Methods of communication in animals. Mechanical and electrical communication in animals Communicative behavior of animals
Procurement of food, protection, guarding the borders of the territory, searching for marriage partners, caring for offspring - all this multifaceted structure of animal behavior is necessary to ensure life and continuation of its species.
All animals periodically enter into intraspecific contact with each other. First of all, this applies to the sphere of reproduction, where more or less close contact between sexual partners is often observed. In addition, representatives of the same species often accumulate in places with favorable living conditions (abundance of food, optimal physical parameters environment, etc.). In these and similar cases, biological interaction occurs between animal organisms, on the basis of which, in the process of evolution, arose communication phenomena and, as a consequence of it, systems and means of communication. Neither any contact between a male and a female, much less the accumulation of animals in places favorable for them (often with the formation of a colony) is a manifestation of communication. The latter, as well as the group behavior associated with it, presupposes as an indispensable condition not only physical or biological, but above all mental interaction (exchange of information) between individuals, expressed in the coordination and integration of their actions. This fully applies to animals higher than annelids and lower mollusks.
Communication occurs only when there are special forms of behavior, the special function of which is the transfer of information from one individual to another, that is, some actions of the animal acquire signaling significance.
The German ethologist G. Timbrock, who devoted a lot of effort to studying the processes of communication and their evolution, emphasizes that the phenomena of communication and, accordingly, genuine communities of animals (herds, flocks, families, etc.) can only be discussed when there is a common life, in which several independent individuals carry out together (in time and space) homogeneous forms of behavior in more than one functional area. The conditions for such joint activity may change; sometimes it is carried out with the division of functions between individuals.
Communication is absent in lower invertebrates and only appears in rudimentary forms in some of their higher representatives; on the contrary, it is inherent in all higher animals (including higher invertebrates), and we can say that, to one degree or another, the behavior of higher animals, including of a person, in general, is always carried out in conditions of communication, at least periodically.
As already mentioned, the most important element of communication is the exchange of information - communication. In this case, the informative content of communicative actions (zoosemantics) can serve to identify (an individual’s belonging to a certain species, community, gender, etc.), signal about the physiological state of the animal (hunger, sexual arousal, etc.) or serve to notify other individuals about danger, finding food, resting places, etc.
According to the mechanism of action (zoopragmatics), forms of communication differ in the channels of information transmission (optical, acoustic, chemical, tactile, etc.), but in all cases, animal communication is, unlike humans, a closed system, i.e. are composed of a limited number of species-typical signals sent by one animal and adequately perceived by another animal or animals.
Communication between animals is impossible without genetic fixation of the ability to both adequately perceive and transmit information, which is ensured by innate trigger mechanisms.
Among optical forms of communication, an important place is occupied by expressive poses and body movements, which consist in the fact that animals very noticeably show each other certain parts of their body, often bearing specific signal signs (bright patterns, appendages, etc. structural formations). This form of signaling is called “demonstration behavior.” In other cases, the signaling function is performed by special movements (of the whole body or its individual parts) without special display of special structural formations, in others - a maximum increase in the volume or surface of the body or at least some of its parts (by inflating it, straightening folds, ruffling feathers or hair etc.), remember the peacock. All these movements are always performed “emphatically”, often with “exaggerated” intensity. As a rule, in higher animals all movements have some kind of signaling value if they are performed in the presence of another individual.
Communication occurs when an animal or group of animals gives a signal that causes a response. Usually (but not always) those who send and those who receive a communication signal belong to the same species. An animal that has received a signal does not always respond to it with a clear reaction. For example, a dominant ape in a group may ignore a signal from a subordinate ape, but even this dismissive attitude is a response because it reminds the subordinate animal that the dominant ape occupies a higher position in the group. social hierarchy groups.
A communication signal can be transmitted by sound or a system of sounds, gestures or other body movements, including facial movements; position and color of the body or its parts; release of odorous substances; finally, physical contact between individuals.
