Creation of the British Commonwealth of States. Commonwealth of Nations in International Relations. Language and culture

To date, 54 states are members of the Commonwealth of Nations. (See Appendix I Fig. 1) The total population of the Commonwealth countries is about 1.8 billion, that is, approximately 30% of the world's population. In terms of population, India ranks first (2001 census, one billion people), followed by Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Nigeria (each over 100 million); Tuvalu has the smallest population - 11 thousand. The territory of the Commonwealth countries is about a quarter of the earth's land. The largest of them by territory are Canada, Australia and India.

Membership in the Commonwealth is open to all countries that recognize the main goals of its activities. There must also be a past or present constitutional relationship between the candidate for accession and the UK or another member of the Commonwealth. Not all members of the organization have direct constitutional ties to Great Britain - some of the South Pacific states were under the control of Australia or New Zealand, and Namibia from 1920 to 1990 - under the control of South Africa. Cameroon became a member of the Commonwealth in 1995. Under British administration was only part of its territory under the mandate of the League of Nations (1920-1946) and under the trusteeship agreement with the UN (1946-1961).

There is only one member of the Commonwealth for which this rule has been violated. Mozambique, a former colony of Portugal, was admitted to the Commonwealth in 1995 after South Africa's triumphant re-membership and Mozambique's first democratic elections. Mozambique was asked for by its neighbors, all of whom were members of the Commonwealth and wished to help Mozambique overcome the damage done to the economy of this country in connection with its confrontation with the white minority regimes in Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) and South Africa. In 1997, the Commonwealth heads of state nevertheless decided that the Mozambique issue should be considered as a special one and not creating a precedent for the future. In 2009, Rwanda was added to the list of member countries of the organization, which was officially admitted to the Commonwealth on November 28 at the anniversary summit of the heads of state and government of the Commonwealth countries, timed to coincide with its 60th anniversary.

Failed membership.

French President Charles de Gaulle has twice raised the possibility of a French request to join the Commonwealth; this idea was never implemented, but it can be regarded as a kind of continuation of Winston Churchill's idea expressed during the war years about uniting the governments of France and Great Britain.

David Ben-Gurion offered to ask for Israel's admission to the Commonwealth, but the majority of Israelis rejected this offer, believing that membership in this organization could mean dependence on Britain. The Commonwealth also reacted negatively to this idea, as it could mean the need for more support for Israel.

Termination of membership.

Each Commonwealth country enjoys the unconditional right to unilaterally withdraw from it. In 1972, Pakistan withdrew from the Commonwealth in protest against the Commonwealth's recognition of Bangladesh as an independent state. In 1989 Pakistan returned to the organization. Fiji withdrew from the organization in 1987-1997 after a coup d'etat, as a result of which a republic was proclaimed in the country. In 2009, Fiji was expelled from the Commonwealth after the 2006 military coup.

Zimbabwe withdrew from the Commonwealth in 2003 after the heads of government of the organization's member countries refused to cancel the decision to suspend Zimbabwe's participation in meetings of leaders and ministers of the Commonwealth countries in connection with violations of human rights and democratic norms of governing the country.

Although the heads of government of the Commonwealth member countries have the right to suspend the participation of individual countries in the work of the Commonwealth bodies, the possibility of exclusion from the Commonwealth is not defined by any documents. At the same time, Commonwealth Realms that declare themselves republics automatically secede from the Commonwealth unless they request other members to remain in the Commonwealth. Ireland did not make such a request, because at the time of its proclamation as a republic in 1949, this rule was still missing. The question of Ireland joining the Commonwealth has been repeatedly raised, but this proposal does not enjoy support among the local population, which continues to associate the Commonwealth with British imperialism. The Republic of Ireland became the first state to secede from the Commonwealth and not regain its membership.

South Africa lost its membership after the proclamation of a republic in 1961 due to the rejection by many members of the Commonwealth - the countries of Asia, Africa and Canada - of the apartheid policy pursued by South Africa. The South African government chose to simply not apply for continued membership, confident that it would be rejected. South Africa's membership was restored in 1994 after apartheid was ended.

AT last years there have been several cases of suspension of participation of members of the Commonwealth "in the activities of the Councils of the Commonwealth" (in meetings of leaders and ministers of member countries) for clear violations of democratic norms of governance. This measure does not terminate that state's membership in the Commonwealth.

This measure was taken against Fiji in 2000-2001 and from 2006 after the military coup in that country and against Pakistan from 1999 to 2004 and from November 2007 for a similar reason.

Nigeria did not participate in the meetings from 1995 to 1999. In 2002, a similar measure was taken against Zimbabwe (the reason was the electoral and land reforms of the government of Robert Mugabe).

3 Fields of activity

Today, the Commonwealth of Nations carries out its activities in two main areas: the dissemination of the norms and principles of democracy and the promotion of development. Within these areas, the organization implements the following programs: mediation to achieve peace and security, rule of law, human rights, development of the public sector, economy, human potential and sustainable development environment. There is also cooperation in the field of healthcare, education and sports.

ECONOMY

The economic importance of the colonies for the mother country has traditionally been quite large. The possession of the Empire significantly increased the potential of the British economy and foreign policy, contributed to the preservation of Great Britain's status as a great power. Events of the Second World War and the rise of national liberation movements in the world; The sharp rise in the power of the Soviet Union and the United States and their ever greater involvement in the affairs of the "Third World" contributed to the formation of independent state-territorial formations in the colonies. Under these conditions, Great Britain tried to preserve at least part of its interests in the former colonies, and now independent states. The solution to this problem was found in the revision of the concept of the British Commonwealth of Nations and the opening of its "doors" to all comers. The Commonwealth was supposed to allow, to some extent, to preserve British economic interests, to prevent the transition of the liberated colonies to socialist camp and the associated nationalization of foreign-owned companies.

At the end of November 1961, French President de Gaulle, during his visit to England, confronted Prime Minister Macmillan with the choice between Europe and the Commonwealth. However, the British government was not ready to withstand the pressure of circles associated with the activities of British companies in the Commonwealth countries. Disagreements arose in the English leadership. The Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference in September 1962 reaffirmed "the need to provide appropriate guarantees to protect the interests of producers of foodstuffs and other agricultural products in the Commonwealth, including tropical crops, as well as certain types of raw materials for which duty-free import was requested" . Under the circumstances, the British government could not decide on a final break with the Commonwealth and rejected the French ultimatum. On January 29, 1963, when discussing England's request for admission to the EEC, de Gaulle used the right of veto.

