stood at their origins. Or the results and consequences of the revolutionary explosion differ so significantly from the original tasks that the creators of the revolution cannot help but admit their defeat. Revolutions give rise to a new quality, and it is important to be able to timely transfer further development processes into an evolutionary direction. In the 20th century, Russia experienced two revolutions. Particularly severe shocks befell our country in 1917–1920.

As history shows, many revolutions were replaced by reaction, a rollback to the past. We can talk about different types of revolutions in the development of society: social, technical, scientific, cultural.

The significance of revolutions is assessed differently by thinkers. For example, the German philosopher K. Marx, the founder of scientific communism, considered revolutions to be the “locomotives of history.” At the same time, many emphasized the destructive, destructive effect of revolutions on society. In particular, the Russian philosopher N.A. Berdyaev (1874–1948) wrote the following about the revolution: “All revolutions ended in reactions. This is inevitable. This is the law. And the more violent and violent the revolutions were, the stronger the reactions were. There is some kind of magic circle in the alternation of revolutions and reactions.”

Comparing the paths of transformation of society, the famous modern Russian historian P.V. Volobuev wrote: “The evolutionary form, firstly, made it possible to ensure the continuity of social development and thanks to this preserve all the accumulated wealth. Secondly, evolution, contrary to our primitive ideas, was accompanied by major qualitative changes in society, not only in productive forces and technology, but also in spiritual culture, in the way of life of people. Thirdly, to solve new social problems that arose in the course of evolution, it adopted such a method of social transformation as reforms, which, in their “costs,” turned out to be simply incomparable with the gigantic price of many revolutions. Ultimately, as historical experience has shown, evolution is capable of ensuring and maintaining social progress, also giving it a civilized form.”

Typology of societies

When distinguishing different types of societies, thinkers are based, on the one hand, on the chronological principle, noting changes that occur over time in the organization of social life. On the other hand, certain characteristics of societies coexisting with each other at the same time are grouped. This allows us to create a kind of horizontal cross-section of civilizations. Thus, speaking about traditional society as the basis for the formation of modern civilization, one cannot help but note the preservation of many of its features and characteristics in our days.

The most established approach in modern social science is the one based on identifying three types of societies: traditional (pre-industrial), industrial, post-industrial (sometimes called technological or information). This approach is based largely on a vertical, chronological section, i.e. it assumes the replacement of one society by another in the course of historical development. What this approach has in common with the theory of K. Marx is that it is based primarily on the distinction of technical and technological features.

What are the characteristic features and characteristics of each of these societies? Let's look at the characteristics traditional society- the foundations of the formation of the modern world. An ancient and medieval society is primarily called traditional, although many of its features are preserved in later times. For example, the countries of the East, Asia, and Africa retain signs of traditional civilization today.

So, what are the main features and characteristics of a traditional type of society?

In the very understanding of traditional society, it is necessary to note the focus on reproducing in an unchanged form methods of human activity, interactions, forms of communication, organization of life, and cultural patterns. That is, in this society, the relationships that have developed between people, work practices, family values, way of life.

A person in a traditional society is bound by a complex system of dependence on the community and the state. His behavior is strictly regulated by the norms accepted in the family, class, and society as a whole.

Traditional society distinguished by the predominance of agriculture in the structure of the economy, the majority of the population is employed in the agricultural sector, working on the land, living from its fruits. Land is considered the main wealth, and the basis for the reproduction of society is what is produced on it. Mainly hand tools (plow, plow) are used; the updating of equipment and production technology occurs quite slowly.

The main element of the structure of traditional societies is the agricultural community: a collective that manages the land. The individual in such a group is poorly identified, its interests are not clearly identified. The community, on the one hand, will limit the person, on the other, provide him with protection and stability. The most severe punishment in such a society was often considered expulsion from the community, “deprivation of shelter and water.” Society has a hierarchical structure, often divided into classes according to political and legal principles.

A feature of traditional society is its closedness to innovation and the extremely slow nature of change. And these changes themselves are not considered as a value. More important is stability, sustainability, following the commandments of our ancestors. Any innovation is considered as a threat to the existing world order, and the attitude towards it is extremely wary. “The traditions of all dead generations loom like a nightmare over the minds of the living.”

The Czech teacher J. Korczak noted the dogmatic way of life inherent in traditional society: “Prudence to the point of complete passivity, to the point of ignoring all rights and rules that have not become traditional, not sanctified by authorities, not rooted by repetition day after day... Everything can become dogma - including the earth , and the church, and the fatherland, and virtue, and sin; could be science, social and political activity, wealth, any confrontation..."