Animals receive communication signals and other information about the outside world through the physical senses of sight, hearing, and touch, and the chemical senses of smell and taste. For animals with highly developed vision and hearing, the perception of visual and sound signals is of primary importance, but in most animals the “chemical” senses are most developed. Relatively few animals, mainly primates, convey information using a combination of different signals - gestures, body movements and sounds, which expands the capabilities of their “vocabulary”.
The higher the position of an animal in the evolutionary hierarchy, the more complex its sense organs and the more perfect its biocommunication apparatus. For example, insects' eyes cannot focus, and they see only blurry silhouettes of objects; on the contrary, vertebrates' eyes focus, so they perceive objects quite clearly. Humans and many animals produce sounds using the vocal cords located in the larynx. Insects make sounds by rubbing one part of their body against another, and some fish “drum” by clicking their gill covers.
All sounds have certain characteristics– vibration frequency (pitch), amplitude (loudness), duration, rhythm and pulsation. Each of these characteristics is important for a particular animal when it comes to communication.
In humans, the organs of smell are located in the nasal cavity, taste - in the mouth; however, in many animals, such as insects, the olfactory organs are located on the antennae, and the taste organs are located on the limbs. Often the hairs (sensilla) of insects serve as organs of tactile sense, or touch. When the senses detect changes in the environment, such as a new sight, sound, or smell, the information is transmitted to the brain, and this “biological computer” sorts and integrates all incoming data so that its owner can respond accordingly.
Most species do not have a “real language” as we understand it. Animal “talk” consists of relatively few basic signals that are necessary for the survival of the individual and the species; These signals do not carry any information about the past and future, as well as about any abstract concepts. However, according to some scientists, humans will be able to communicate with animals, most likely aquatic mammals, in the coming decades.
All functions of language are manifested in communications. The main functions of the language include:
communicative (or communication function) - the main function of language, the use of language to convey information;
constructive (or mental; thought-forming) – formation of the thinking of the individual and society;
cognitive (or accumulative function) - transmission of information and its storage;
emotionally expressive - expression of feelings, emotions;
voluntary (or appealing-motivating function) - the function of influence;
Although there is evidence that some talking birds are able to use their imitative abilities for the needs of interspecific communication; the actions of talking birds (mynas, macaws) do not meet this definition.
One approach to studying animal language is experimental teaching of an intermediary language. Similar experiments involving great apes have gained great popularity. Since, due to anatomical and physiological characteristics, monkeys are not able to reproduce the sounds of human speech, the first attempts to teach them human language failed.
The first experiment using mediated sign language was undertaken by the Gardners. They proceeded from Robert Yerkes's assumption that chimpanzees are incapable of articulating the sounds of human language. The chimpanzee Washoe showed the ability to combine signs like “you” + “tickle” + “I”, “give” + “sweet”. Monkeys at the University of Nevada, Reno Zoo used Amlen to communicate with each other. The language of gophers is quite complex and consists of a variety of whistles, chirps and clicks of varying frequencies and volumes. Interspecific communication is also possible in animals.
Joint pack hunting among mammals (wolves, lions, etc.) and some birds is widespread; there are also cases of interspecific coordinated hunting.
Types of signaling in animal communication:
Smell and (chemical): various secretions, urine, feces, odorous traces, marks. “Family” and “single” people have different smells. By smell you can determine how long ago the animal was here, age, gender, height, health, etc.
Sounds: songs, urges. Sound “language” is necessary if animals cannot see each other - there is no way to communicate using postures and body movements. The bulk of sound signals do not have a direct addressee. For example, the trumpet call of a deer carries for many kilometers and can mean: calling a female or challenging an opponent to fight. The semantic meaning of the signal may vary depending on the situation.
Optical signaling: shape, color (may change in some species depending on the situation), pattern (war paint), language of poses (position of ears, tail), body movements (ritual dances, call to play, courtship, etc.), gestures , facial expressions (grin). There are “dialects” characteristic of different territories, so animals from different habitats may not understand the same species
Visual alarm: excavations, stripped bark, bitten branches, footprints, trails. Usually they are combined with chemical ones.