Over time, however, the priorities for the development of the British economy have changed: the former colonial interests have ceased to be significant for her. Indicative in this sense is the fact that after the end of the Second World War, 25% of the income of the Anglo-Dutch "Unilever" went through the column "plantations and the SAC, and in 1962 this figure did not exceed 7%. Gradual reduction of customs barriers as a result of Bretton- The Woods and Jamaica Conferences allowed Great Britain to find its own niche in the international division of labor, its dependence on colonial markets was largely destroyed.The scientific and technological revolution, in which the newly independent states, unlike Great Britain, were not widely involved, made products British industry - high-tech goods for both industrial and consumer purposes - more in demand in the West, in developed countries than in the developing countries.The share of industrialized countries in British exports increased from 73.1% in 1970 to 80% in 1980 and to 79-83% by the beginning of the 21st century On the contrary, the share of the Commonwealth of Nations in the total in the United Kingdom decreased from 64% in 1942 to 42% in 1955, 27% in 1970 and 11% in 1993 (see Fig. Annex II Table 1 and Graph 1)

The importance of economic ties within the Commonwealth for both the mother country and its former colonies was rapidly decreasing. This trend was further strengthened after the entry of Britain into the European Union, which is extremely negative about attempts to conduct an economic policy independent of the pan-European line towards developing countries and giving priority to the protection of its own producers. In the ten years from 1951 to 1961, British exports to the countries of the former empire fell from 50% to 39%, while in the EEC it rose from 25% to 32%. Although the remaining almost 40% of exports remained very important component British trade balance, not to mention the growing British investment in the Commonwealth.

In general, industrial and commercial capital, which is increasingly oriented towards developed countries and being forced out of its former fiefdoms by competitors from the USA, Japan, Germany, has ceased to be attentive to the problems of relations between Britain and its former colonies. At the same time, some industries remain dependent on sources of raw materials in the countries of the Commonwealth of Nations. The most important in this sense are Britain's ties with South Africa, where more than 70% of British gold imports, 40% of platinum group metals, more than 30% of vanadium, chromium, magnesium, 16% of asbestos come from.

To a lesser extent, the weakening of interest in the Commonwealth countries applies to British financial capital: London retained its status as the main financial center in relation to the Commonwealth countries, despite New York's attempts to push it back. In London, 28-31% of international currency transactions are still performed (in New York - 16%); London banks issue about the same share of international bank loans; up to a third of all negotiations on international loans. The City of London, its banks and insurance companies hold the most important positions in the Third World. It can be argued that it is the Commonwealth, the gold and foreign exchange holdings of its member countries that have retained an important role in ensuring the status of London as the largest financial center. Huge investments of Great Britain in its former colonies remain.

The fact that the pound sterling remained the main settlement and payment unit for the Commonwealth countries for a long time had a positive effect on the position of London on the map of world finance: the single imperial currency area was transformed into the sterling bloc, and then into the sterling zone, which lasted until 1972. The latter included 64 countries and territories, and its borders largely repeated the borders of the Commonwealth of Nations. According to the Bretton Woods agreements, which determined the contours of the new global financial system, the pound sterling served as the second "reserve" currency, which, of course, contributed to the stabilization of the sterling space. Only the devaluation of the pound on November 18, 1967 and the general financial crisis led to the dismantling of the Bretton Woods system and the final replacement of the pound sterling by the US dollar as the main reserve currency.

important area economic interconnections between Great Britain and her former colonies is the help she gives them, along with other industrialized countries. Financial assistance in the form of general development assistance, loans, gifts in 2000 amounted to 4,664 million pounds, - only about 6.6% of the total assistance of developed countries. Such assistance plays a significant role in the development of the Commonwealth states, which are its main recipients (primarily India, Ghana, Bangladesh, Zambia, Uganda, Mozambique, Tanzania), experiencing an acute shortage of capital. Along with financial assistance, other assistance is also provided, for example, technical assistance - the transfer of knowledge and experience, the sale of licenses and patents, the supply of machines, parts, and the training of specialists. Of course, this assistance is, as a rule, related character, i.e. the use of certain funds is made dependent on the fulfillment of certain conditions. Thus, the provision of financial assistance is an important tool for London in the struggle to preserve, strengthen and increase its interests.

STRATEGIC AND MILITARY-POLITICAL FACTORS

The years of the interwar period and the Second World War were a critical period in the history of the development of the common defense space of the Commonwealth. And although Great Britain formally remained the winner, the funeral of the old empire and former imperial unity had already taken place: the dominions became independent, getting rid of the excessive role of Great Britain in determining their foreign and defense policy and entering into a military alliance with the United States (Canada - in Ogdensburg in 1940 , Australia and New Zealand- according to the agreement on the creation of ANZUS, 1952). But they did not leave the Commonwealth, using it as a basis for preserving former ties and common traditions, thus distancing themselves from the United States as well.

The outbreak of the Cold War led Britain to the position of "junior partner" of the United States on a voluntary basis. London abandoned the traditional policy of non-alignment, neutrality and "brilliant isolation". This was due, on the one hand, to the struggle against communism, which required a single and really strong leader, and on the other hand, the position of a "partner" could provide some, at least moral, support for the United States in the fight against liberation movements in the colonies (potentially socialist ), as well as to strengthen the position of Britain in Europe - as an intermediary in its relations with the United States. Based on these considerations, the British establishment formulated the doctrine of the “three great spheres”, voiced by Churchill and providing for the following priority areas of British foreign policy: relations within the British Commonwealth of Nations and the British Empire, relations with English-speaking countries, primarily with the United States, and, finally, - with the weakened states of Europe (the last bridgehead separating the English Channel and Soviet tank armies, or potential new "ivy" countries, forced to focus on the British economy). This doctrine is relevant in our time - the Commonwealth of Nations, the European Union and the North Atlantic Alliance play a crucial role in British foreign policy, despite the fact that the Soviet threat has already sunk into oblivion.