A traditional society will diligently protect its behavioral norms and the standards of its culture from outside influences from other societies and cultures. An example of such “closedness” is the centuries-old development of China and Japan, which were characterized by a closed, self-sufficient existence and any contacts with foreigners were practically excluded by the authorities. The state and religion play a significant role in the history of traditional societies.

Of course, as trade, economic, military, political, cultural and other contacts between different countries and peoples develop, such “closedness” will be broken, often in a very painful way for these countries. Traditional societies, under the influence of the development of technology, technology, and means of communication, will enter a period of modernization.

Of course, this is a generalized picture of traditional society. More precisely, we can talk about traditional society as a certain cumulative phenomenon, including developmental features different nations at a certain stage. There are many different traditional societies (Chinese, Japanese, Indian, Western European, Russian, etc.), bearing the imprint of their culture.

We understand perfectly well that the societies of ancient Greece and the Old Babylonian kingdom differ significantly in the dominant forms of ownership, the degree of influence of communal structures and the state. If in Greece and Rome private property and the beginnings of civil rights and freedoms are developing, then in societies of the eastern type there are strong traditions of despotic rule, the suppression of man by the agricultural community, and the collective nature of labor. Nevertheless, both are different versions of traditional society.

The long-term preservation of the agricultural community, the predominance of agriculture in the structure of the economy, the peasantry in the population, the joint labor and collective land use of communal peasants, and autocratic power allow us to characterize Russian society over many centuries of its development as traditional. Transition to a new type of society - industrial- will be implemented quite late - only in the second half of the 19th century.

It cannot be said that traditional society is a bygone stage, that everything associated with traditional structures, norms, and consciousness is a thing of the distant past. Moreover, by thinking this way, we make it difficult for ourselves to understand many problems and phenomena of our contemporary world. And today, a number of societies retain the features of traditionalism, primarily in culture, public consciousness, political system, and everyday life.

The transition from a traditional society, devoid of dynamism, to an industrial-type society reflects such a concept as modernization.

Industrial society born as a result of the industrial revolution, leading to the development of large-scale industry, new types of transport and communications, a decrease in the role of agriculture in the structure of the economy and the relocation of people to cities.

The Modern Dictionary of Philosophy, published in 1998 in London, contains the following definition of industrial society:

An industrial society is characterized by the orientation of people toward ever-increasing volumes of production, consumption, knowledge, etc. The ideas of growth and progress are the “core” of the industrial myth, or ideology. Significant role in social organization industrial society is played by the concept of the machine. The consequence of the implementation of ideas about the machine is the extensive development of production, as well as the “mechanization” of social relations, human relations with nature... The boundaries of the development of industrial society are revealed as the limits of extensively oriented production are discovered.

Earlier than others, the industrial revolution swept the countries of Western Europe. The first country to implement it was Great Britain. By the middle of the 19th century, the vast majority of its population was employed in industry. Industrial society is characterized by rapid dynamic changes, increased social mobility, and urbanization - the process of growth and development of cities. Contacts and connections between countries and peoples are expanding. These communications are carried out through telegraphic messages and telephones. The structure of society is also changing: it is based not on estates, but on social groups that differ in their place in the economic system - classes. Along with changes in the economy and social sphere, the politic system industrial society - parliamentarism, a multi-party system are developing, the rights and freedoms of citizens are expanding. Many researchers believe that the formation of a civil society that is aware of its interests and acts as a full partner of the state is also associated with the formation of an industrial society. To a certain extent, it is precisely this society that is called capitalist. The early stages of its development were analyzed in the 19th century by English scientists J. Mill, A. Smith, and the German philosopher K. Marx.

At the same time, during the era of the industrial revolution, there is an increase in unevenness in the development of different regions of the world, which leads to colonial wars, conquests, and the enslavement of weak countries by strong ones.

Russian society entered the period of the industrial revolution quite late, only in the 40s of the 19th century, and the formation of the foundations of an industrial society in Russia was noted only at the beginning of the 20th century. Many historians believe that at the beginning of the 20th century our country was an agrarian-industrial one. Russia was unable to complete industrialization in the pre-revolutionary period. Although this is exactly what the reforms carried out on the initiative of S. Yu. Witte and P. A. Stolypin were aimed at.

By the completion of industrialization, that is, the creation of a powerful industry that would make the main contribution to the national wealth of the country, the authorities returned to Soviet period stories.

We know the concept of “Stalinist industrialization,” which occurred in the 1930s and 1940s. In the shortest possible time, at an accelerated pace, using primarily the funds obtained from the robbery of the countryside, the mass collectivization of peasant farms, by the end of the 1930s our country created the foundations of heavy and military industry, mechanical engineering and ceased to depend on the supply of equipment from abroad. But did this mean the end of the industrialization process? Historians argue. Some researchers believe that even at the end of the 1930s the main share national wealth was still formed in the agricultural sector, i.e. agriculture produced more product than industry.