Signals to sexual partners and possible competitors.
Signals that ensure the exchange of information between parents and offspring.
Cry of alarm.
Notification of food availability.
Signals that help maintain contact between pack members.
Signals are switches (in dogs, for example, the characteristic posture of an invitation to play precedes a play fight, accompanied by play aggression).
Intention signals precede action.
Signals of expression of aggression.
Signals of peacefulness.
Signals of dissatisfaction (frustration).
Basically, all signals are species-specific, but some can be informative for other species: alarm, aggression and food availability.
It has been proven that the higher the animal’s position in the hierarchy, the more perfect its biocommunication apparatus.
Signal system- a system of conditioned and unconditioned reflex connections between the higher nervous system of animals, including humans, and the surrounding world. There are first and second signaling systems.
Pavlov called the communication system used by animals first signaling system.
“This is what we also have in ourselves as impressions, sensations and ideas from the surrounding external environment, both natural and our social, excluding the word, audible and visible. This is the first signaling system of reality that we have in common with animals.”(I.P. Pavlov).
First signaling system developed in almost all animals, while second signaling system present only in humans and possibly in some cetaceans. This is due to the fact that only a person is capable of forming an image abstracted from circumstances. After pronouncing the word “lemon,” a person can imagine how sour it is and how they usually wince when they eat it, that is, pronouncing the word evokes an image in memory (the second alarm system is triggered); if at the same time increased salivation begins, then this is the work of the first alarm system.
Sense organs- This is a connection with the outside world. The information received by the senses is encoded, converted into electro-chemical impulses and transmitted to the central nervous system, where it is analyzed and compared with other information received from other senses and from memory. This is followed by the body’s response, as a result of which the animal’s behavior changes and compensatory mechanisms are activated, leading to an adaptation reaction. Those. in the body there is a continuously operating self-regulating system designed to provide the animal with the most favorable conditions.
Organs perceive the environment with the help of receptors. Receptors are divided into two groups: interoreceptors- perceive irritation inside the body and exteroceptors- perceive irritation from the external environment.
Interoreceptors are divided into: vestibuloreceptors (signal the body about the position of the body in space), proprioceptors (nerve endings in muscles, tendons), visceroreceptors (irritation of internal organs).
Exteroceptors are divided into contact (taste, touch) and distant (vision, hearing, smell).
5 Amazing Senses Animals Possess ( Sveta Gogol specially for mixstuff):
If we humans have any superiority over animals, then this certainly does not extend to our senses...
1.Catfish - giant floating tongue
The average person has 10,000 lingual papillae. And they are all concentrated in one place - in the language. For comparison, according to one neurophysiologist and part-time fish specialist, a catfish 15 centimeters long has taste receptors no less than 250,000. And they are located all over his body. That is, no matter where you touch him, he will always feel what you taste like. Unless it's fried, of course.
2.Bats “see” our circulatory system
Bats (a species called “vampires”) are the only mammals that feed on blood. Associated with this gastronomic addiction is an unusually subtle development of sense, thanks to which, by the way, bats received their extremely unaesthetic nose from Mother Nature. This sense allows animals to “see” the blood running through your veins.
The nose of the “vampires” is equipped with a kind of infrared detector that responds to changes in body temperature – at a distance. This is already surprising because other mammals, including you and me, need to touch an object to tell whether it is warm or cold. But the most amazing thing is that they are able to determine which vein is of greatest interest to them.
Their “heat sensors” are so advanced that they don’t have to waste time repeatedly sinking their teeth into the flesh of their prey. “Vampires” hit the vein straight, and always on the first try.
Narwhal or unicorn tusk( belongs to the order of cetaceans, lives in the waters of the Arctic Ocean) - giant sensory organ
For a long time, scientists wondered why the narwhal needed this strange tusk protruding from its head. And finally we found out. First of all, the tusk turned out to be not even a tusk at all, but a tooth. One (occasionally two) long, spiral-shaped tooth covered with ten million nerve endings.