Now the Royal Navy continues to have a number of overseas naval and air bases (including in the countries of the Commonwealth of Nations), which allows it to maintain its presence in the most remote corners the globe and at least in such a truncated form to maintain the prestige of Britain not just as a great power, but as a great power with global interests.

In our time, with the cessation of major armed conflicts, the tasks of a defensive nature have lost their significance to a certain extent: potential adversaries and eventual threats to the national security of Great Britain are unclear. On the one hand, huge growth military power The United States is a country that is an ally of Great Britain, which, moreover, supported the demands national independence for colonial and dependent territories - led to the replacement of Great Britain by the United States as the global arbitrator and leader Western world in his opposition to the East. The enormous expansion of the international arms trade allowed the newly free countries to organize their own armed forces, a kind of symbol of their independence. Now the Commonwealth countries either do not need protection, simply because of the absence of opponents, or they maintain their own armies and navies, inferior to the British in terms of technical equipment, but significantly superior in numbers (India), or in general are partners of Great Britain in the implementation of the global defense policy of the West (within blocs - Australia, Canada, New Zealand).

On the other hand, Great Britain, like other developed countries, is increasingly facing the challenge of forces that are not satisfied with the status quo, the existing world order. The strategy and tactics of dealing with such "dissidents" have not yet been worked out. This poses understandable problems for the armed forces of Western countries, including the British.

British troops, in one form or another, regularly take part in active hostilities in different regions peace. In the future, British troops can play an important role in settling internal unrest in the Commonwealth countries and, along with American troops, can act as guarantors of international stability. Thus, despite the defense independence of the Commonwealth countries, all of them, to one degree or another, can count on British armed assistance, or, no less important, on the threat of its use - an important argument for various lovers of independence.

From this point of view, the preservation of ties with the countries of the Commonwealth of Nations and attempts to strengthen them are aimed at stabilizing the internal and external position of sovereign states, preserving them within the existing world system.

LANGUAGE AND CULTURE

An important fact national life is the language - the language of everyday communication and business people, the intellectual elite and dockers in the port. The interests of trade, office work, management led to the gradual spread of the English language in the territories of the empire: the metropolis cultivated teaching it, and later education in it. The deep penetration of the British into all spheres of society led to the fact that their language gradually pushed the locals into the background. This process turned out to be possible also because the territories subordinated to the British were very heterogeneous in ethnic and linguistic terms - in other words, in Africa, the territories and populations of dozens of tribes that had never lived in the composition of united state. Now they were forced to somehow communicate with each other, and the cities that the British built became major centers of attraction for the multilingual mass of natives from the provinces - these cities became a kind of "melting pots" for future Kenyans, Ghanaians, etc. And this process began with the language - English allowed to communicate both with each other and with government officials. Over time, English penetrated into the outback, but there its presence remains in question to this day.

The language of the metropolis spread throughout the empire and long time served as a kind of criterion for distinguishing the inhabitants of the empire from other people who spoke French, German, Chinese, etc., and for this reason alone performed a considerable integration function - it divided people into "us" and "them". In modern times, the importance of the English language as a factor that unites the peoples of the Commonwealth has greatly decreased, although it retains its position as one of the official languages ​​almost everywhere in the Commonwealth states. There are several reasons for this. With the achievement of independence in the former colonies, and now independent states, there was a surge of linguistic nationalism everywhere, focused on the revival of traditional languages ​​​​and the rejection of the heritage of the British colonizers. At the same time, the need for English language skills for representatives of the power and economic elites has remained, since English, thanks to the consistent hegemony of the United States and Great Britain in the world economy and politics, has become the world language of business, cultural, intellectual, and political communication. The new status of the English language contributed to the fact that the old division into "us" and "them" has largely lost its relevance. The lion's share of all treaties, agreements, contracts in modern world is concluded in English, and therefore, for entrepreneurs from, say, India, it is just as easy to negotiate with a company from Quebec, Germany or China, as well as with a Liverpool or Sheffield company. In general, the fact that graduates of Oxford and Cambridge are the best speakers of classical English does not add points to the UK and, in general, to peoples for whom English is their native language.

The situation is somewhat different in the sphere of culture, especially as regards written culture. It is obvious that British art, literature, etc., having come to the countries of the empire after the language, had a considerable influence on cultural life and development of these countries. Of course, such influence was originally the property of only the intellectual elites, but later, when sending children to study in England became the norm of life for wealthy natives of the colonies, and universities began to open in the colonies themselves, following the British model, a certain social stratum was formed that was influenced by British culture. . On the contrary, the autochthonous culture here often remained only in the backyard of the subconscious. The stratum of the anglicized elite was never too wide, but always the most influential. The upper strata of society, called upon to govern, inevitably had to assimilate both the English language and British (and with it Western) culture, and since in doing so they broke away from their own roots, the preservation of one or another association with the metropolis, at least cultural, remained their goal even along with the desire for state independence (again borrowed from the ideological baggage of European culture).

When the colonies became independent states, the influence was supplemented by a sharply increased influence of the cultures of other European states and, apparently, remains, albeit in a somewhat curtailed form, to this day.

Closely related to the questions of the unity of the cultural space is the question of the unity of the religious. At the dawn of the history of the empire, this factor - the unity of people who believe in Christ in the Protestant (Anglican) manner - was perhaps the most important. The unity of the colonists as Protestants, no less than their unity as Englishmen, enabled the creation of Canada and Australia, the Union of South Africa and New Zealand. Religion also had a significant impact on the Anglicized elites of the non-white colonies. The secularization of public consciousness and the spread of atheism and materialism led to a gradual decline in the importance of religion in the life of the Commonwealth states. Now it holds certain, not very significant positions in the mother country and the former dominions, although this religion can only be called Christian with some stretch: it has survived as a highly formalized, but integral part of classical British culture - and nothing more. In the colonies, faith in Christ, which was weak in the British Isles and among the descendants of settlers from there, took on a very strange shape, optimized for one of the driving belts of the ruling elites. It is difficult to say whether religious factors in any way influence relations between the states of the Commonwealth or not. Even if the answer to this question is yes, they are probably one of the least significant elements in the complex mosaic of relations between the countries of the Commonwealth.