Therefore, experts believe that industrialization in the Soviet Union ended only after the Great Patriotic War, by the mid-second half of the 1950s. By this time, industry had taken a leading position in the production of gross domestic product. Also, most of the country's population found itself employed in the industrial sector.

The second half of the 20th century was marked by the rapid development of fundamental science, engineering and technology. Science is turning into an immediate powerful economic force.

The rapid changes that have engulfed a number of spheres of life in modern society have made it possible to talk about the world entering into post-industrial era. In the 1960s, this term was first proposed by the American sociologist D. Bell. He also formulated main features of post-industrial society: creation of a vast service economy, increasing the layer of qualified scientific and technical specialists, the central role of scientific knowledge as a source of innovation, ensuring technological growth, creating a new generation of intellectual technology. Following Bell, the theory of post-industrial society was developed by American scientists J. Gal Breit and O. Toffler.

basis post-industrial society was the structural restructuring of the economy carried out in Western countries at the turn of the 1960s - 1970s. Instead of heavy industry, leading positions in the economy were taken by knowledge-intensive industries, the “knowledge industry.” The symbol of this era, its basis is the microprocessor revolution, the mass distribution of personal computers, information technology, and electronic communications. The pace of economic development and the speed of transmission of information and financial flows over distances are increasing manifold. With the entry of the world into the post-industrial, information era, there is a decrease in the employment of people in industry, transport, and industrial sectors, and vice versa, the number of people employed in the service sector and in the information sector is increasing. It is no coincidence that a number of scientists call post-industrial society informational or technological.

Characterizing modern society, American researcher P. Drucker notes: “Today knowledge is already being applied to the sphere of knowledge itself, and this can be called a revolution in the field of management. Knowledge is quickly becoming the determining factor of production, relegating both capital and labor to the background.”

Scientists studying the development of culture and spiritual life, in relation to the post-industrial world, introduce another name - postmodern era. (By the era of modernism, scientists understand industrial society. - Author's note.) If the concept of post-industriality mainly emphasizes differences in the sphere of economics, production, and methods of communication, then postmodernism covers primarily the sphere of consciousness, culture, and patterns of behavior.

The new perception of the world, according to scientists, is based on three main features.

Firstly, at the end of faith in the capabilities of the human mind, a skeptical questioning of everything that European culture traditionally considers rational. Secondly, on the collapse of the idea of ​​unity and universality of the world. The postmodern understanding of the world is built on multiplicity, pluralism, and the absence of common models and canons for the development of different cultures. Thirdly: the era of postmodernism views personality differently, “the individual, as responsible for shaping the world, resigns, he is outdated, he is recognized as associated with the prejudices of rationalism and is discarded.” The sphere of communication between people, communications, and collective agreements comes to the fore.

Scientists name increasing pluralism, multivariance and variety of forms of social development, changes in the system of values, motives and incentives of people as the main features of postmodern society.

The approach we have chosen summarizes the main milestones in human development, focusing primarily on the history of Western European countries. Thus, it significantly narrows the possibility of studying specific features, features of the development of individual countries. He pays attention primarily to universal processes, and much remains outside the field of view of scientists. In addition, willy-nilly, we take for granted the point of view that there are countries that have jumped ahead, there are those that are successfully catching up with them, and those that are hopelessly behind, not having time to jump into the last carriage of the modernization machine rushing forward. Ideologists of modernization theory are convinced that the values ​​and development models of Western society are universal and are a guideline for development and a role model for everyone.

Society is a system, as it consists of interconnected and interacting with each other of different order parts or elements.

Society structure

Social institutions:

• organize human activity into a certain system of roles and statuses, establishing patterns of human behavior in various spheres of public life.
• include a system of sanctions - from legal to moral and ethical;
• organize, coordinate many individual actions of people, give them an organized and predictable character;
• provide standard behavior of people in socially typical situations.

Society is a complex, self-developing system, which is characterized by the following specific features:

1. It has a wide variety of different social structures and subsystems.
2. Society is not only people, but also the social relations that arise between them, between spheres (subsystems) and their institutions.
3. Society is capable of creating and reproducing the necessary conditions for its own existence.
4. Society is a dynamic system, characterized by the emergence and development of new phenomena, obsolescence and death of old elements, as well as incompleteness and alternative development. The choice of development options is made by a person.
5. Society is characterized by unpredictability and nonlinear development.

Social relations are diverse forms of interaction between people, as well as connections that arise between different social groups (or within them).

Functions of the society:

Human reproduction and socialization;
- production of material goods and services;
- distribution of labor products (activities);
- regulation and management of activities and behavior;
- spiritual production.