Studies have shown, for example, that a narwhal can determine the degree of salinity of water with its teeth. Why do they need this? Salt content affects the freezing of water. And if you live among floating ice floes and breathe air, then it is very important for you to know that at any moment you can rise to the surface. So the tusk-tooth is a device that can predict the formation of ice. And not only. It can detect temperature, water pressure, and if lifted into the air, barometric pressure.
Ghost fish hunts and observes at the same time, using mirror vision.
Ghost fish is one of the most unusual inhabitants of the deep sea. She was associated with a nightmare thanks to her eyes - two large orange spheres.
In order not to get caught in the teeth of a predator, this fish must be constantly alert - even when hunting itself. That is, she needs an all-round view. And she has one.
The ghost fish's eyes are divided into two parts, allowing it to look forward and backward at the same time. It's like having an extra pair of eyes in the back of your head.
Only in the case of our fish this is not a separate pair of eyes, but a complex system with built-in curved plates resembling a mirror, which allow you to capture the finest glow half a kilometer under the surface of the water. That is, these are more likely not even eyes on the back of the head, but a pair of special glasses with built-in mirrors that allow you to see what is happening behind.
When the ghost fish goes hunting, the little black eyes you see on the sides are looking for future food. And what looks like large orange eyes on top is the reverse side of the mirror surface, which captures biological glow and warns of the appearance of predators.
5.Clam with stone eyes
Shellfish or chiton It doesn't look anything interesting - it looks like a wood lice. But he also has something truly amazing - stone eyes. We don't mean to say that this creature has eyes that look like stone. They consist of aragonite - a form of limestone, the same one that is part of mollusk shells. And there can be several hundred such stone eyes on a mollusk shell.
Mollusks somehow manage to achieve optical qualities from the material from which we build houses, and “make” an optical lens out of it... Scientists have yet to figure out how. And although chitons’ vision is not very good, with their stone eyes they are quite capable of distinguishing light from shadow and even distinguishing the shape of an object.
All incoming information is processed using analyzers. They have three departments:
1) peripheral or receptor;
2) conductive - conductive fibers;
3) central or cerebral.
For example: the visual analyzer includes 1) the eye, 2) the optic nerve, 3) an area in the occipital lobe of the cerebral cortex. For normal operation, all three departments must function correctly.
Tactile sensitivity
When some sense organs fail, the rest increase and expand their functions. Blind people, for example, have much more developed chemical and tactile communications.
Touch- the animal’s ability to perceive various external influences, carried out by receptors of the skin and musculoskeletal system. With their help, you can determine: shape, size, temperature, consistency, position and movement in space, etc.
Skin receptors - superficial: pain and temperature. Most are in the head area. Continuous exposure to mechano-thermoreceptors leads to a decrease in their sensitivity. For example, if a dog is constantly exposed to a strict collar, then over time it loses sensitivity to it - it adapts. When exposed to novocaine, pain receptors are switched off.
Tactile communication is very important for “family” animals. For example, grooming each other's fur and various touches are often associated with a hierarchy: a high-ranking animal touches, a lower-ranking animal shows submission.
Chemocommunication(chemical feeling)
Taste perception necessary to determine the edibility of the product.
Taste analyzer includes taste buds in the taste formations of the tongue and the brain region of the taste analyzer, located in the temporal lobe. Taste perception is directly related to sense of smell.
Smell- perception of a certain property (smell) of chemical compounds in the environment through certain organs. The sense of smell sometimes provides more information than hearing and vision. The mucous membrane of the olfactory organs in dogs contains thousands of times more sensitive cells than the human nose, and the olfactory lobes of the brain are also better developed. Attractive and repulsive odors for different types animals can be different.
Olfactory analyzer consists of the perceptive apparatus (nose, nasal receptors), pathways and cortical center. The olfactory apparatus is activated only when air moves in the nose. The lateral incisions on the nose of animals are designed to perceive the smell brought by side and rear winds. The sense of smell decreases with fatigue, a runny nose, or fatigue of the olfactory apparatus itself.