The development of the British Commonwealth of Nations was by no means a linear or one-dimensional process, capturing many, many areas of society. In our time, it has indeed lost its positions in many respects, which is quite understandable: Britain is unable to maintain its great power status, it is unable to maintain a global presence and responsible policy in the countries of the "third world". Its membership in the Commonwealth, its role in it is a kind of resultant of the factors mentioned above - economic, military-political, cultural, etc. In the same way, other countries of the Commonwealth, being members of this system, measure their obligations of the participating countries with their state interests . These interests are mainly opportunistic in nature, since the concepts of the foreign policy of the states of the South cannot rely on a stable tradition and are forced to obey the fluctuations in the views of the actors of the system - the great powers of the West and East. On the contrary, in relations between the countries of British culture, traditional factors prevail over opportunistic ones - “so to speak, for the people of Ottawa, the remaining cultural ties and the British political, cultural and other heritage are much more important than the profitability of Interstate trade. This is primarily due to the high standard of living in these countries, which allows the population to think not only about food, but also about something else. This also applies to the anglicized elites of the "third world" countries. It can be argued that the Commonwealth of Nations rests on three pillars: British culture, the Anglicized elites of the South, and the unity of the Anglo-Saxon race of "settlement colonies." This situation is likely to continue in the future, despite the fact that the significance of its elements is gradually weakening.

Conclusion

Over the past 50 years, the world has changed a lot - the motivation of the member states of the Commonwealth has also changed. Do states like India and Singapore, Nigeria and Bermuda, have anything in common other than a record in the national history book?

The answer to this question will largely be the answer to the question about the effectiveness of the Commonwealth, its reality and "need" for individual member countries. Relations between these states, although they have significantly lost weight, still cover many areas of the life of societies and states - former members empire.

The Commonwealth is a fragment of the past, contributing to the preservation of some remnants of ties, their significance for the participating countries; The Commonwealth is a monument to the unity of the British people and, more importantly, of British culture (and political as well); The Commonwealth is an important element of the existing system of international relations. These three postulates largely characterize current position Commonwealth of Nations and those nations that are its members. The common past of the participating countries left an ambiguous memory about itself. The positive and negative consequences of the colonial period still have a significant impact on the politics and economy of the new states.

The modern Commonwealth of Nations is very different from the organization with which the process of evolution began. Unlike the cumbersome bureaucratic system of managing the colonies, which provoked a lot of conflicts with local political elites, the existing structure is fully in line with British interests already because it is beneficial to the former colonies, although it was created at the initiative of London.

Now the Commonwealth is positioned exclusively as an association of democratic countries. In this context, it is interesting that even such a fundamentally important event as the entry of Mozambique into the organization was not particularly noted, so as not to remind once again that all other members of the Commonwealth are former British colonies.

England made huge contribution in the development of culture and the formation of colonies during the existence of the empire. The programs of the Commonwealth of Nations aimed at developing human potential are a natural continuation of the imperial policy of developing colonies. Exactly the same applies to the stimulation of multilateral economic ties within the organization, the stimulation of cooperation between developing countries associations - they are beneficial to the UK in the context that they develop the organization itself. The dynamically developing states of the association are a huge contribution to the development of the British economy. If we analyze the totality of all humanitarian programs of the organization, it becomes obvious that their common goal is the creation of a single dynamically developing socio-economic and cultural organism in the spaces that made up the British Empire.

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Having lost its industrial monopoly, Great Britain was still the largest colonial power. About 500 million people were under its dominion. The territory of the metropolis was 140 times smaller than the colonies. According to the state-legal statute, British possessions were divided into four groups: dominions, protectorates, colonies and mandated territories.

So, dominions(translated from English - possession) - Canada, the Commonwealth of Australia, New Zealand, the Union of South Africa - used independence, which has been constantly increasing. They not only had their own parliaments, governments, armies and finances, but sometimes they themselves owned colonies, such as Australia. Protectorates became colonial countries with a relatively developed state power and public relations. In them, the colonial policy was carried out in the form indirect control: There were two levels of colonial government. supreme power belonged to the British governor generals. Unlike the governors of the dominions, who rather represented the interests of the British crown, the governors of the protectorates were the absolute masters of the subject countries. Along with them was native administration(local rulers, leaders), which enjoyed limited independence, was endowed with certain judicial and police powers: the right to collect local taxes, had its own budgets. colonies were dependent territories that were directly ruled and subordinated to London, with minimal or no rights to self-government. The exception was the crown colonies with a significant stratum of the white population, who had great privileges and even their own colonial parliaments.

Nevertheless, under the pressure of the national liberation movement, which expanded as a result of the development of its own economies, the formation of the national bourgeoisie, the system of colonial administration was gradually reorganized. changed types British colonial policy. In 1917, at the imperial conference, the status of dominions was recognized autonomous states British Empire. Participating in the work of the Paris Peace Conference, the Canadian delegation won the right for the dominions to independently sign peace treaties, to have a separate representation from England in the League of Nations. At the imperial conference held in 1923, England recognized the dominions the right to enter into contracts with foreign states, as well as to determine in each individual case their participation or non-participation in international treaties concluded by England. English government in 1919–1921 was forced to admit independence Afghanistan, Egypt, rank dominions Ireland. However, even after these countries were granted independence, British capital retained key positions in the economy there. Thousands of British advisers had a great influence on the domestic and foreign policy of the governments of these countries. The governments of Iran, China, Turkey experienced a strong influence of England. In 1921, under the Anglo-Irish Treaty, six north-eastern counties (Ulster), which constitute the most industrially developed part of Ireland, were torn away from England and formed a dominion of the British Empire called Irish Free State.

In order to maintain control over the resources of these countries in a new form - in the form of indirect (indirect) control, at the all-imperial conferences of the dominions in 1926 and 1930. was developed Constitution British Empire. December 11, 1931 entered into force Statute of Westminster. He secured the unification of the English dominions into the British Commonwealth of Nations and created confederation. The statute states that Great Britain and the Dominions are "the essence of the autonomous state units of the British Empire, equal in statute, in no respect subordinate to one another in any sense whatsoever in their internal and foreign affairs, albeit united by common allegiance to the crown and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations. "The system of colonial management has been significantly transformed. According to the Statute of Westminster English king officially declared the head of the British Commonwealth of Nations, which included: Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Union of South Africa, the Irish Free State, Newfoundland. The act abolished the right of the British government to interfere in the internal affairs of the dominions. The Colonial Laws Validity Act of 1865 no longer applied to the dominions. The Statute of Westminster gave the dominions the right to independently decide on domestic and foreign policy issues, exchange diplomatic representatives with other countries, and participate in international agreements.