Chemocommunication is carried out mainly with the help of pheromones and individual smell.
Pheromones- a special group of odorous substances - biological markers of their own species, volatile chemosignals that control neuroendocrine behavioral reactions, developmental processes, and other processes associated with social behavior and reproduction. The most famous pheromones:
epagons - love pheromones;
odmihnions - guiding threads, marks;
toribons - pheromones of fear and anxiety;
gonophions-pheromones that change sexual properties;
gamophions-pheromones of puberty;
ethophions-pheromones of behavior;
lychneumones are taste pheromones.
The urine of aggressive males contains aggression pheromone.
Maternal pheromone, is produced during lactation, which gives the cubs a specific smell.
Individual smell- a business card, individual, but species-specific. It is formed from: gender, age, functional state, stage of the sexual cycle, etc. Changes throughout life. The surrounding microbial landscape plays a huge role in the formation of individual odor. In a group of animals, bacteria are transferred from individual to individual through contact, so a similar odor is maintained. It is used to determine “friend” and “stranger”. Any change (fear, excitement, illness, etc.) is accompanied by a change in smell.
Marking territory refers to chemocommunication. Almost all animals mark their territory with a special smell. This is an extremely important form of behavior because... the animal signals itself to other individuals. Thanks to the marks, a more uniform and, most importantly, structured distribution of individuals in the population occurs, opponents avoid each other’s territory, in order to avoid conflict and injury, sexual partners find each other more easily. Everything works to preserve the species as a whole.
Markers are products secreted by glands. The skin glands are sweat and sebaceous.
Sweat markers- liquid, promote skin cooling and thermoregulation. Their operation depends on the ambient temperature and other factors, incl. and from emotional ones.
Sebaceous markers- another type of secretion, but they function mainly together with sweat, because have common external excretory ducts. In mammals covered with fur, sweat glands that secrete liquid sweat are present on the pads of their paws. On the rest of the surface, the glands secrete thicker sweat, mixing with the secretion of the sebaceous glands, which forms a natural fatty lubricant for the skin and hair. The thermoregulatory function is practically absent, but the excretory function is fully preserved. Sweating increases during illness and this smell forces healthy individuals to avoid contact with sick people.
The areas of the body where glands are maximal are the corners of the mouth, the genital area and the anus. It is these areas that dogs sniff when they meet. The violet gland is located on the upper side of the base of the tail in dogs. Sweat and sebaceous glands in the skin of the prepuce add additional odor to the urine. The glands in the skin of the vagina are highly developed, their secretion increases with sexual maturity and reaches its peak during estrus, so marking behavior intensifies before it. Perianal glands - individual microflora gives a specific smell, and also lubricates the anus, facilitates emptying, attracts members of the opposite sex, and is used for marking. In a pack, the dominant male is responsible for marking the territory. The marks of individuals of one species can be understood by individuals of another species.
Visual communication
A key role in visual communication is played by postures, movements, facial expressions - ritual forms of behavior important for maintaining hierarchy.
For example, in wolves, the key signal that turns off aggressive behavior is to turn one of the animals towards the opponent with a curved neck, exposing the most unprotected place - the jugular vein.
In dogs, this is a fall on the back with the stomach exposed. By facial expressions and postures you can understand, for example, what mood the dog is in and what actions it will take:
ears forward, tail rigidly up, wings up, fur standing on end - the dog is self-confident, aggressive - probable action - attack;
ears forward, tail rigid, jowls not tense, hair slightly raised - the dog is confident, calm at the moment, but at the slightest oncoming aggression, it is ready to attack;
ears forward, tail up and waving from side to side, the wings are not tense, the coat lies smooth - the dog is confident, in a friendly mood, play and affection are the most likely behavior;
ears back, tail wagging between the paws, wings back, the dog bends down, freezes, the fur is not raised - the dog is scared, most likely the dog will lie on its back and expose its belly;
ears back, jowls back and up, tail between the paws, fur standing on end - the dog is scared, will prefer to run away if possible, if not, it will attack. The attack of such a frightened dog in a hopeless situation is the most furious and unpredictable. This also includes a bitch protecting the litter when she has no opportunity to escape.