Now the English Parliament could not make laws for the dominions except at their request or with their consent. Laws passed by the parliaments of the dominions could not be repealed, even if they were contrary to English law. The statute had a noteworthy proviso: "However, the principle of equality and similarity conferred on status do not universally apply to functions." Governor General dominion could be appointed by the king only by recommendations prime minister of the dominion. He was no longer considered authorized by the metropolitan government, but only representative king. In addition to the governor-general, British ambassadors were sent to the dominions, called high commissioners. Their role was formally reduced to diplomatic representation. For their part, the dominions received right appoint the same representatives (ambassadors) to the metropolis. Statute of Westminster expanded state independence of the dominions, eliminated a number of disagreements between the bourgeoisie of the dominions and the mother country. For all that, the position of the colonies, protectorates and mandated territories remained the same. Imperial conferences began to be convened annually to resolve the most important issues. prime ministers countries of the British Commonwealth of Nations.

After World War II, a period of upsurge in the national liberation movement in the colonies began. India, Pakistan, Ceylon in 1946 received the status dominion. As a result of the colonial wars, independence Ghana, Federation of Malaya (1957). In 1960, Cyprus and Nigeria became independent. At numerous constitutional conferences of the 40-60s. In the 20th century, which discussed the future of British possessions, their state structure, Great Britain, formally participating in them as an intermediary, actually sought to maintain a British presence in all areas of future independent states. And she succeeded. So, in order to open the possibility of joining Commonwealth for those colonies that have accepted dominion status, but have established republican form of government, the Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference in April 1949 decided to repeal the formula of the 1931 Statute of Westminster that "the members of the Commonwealth are united by a common allegiance to the crown" and to consider the English king only "the symbol of the free association of independent nations members of the Commonwealth and as such Head of the Commonwealth." However, in 1948 Great Britain was forced to recognize Ireland's decision to withdraw from the British Commonwealth and proclaim the Republic of Ireland.

AT contemporary The Commonwealth is an association of former dominions that recognize the head of state of the English monarch, and a number of other countries with different forms of government that have their own head of state (such as Ghana, Kenya, Sri Lanka). At present, the British Commonwealth of Nations unites 53 states and represents a modern type confederation. It would seem that the confederations are doomed to disintegration, but the experience of the Commonwealth allows us to speak about the certain stability of this integration entity. The Commonwealth's annual conferences work out solutions to the socio-economic problems of the former dominions, predominantly located in Africa.

At the 1926 Conference of Prime Ministers of Great Britain and the British Dominions, the Balfour Declaration was adopted, in which Great Britain and the Dominions recognized that these states have "equal status and are not dependent on one another in any aspect of their domestic or foreign policy, despite their common allegiance to the Crown and free membership in the British Commonwealth of Nations.

The legal status of the Commonwealth was fixed on December 11, 1931, and until 1947 it was a kind of union of states, each of which was united with Great Britain by a personal union (that is, the British monarch was recognized as the head of the dominions).

Development

Membership in the Commonwealth is open to all countries that recognize the main goals of its activities. There must also be a past or present constitutional relationship between the candidate for accession and the UK or another member of the Commonwealth. Not all members of the organization have direct constitutional ties to Great Britain - some of the South Pacific states were administered by Australia or New Zealand, and Namibia was administered by South Africa. Cameroon became a member of the Commonwealth in 1995. Under British administration was only part of its territory under the mandate of the League of Nations (-) and under the trusteeship agreement with the UN (1946-1961).

There is only one member of the Commonwealth for which this rule has been violated. Mozambique, a former colony of Portugal, was admitted to the Commonwealth after the triumphant re-membership of South Africa and Mozambique's first democratic elections. Mozambique was asked for by its neighbors, all of whom were members of the Commonwealth and wished to help Mozambique overcome the damage done to the economy of this country in connection with its confrontation with the white minority regimes in Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) and South Africa. The heads of state of the Commonwealth nevertheless decided that the issue of Mozambique should be considered as a special one and not creating a precedent for the future.

Failed membership

Termination of membership

Each Commonwealth country enjoys the unconditional right to unilaterally withdraw from it.

Although the heads of government of the Commonwealth member countries have the right to suspend the participation of individual countries in the work of the Commonwealth bodies, the possibility of exclusion from the Commonwealth is not defined by any documents. At the same time, Commonwealth Realms that declare themselves republics automatically secede from the Commonwealth unless they request other members to remain in the Commonwealth. Ireland did not make such a request, because at the time of its proclamation as a republic in 1949, this rule was still missing. The question of Ireland joining the Commonwealth has been repeatedly raised, but this proposal does not enjoy support among the local population, which continues to associate the Commonwealth with British imperialism. The Republic of Ireland became the first state to secede from the Commonwealth and not regain its membership.

Suspension from Commonwealth affairs

In recent years, there have been several cases of suspension of the participation of members of the Commonwealth "in the activities of the Councils of the Commonwealth" (in meetings of leaders and ministers of member countries) for clear violations of democratic norms of governance. This measure does not terminate that state's membership in the Commonwealth.

This measure was taken against Fiji in - and from after the military coup in that country and against Pakistan from to and from November for a similar reason.

Nigeria did not participate in meetings from to . A similar measure was taken in relation to Zimbabwe (the reason was the electoral and land reforms of the government of Robert Mugabe).

Commonwealth structure

Marlborough House, headquarters of the Commonwealth Secretariat

Traditionally, the monarch of Great Britain is proclaimed the head of the Commonwealth, at present, Queen Elizabeth II of Great Britain is the head of the Commonwealth. As head of the Commonwealth, she performs no formal function and her role in daily activities organizations are only symbolic. In 17 states of the Commonwealth, the monarch of Great Britain is still the de jure head of state, but also does not perform formal functions.

The post of head of the Commonwealth is not a title and is not hereditary. When changing the monarch on the British throne, the heads of government of the Commonwealth member countries will have to make a formal decision on the appointment of a new head of the organization.