There can be many similar examples, and in combination of different options, they will give a different effect. Dogs with late or no socialization do not receive the necessary training to understand the meaning of postures, movements, etc., and they themselves do not know how to demonstrate their needs to their relatives. Therefore, such dogs have problems communicating with people around him and other dogs.
Acoustic communication
Sounds- This is a means of transmitting mainly emergency information. Range is determined by several factors:
signal intensity;
signal frequency;
acoustic properties of the environment;
the animal's hearing threshold.
In canines, sounds are divided into contact (growling - aggression, threat; whining, squealing - blocking aggression; snorting - alertness) and distant (barking, howling - the meaning is diverse depending on the strength, tonality and frequency of the signal). Among wolves, howling serves to exchange information between packs.
Animal communication, biocommunication, connections between individuals of the same or different species, established by receiving the signals they produce. These signals (specific - chemical, mechanical, optical, acoustic, electrical, etc., or non-specific - accompanying breathing, movement, nutrition, etc.) are perceived by the corresponding receptors: organs of vision, hearing, smell, taste, skin sensitivity, organs lateral line (in fish), thermo- and electroreceptors. The production (generation) of signals and their reception (reception) form communication channels (acoustic, chemical, etc.) between organisms for the transmission of information of different physical or chemical nature. Information received through various communication channels is processed in different parts nervous system, and then is compared (integrated) in its higher parts, where the body’s response is formed. Animal communication facilitates the search for food and favorable living conditions, protection from enemies and harmful effects. Without animal communication, it is impossible to meet individuals of different sexes, interact between parents and offspring, form groups (flocks, herds, swarms, colonies, etc.) and regulate relationships between individuals within them (territorial relations, hierarchy, etc.).
The role of one or another communication channel in animal communication varies among different species and is determined by the ecology and morpho-physiology of the species that have developed during evolution, and also depends on changing environmental conditions, biological rhythms, etc. As a rule, animal communication is carried out using several simultaneously communication channels.
In the communication of aquatic animals, the perception of local water movements by the lateral line organs plays an important role. This type of distant mechanoreception allows you to detect an enemy or prey and maintain order in a flock. Tactile forms of animal communication (for example, mutual grooming of plumage or fur) are important for the regulation of intraspecific relationships in some birds and mammals. Females and subordinates usually clean dominant individuals (mainly adult males). At the row electric fish, lampreys and hagfish, the electric field they create serves to mark territory and helps with short-range orientation and search for food. In “non-electric” fish, a common electric field is formed in a school, coordinating the behavior of individual individuals. Visual communication of animals, associated with the development of photosensitivity and vision, is usually accompanied by the formation of structures that acquire signal significance (coloring and color patterns, contours of the body or its parts) and the emergence of ritual movements and facial expressions. This is how the process of ritualization occurs - the formation of discrete signals, each of which is associated with a specific situation and has a certain conditional meaning (threat, submission, pacification, etc.), reducing the danger of intraspecific clashes. Bees, having found honey plants, are able to use “dance” to convey to other foragers information about the location of the food found and the distance to it (works of the German physiologist K. Frisch). For many species, complete catalogs of their “language of postures, gestures and facial expressions” have been compiled - the so-called ethograms. These displays are often characterized by masking or exaggeration of certain features of color and shape. Visual communication of animals plays a particularly important role among inhabitants of open landscapes (steppes, deserts, tundras); its value is significantly less in aquatic animals and thicket inhabitants.
Since linguistic signs can be intentional (produced intentionally, based on knowledge of their semantic meanings) and non-intentional (produced unintentionally), this question needs to be more specific, formulated as follows: do animals use intentional and non-intentional linguistic signs?
The question of non-intentional linguistic signs in animals is relatively simple. Numerous studies of animal behavior have shown that non-intentional language is widespread among animals. Animals, especially the so-called social animals, communicate with each other using signs produced instinctively, without awareness of their semantic meanings and their communicative significance. Let's give some examples.