The Commonwealth is administered by the Secretariat, which has been headquartered in London since 1965. Since 2008, the head of the Secretariat has been Kamalesh Sharma (India).

The anniversary of the founding of the Commonwealth - Commonwealth Day (Commonwealth Day) - is celebrated in the UK on the second Tuesday of March, and the official name of the department of foreign affairs of the British government (analogous to the Foreign Office) is still the Office of Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs (eng. Foreign and Commonwealth Office ).

Diplomatic relations

Commonwealth states maintain ordinary diplomatic relations with each other through high commissioners ( High Commissioners) having the rank of ambassadors. Diplomatic relations between the countries of the Commonwealth and other states are carried out in the usual manner.

After the end of World War II, the collapse of the British Empire began, caused by the growth of national liberation movements in the British possessions and the financial difficulties of the British government. From 1946 the "British Commonwealth" was simply referred to as the "Commonwealth".

Already gaining independence by India and the establishment of a republican form of government in it (and, consequently, the refusal to recognize the British monarch as head of state) required a radical revision of the foundations of the organization of the Commonwealth. In particular, the name of the organization itself was changed, and humanitarian missions, educational activities, etc. became the priority goals of its activities. and equal interaction.

Burma and Aden gained independence in 1948 and 1967. accordingly, they became the only former British colonies that did not become part of the Commonwealth after independence. Of the former protectorates and mandated territories of the League of Nations, the Commonwealth did not include Egypt (which became independent in 1922), Israel (1948), Iraq (1932), Bahrain (1971), Jordan (1946), Kuwait (1961) and Oman (1971). ). The Republic of Ireland left the Commonwealth with the declaration of a republican form of government in 1949. Despite this, under the Ireland Act 1949, citizens of the Republic of Ireland have equal status under British law with citizens of Commonwealth countries.

The issue of conflict between republican form board and membership in the Commonwealth was allowed in April 1949. at the Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Meeting in London. India agreed to recognize the British monarch as "the symbol of the free association of the independent member states of the Commonwealth and the head of the Commonwealth" from January 1950, when the declaration of India as a republic was to take effect. The remaining members of the Commonwealth, for their part, agreed to the retention of India's membership in the organization. At the insistence of Pakistan, it was decided that a similar decision would be made with respect to other states. The London Declaration is often regarded as a document marking the beginning of the existence of the Commonwealth in its modern form.

Until now, in 16 states that are members of the Commonwealth (in addition to the United Kingdom), the British monarch, represented by the Governor General, is recognized as the head of state. He is also the head of the Commonwealth; this title, however, does not imply any political power over the member states of the Commonwealth, and does not automatically extend to the British monarch. Most Commonwealth member states do not recognize the British monarch as head of state. This, however, does not affect their status within the Commonwealth. The Commonwealth is not a political union, and membership in it does not allow the UK to exert any political influence on other members.

With the growth of the Commonwealth, Great Britain and the dominions that existed before 1945 (the name "dominion" fell out of official use in the 1940s) began to be informally called "Old Commonwealth"(Old Commonwealth), especially since the 1960s, when disagreements began between some of them and the less wealthy members of the Commonwealth from the newly independent states of Africa and Asia. These divisions, which led to accusations of racism and colonialism by the Old, "White" Commonwealth that its interests differed from those of the African members of the organization, arose during the fierce debate over Southern Rhodesia in the 1970s, the imposition of sanctions on South Africa in the 1980s and, more recently, on the need to advance democratic reforms in Nigeria, and later in Zimbabwe. In particular, Zimbabwean President Robert Mugabe often uses the expression "White Commonwealth" (White Commonwealth), stating that the Commonwealth's attempts to force him to make political changes in the country are in fact manifestations of racism and colonialism on the part of the White Commonwealth, which dominates the Commonwealth of Nations. as such.

The content of the article

COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS, association of independent states formerly part of the British Empire, recognizing the British monarch as a symbol of free unity. The Commonwealth includes (at the beginning of 1999): Great Britain, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Ghana, Malaysia, Singapore, Cyprus, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Tanzania, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Uganda, Kenya, Zambia, Cameroon, Mozambique, Namibia, Malawi, Malta, Gambia, Botswana, Guyana, Lesotho, Barbados, Mauritius, Swaziland, Nauru, Tonga, Western Samoa, Fiji, Bangladesh, Bahamas, Grenada, Papua – New Guinea, Seychelles, Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, Dominica, Saint Lucia, Kiribati, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Zimbabwe, Belize, Antigua and Barbuda, Maldives, Saint Christopher and Nevis, Brunei, Vanuatu.

STORY

Empire to Commonwealth.

Control of public lands in the colonies quickly passed to local governments, who won the right to make their own constitutions and judicial systems. As early as 1859, Canada began setting its own tariffs, limiting Britain's control over foreign trade.

Less noticeable was progress in foreign affairs and defense. Although, over time, Great Britain recognized the need to consult with the Dominions on matters of foreign policy, she still retained her right to a decisive vote here. The British fleet continued to protect the empire as a whole, but ground troops were withdrawn from self-governing colonies that assumed the functions of self-defense.

Thus, in the colonies, the tendency to expand the sphere of responsibility in matters of local government was strengthened, which was accompanied by the growth of national self-awareness. The merger of the colonies into larger territorial entities also required greater independence in domestic politics. In 1867, the provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick united to form the Dominion of Canada (formally, Canada was considered a confederation). The six Australian colonies formed the Commonwealth of Australia in 1900. In 1910 the four South African colonies formed the Union of South Africa.

At the end of the 19th century the empire established two important institutions to maintain contact between Britain and the self-governing colonies. In 1879 the government of Canada appointed a high commissioner to protect the interests of the country in London. The British government refused to give him the status of ambassador, but an important precedent was nevertheless set, and other colonies also appointed high commissioners. In 1887 the government of Great Britain invited the governments of the self-governing colonies to send delegates to the colonial conference in London. Meetings of this kind were held periodically in the following decades, and from 1907 they became known as imperial conferences; it was decided that subsequent meetings should be held with the participation of the Prime Minister of Great Britain and the Prime Ministers of the self-governing colonies. At the imperial conference of 1926, such colonies received the official name of dominions.

Evolution of the Commonwealth.

The First World War was a turning point in the development of the Commonwealth. Great Britain declared war on behalf of the entire empire without consulting the colonies; however, the dominions were still represented in imperial military cabinets and conferences. The resolution of the imperial conference of 1917 recognized that the dominions were vested with the right to vote in deciding the foreign policy of the empire and that further cooperation would be carried out on the basis of "permanent consultations and joint actions." Proceeding from this, the general course of foreign policy was pursued both during the war and at the conclusion of peace. New Orientation on the relative independence of the dominions in foreign policy received a symbolic expression in the act of signing the Treaty of Versailles by the dominions and India.

The nature of the association has changed along with the status of its members. The term "Commonwealth of Nations", first used in 1884, has become widespread since 1917, denoting the association of Great Britain, Canada, the Union of South Africa, Australian Union, New Zealand and Newfoundland (which lost dominion status in 1933 as a result of the economic crisis, and in 1949 became the tenth province of Canada). At the Imperial Conference of 1926, the famous Balfour formula was proposed, which defined the dominions as "autonomous communities of the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate to one another in any aspect of their domestic or foreign policy, but at the same time united by a common commitment to the crown and constituents free association of members of the British Commonwealth of Nations. This principle was approved by the Statute of Westminster of 1931, adopted by the British Parliament at the request of the Dominions. The Statute essentially fixed the existing state of affairs, legally securing the equality of the British Parliament and the Parliaments of the Dominions; the legislation of each dominion was recognized as independent and had sovereign force. External relations also became an area of ​​sovereign decision for each dominion. In addition, the document stipulated that henceforth the order of succession to the throne of Great Britain would be regulated by members of the Commonwealth.

During the interwar period, the dominions put forward demands for complete independence, which made it impossible to develop a common foreign policy outlined at the imperial conferences during the First World War, although consultations continued on a regular basis. The reaction of the dominions to the British declaration of war in 1939 showed that they were free to choose their course of action. The parliaments of the Commonwealth of Australia and New Zealand expressed their full support for Great Britain and, together with her, on September 3, 1939, declared war on the Axis. Canada entered the war on its own, six days after Great Britain. There was a split in the Union of South Africa on this issue, and the country's parliament only voted by a small majority in favor of declaring war. The Irish Free State remained neutral.

In 1947 India was divided into two independent states: India and Pakistan. In 1949, India declared itself a republic, thereby designating new step in the evolution of the Commonwealth. India expressed a desire to remain in the Commonwealth, although Balfour's condition of a common commitment to the crown as a republic no longer suited her. At the 1949 Prime Ministers' Conference, India adopted the British monarch as the symbol of free association of member states and as head of the Commonwealth, a title that was never clearly defined. With this wording, other members of the Commonwealth began to proclaim themselves as republics. After 1947, the term "dominion" fell into disuse, as it no longer corresponded to the status of those members of the Commonwealth who refused to recognize the British monarch as head of state.

In 1960, in a referendum held by the government of the Union of South Africa, which consisted mainly of members of the Afrikaner National Party, the white population (only they participated in the referendum) voted by a small majority for a republic, which was proclaimed in May 1961. To remain in the Commonwealth, South - The African Republic has asked other members for its recognition. This caused a sharp reaction, especially from the countries - members of the Commonwealth with non-white populations, who condemned the system of apartheid and white domination in South Africa. As a result, South African Prime Minister H. Verwoerd withdrew his country's application to continue membership in the Commonwealth. In 1994, a new democratic government requested that the country be restored to the Commonwealth, and this request was granted.

After 1945 the character of the Commonwealth changed significantly. When India became a republic, but at the same time remained within the association, doubts about the compatibility of national independence with membership in the Commonwealth finally disappeared. The Commonwealth is now a multilingual, multiracial and multicultural community.

COMMONWEALTH RELATIONS

Commonwealth has always been open organization, even in the past, when it included ethnically homogeneous colonies. In the period between the two world wars, the inhabitants of the dominions and Great Britain were connected by a common origin, citizenship, language, adherence to the British crown, common heritage in the form of British-style political institutions, the type of education, as well as close economic ties.

Between 1947 and 1978, 34 new members were admitted to the Commonwealth, and one state, Pakistan, withdrew from it. The majority were African and Asian countries, with predominantly local population and the dominance of non-European cultures. The informal rules of membership changed accordingly. Former English colonies, having gained independence, did not automatically become members of the Commonwealth, but entered into it with the consent of other members. The British monarch had to be recognized as a symbol of free association, and some members of the Commonwealth had to reckon with this even if they became republics. None of the requirements were considered binding anymore, and no damage to the sovereignty of the member countries was allowed. At the same time, some of the former colonies, having become independent states, decided not to join the Commonwealth - for example, British Somalia, which became part of the state of Somalia, South Cameroon, which became part of the state of Cameroon, Sudan, Burma, the Emirates of the Persian Gulf.

With the simplification of the procedure for joining the Commonwealth, some of the old ties have disappeared, others have changed in accordance with the status and needs of new members.

constitutional connections.

The Commonwealth does not have a constitution and is not considered a single entity in international law. However, the constitutions of Canada, Australia, Sri Lanka, Jamaica, New Zealand, Barbados, Mauritius, Bahamas, Grenada, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Saint Lucia, Saint Christopher and Nevis, Antigua and Barbuda, Papua New Guinea , Solomon Islands, Tuvalu and Great Britain recognize the British monarch as the official head of state. In each of these states (except Great Britain), the monarch is represented by a governor-general, who occupies a position in relation to the government similar to that of the monarch in Great Britain. Republics are usually led by presidents, but Malaysia, Swaziland, Tonga and Lesotho are independent monarchies. These states do not express allegiance to the British monarch, but recognize him as head of the Commonwealth.

Legal Committee Privy Council- the last instance for appeals of countries - members of the Commonwealth. However, many countries, including Canada and Australia, do not apply to this authority.

citizenship and nationality.

Although the UK and some countries recognize potential Commonwealth immigrants as having the general status of British subjects or "Commonwealth citizens", all of these countries currently have restrictions on immigration from other Commonwealth countries. In the past, the UK has hosted all Commonwealth citizens. But in 1962, under British law, restrictions were imposed on immigration from the West Indies, and in 1968 a quota was determined for the entry into England of persons of Asian origin living in Kenya. Thereafter, the benefits of common citizenship in the Commonwealth became questionable, and the factor of citizenship lost its importance as a link.

legacy of British rule.