Apparently, among more or less developed animals there are no animals that do not resort to the help of linguistic signs. You can additionally point out the calling cries of male amphibians, the distress signals given by an amphibian captured by an enemy, the “hunting signals” of wolves (a signal to gather, a call to go in hot pursuit, a hooting sound emitted when directly perceiving the pursued prey), and numerous signals used in herds of wild or semi-wild cattle, etc. Even fish, whose proverbial muteness has become common, communicate widely with each other using sound signals. These signals serve as a means of scaring off enemies and attracting females. Recent studies have established that fish also use characteristic postures and movements (freezing in an unnatural position, circling in place, etc.) as a means of communication.
However, the example of non-intentional language remains, of course, the language of ants and the language of bees.
According to Professor P. Marikovsky, who studied the behavior of the red-breasted woodborer, one of the species of ants, for several years, the most important role in ant language belongs to gestures and touches. Professor Marikovsky was able to identify more than two dozen meaningful gestures. However, he was able to determine the meaning of only 14 signals. When explaining the essence of non-intentional language, we have already given examples of ant sign language. In addition to these, we will consider several more cases of signaling used by ants.
If an insect that has crawled or flown to an anthill is inedible, then the ant that first established this gives a signal to other ants by climbing onto the insect and jumping down from it. Usually one jump is enough, but if necessary, the jump is repeated many times until the ants heading towards the insect leave it alone. When meeting an enemy, the ant takes a threatening pose (it rises and puts its abdomen forward), as if saying: “Beware!” etc.
Even more striking is the language of other social insects - bees. This language was first described by the outstanding German zoopsychologist Karl Frisch. The merits of K. Frisch in studying the life of bees are well known. His success in this area is largely due to the development of a subtle technique that allowed him to trace the slightest nuances of bee behavior.
It turns out that the circular dance of bees is only the simplest linguistic sign. Bees resort to it in cases where the honey is located closer than 100 meters from the hive. If the feeder was placed at a greater distance, the bees signaled the bribe with a waggle dance. When performing this dance, the bee runs in a straight line, then, returning to its original position, makes a semicircle to the left, then runs in a straight line again, but makes a semicircle to the right. At the same time, in a straight section, the bee quickly wags its abdomen from side to side (hence the name of the dance). The dance can last several minutes.
The waggle dance is most rapid when the bribe is located at a distance of 100 meters from the hive. The further the bribes are, the slower the dance becomes, the less often the turns to the left and right are made. K. Frisch managed to identify a purely mathematical pattern.
The languages we have talked about so far are non-intentional languages. The semantic meanings behind the units that form such a language are neither concepts nor representations. These semantic meanings are not realized. They represent traces in the nervous system, always existing only at the physiological level. Animals that resort to non-intentional linguistic signs are not aware of their semantic meanings, or the circumstances under which these signs can be used, or the effect they will have on their relatives. The use of non-intentional linguistic signs is carried out purely instinctively, without the help of consciousness or understanding.
This is why non-intentional linguistic signs are used under strictly defined conditions. Deviation from these conditions leads to disruption of the well-established “speech” mechanism. So, in one of his experiments, K. Frisch placed a feeder on the top of a radio tower - directly above the hive. The nectar collectors who returned to the hive could not indicate the direction of search for other bees, because in their vocabulary there is no sign assigned to the upward direction (flowers do not grow at the top). They performed the usual circular dance, which directed the bees to search for bribes around the hive on the ground. Therefore, none of the bees found the feeder. Thus, a system that operates flawlessly in the presence of familiar conditions immediately turns out to be ineffective as soon as these conditions change. When the feeder was removed from the radio mast and placed on the ground at a distance equal to the height of the tower, i.e., the usual conditions were restored, the system again showed its flawless operation. In the same way, with a horizontal arrangement of honeycombs (which is achieved by turning the hive), complete disorganization is observed in the bees’ dances, which disappears instantly when returning to normal conditions. The described facts reveal one of the main disadvantages of the non-intentional language of insects - its inflexibility, chained to strictly fixed circumstances, beyond which the mechanism of “speech” immediately breaks down.