The internal unity of the countries of the Commonwealth is still found in political institutions of the British type, in the continuity of forms of education, in the expansion of the scope of the English language, especially in administration, secondary and higher education.

However, the situation is changing. In republics and even in some countries that recognize the British monarch as head of state, the Westminster model has undergone radical changes. In most Afro-Asian countries, completely different socio-political conditions have developed than in Great Britain - and, accordingly, other state institutions. Some of these countries have become essentially one-party states or military oligarchies. In some cases, the civil services have not escaped politicization, although their very structure has retained traces of British origin.

Economic ties.

After the First World War, Great Britain took the path of protectionism; At the 1932 imperial conference in Ottawa, a system of preferential discounts in intra-imperial trade was developed, linking together all British colonies and dominions. In the late 1930s, Canada began to pursue its own trade policy, and after the Second World War, the United States became its main market and source of capital inflows. But the preferential customs tariffs established in Ottawa continued to stimulate trade between Great Britain and other members of the Commonwealth. Attempts to introduce free trade after the Second World War, for example, relying on the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which did not at all prevent the search for new trading partners, in fact, could not abolish the existing system of preferences within the Commonwealth.

Britain's entry into the Common Market in 1973 ended most Commonwealth benefits as Britain began to introduce Common Market tariffs. Nevertheless, in the 1960s, many Commonwealth countries, anticipating this course of events, tried to protect themselves by diversifying their markets. Partly for this reason, and partly because of the uncompetitiveness of British exports in the 1960s, some Commonwealth countries reduced trade with Great Britain, which was disproportionately large due to the insignificant mutual trade between these states. As exports declined, British imports from the Commonwealth countries also fell, which was caused by the country's inconsistent policy in dealing with the difficulties associated with the imbalance of payments. Between 1949 and 1969, the share of British imports (by value) from the Commonwealth fell from 36% to 23%, and the share of British exports to the Commonwealth fell from 36% to 22%.

Previously, being in the sterling zone was an important link between the Commonwealth countries (with the exception of Canada, which moved to the dollar zone). These countries are accustomed to keeping most of their financial reserves in British currency, using the pound for settlements and pegging their currencies to it. However, in 1967, after the devaluation of the British pound sterling, most Commonwealth member countries did not depreciate their national currencies, and when the pound fell further in the early 1970s, many of them began to keep their reserves in other currencies. As a result, the area of ​​action of the British pound began to disintegrate by 1973, and the entry of Great Britain into the Common Market completed this process.

For the Commonwealth countries, the UK remains the main partner in bilateral technical cooperation, the main source of economic assistance and investment. The Colombo Plan, which provides for the creation of multilateral funds for economic and technical assistance to less developed countries South-East Asia not limited to the Commonwealth. There is also target Plan assistance to the African countries of the Commonwealth.

political institutions.

The nature of the Commonwealth institutions is intended to emphasize the freedom of ties between countries. The Prime Ministers' Conferences (periodic meetings of the heads of government of the member countries of the Commonwealth) retain continuity with the former imperial conferences, representing the most effective institution of cooperation. These meetings are informal, although joint communiqués are issued after they are completed. As a rule, conferences work out formal decisions only on the question of membership in the Commonwealth. Even in the case when the conference determines the general course, the decision regarding its implementation is made by each state independently. No mechanism is provided for inducing any of the Commonwealth countries to act contrary to their interests.

High Commissioners with the rank of ambassadors at first provided only two-way channels of communication between Great Britain and its former colonies, and now they also perform mediation functions between some other independent countries- Members of the Commonwealth. The High Commissioners meet periodically in London with British Foreign Office officials to discuss issues of mutual interest. The Commonwealth Coordination Department provides all its members with relevant information.

Although each of the member countries individually is responsible for the state of its defense, constant consultations are also held in this area. Security issues are often discussed at prime ministerial conferences, military leaders exchange visits and convene their annual conferences. There is also the Commonwealth Defense Advisory Committee, which conducts military exercises, provides for the exchange of staff members, technical specialists, and retrains personnel.

The member countries of the Commonwealth have established institutions for the exchange of information on economic issues, including the Commonwealth Economic Advisory Council, which consists of ministers of economy and finance ministers from different countries.

Other advisory joint bodies are the Commonwealth Air Transport Council, scientific and research organizations, the Commonwealth Scientific Committee. Additional links are Commonwealth Press Union, Commonwealth Broadcasting Conference, Commonwealth Parliamentary Association.

At the Commonwealth Conference, held in November 1999 in Durban (South Africa), it was decided to introduce the post of chairman of the Commonwealth. They become the head of government of the country - the organizer of the conference, at the moment it is the President of South Africa Thabo Mbeki. The Chairman of the Commonwealth performs a representative role, primarily in relations with intergovernmental organizations in the period between conferences of heads of government, which are held once every two years. Thabo Mbeki will lead a presidential panel tasked with "redefining the Commonwealth's role and making recommendations on how the association can meet the challenges of the 21st century."

The Presidential Group, which will also define the mandate of the Ministerial Action Group (SMAG), includes 10 other heads of state and government, including the British Prime Minister, the Presidents of Zimbabwe and Tanzania. She is to report to the next Commonwealth Conference to be held in Sydney in 2001.

COMMONWEALTH AND WORLD

Each country - a member of the Commonwealth is fully independent in pursuing its foreign policy. All of them are members of the UN, but have not formed their blocs in this organization. The UK and older members of the Commonwealth tend to vote jointly with the US, while Afro-Asian states are more likely to be neutral.

The countries of the Commonwealth are members of organizations that unite states that are not members of it. For example, the UK and Canada are members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO); Great Britain, Australia and New Zealand were members of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) until its dissolution in 1977. African members of the Commonwealth are members of the Organization of African Unity.

At present, membership in the Commonwealth does not impose special obligations even on Great Britain. While not possessing power prerogatives, Great Britain nevertheless cherishes its symbolic prestige as the head of the Commonwealth and the oldest member of the organization. Other countries are content with the benefits of sustained cooperation.

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New data. – Nezavisimaya Gazeta, October 29, 1997