A number of aquatic invertebrates, mainly some coelenterates (jellyfish), use tactile signals for communication: if one member of a large colony of coelenterates touches another, it immediately contracts, turning into a tiny lump. Immediately all other individuals of the colony repeat the action of the contracted animal.
Insects, as a rule, are tiny creatures, but they social organization can rival the organization of human society. Insect communities could never form, much less survive, without communication between their members. Insects communicate using visual cues, sounds, touch and chemical signals, including taste stimuli and odors, and they are extremely sensitive to sounds and odors.
The constant licking and sniffing of each other by ants indicates the importance of touch as one of the means that organizes these insects into a colony; in the same way, by touching the abdomen of their “cows” (aphids) with their antennae, the ants inform them that they must secrete a drop of “milk” .
Forms of communication between amphibians and reptiles are relatively simple. This is partly due to a poorly developed brain, as well as the fact that these animals lack care for their offspring.
Many reptiles drive away strangers of their own or other species invading their territory, demonstrating threatening behavior - they open their mouths, inflate body parts (like a spectacled snake), beat their tails, etc. Snakes have relatively weak vision, they see the movement of objects, and not their shape and color; more sharp vision The species that hunt in open areas differ. Some lizards, such as geckos and chameleons, perform ritual dances during courtship or sway in a peculiar way when moving.
During the breeding season, males of many bird species take complex signaling poses, preen their feathers, and perform mating dances and perform various other actions accompanied by sound signals. The head and tail feathers, crowns and crests, even the apron-like arrangement of breast feathers are used by males to demonstrate their readiness to mate. required love ritual the wandering albatross has a complex courtship dance performed jointly by the male and female.
Mating behavior sometimes resembles male birds acrobatic stunts. Thus, the male of one of the species of birds of paradise performs a real somersault: sitting on a branch in full view of the female, presses his wings tightly to his body, falls from the branch, makes a complete somersault in the air and lands in the original position.
It has long been known that land mammals make mating calls and threat sounds, leave scent marks, sniff and gently caress each other. animal communication zoo nature
Raising cubs in the wild is based on imitation and the development of stereotypes; they are looked after most of the time and punished when necessary; they learn what's edible by watching their mothers and learn gestures and vocal communication mostly through trial and error. The assimilation of communicative behavioral stereotypes is a gradual process. Most interesting features The communication behavior of primates is easier to understand if we consider the circumstances in which different types of signals are used - chemical, tactile, auditory and visual.
Touch and other bodily contacts - tactile signals - are widely used by monkeys when communicating. Langurs, baboons, gibbons and chimpanzees often hug each other in a friendly manner, and a baboon may lightly touch, poke, pinch, bite, sniff or even kiss another baboon as a sign of genuine affection. When two chimpanzees meet for the first time, they may gently touch the stranger's head, shoulder or thigh.
Monkeys constantly pick through their fur - cleaning each other (this behavior is called grooming), which serves as a manifestation of true closeness and intimacy. Grooming is especially important in primate groups where social dominance is maintained, such as rhesus monkeys, baboons and gorillas. in such groups, a subordinate individual often communicates, by loudly smacking her lips, that she wants to groom another who occupies a higher position in the social hierarchy.
It has long been known that gorillas beat their chests. In fact, these are not blows with a fist, but slaps with half-bent palms on the swollen chest, since the gorilla first takes in a full chest of air. Slaps inform group members that an intruder, and possibly an enemy, is nearby; at the same time they serve as a warning and threat to the stranger. Chest beating is only one of a whole series of similar actions, which also include sitting in an upright position, tilting the head to the side, screaming, grumbling, getting up, tearing and throwing plants. Only the dominant male, the leader of the group, has the right to carry out such actions; subordinate males and even females perform parts of the repertoire. Gorillas, chimpanzees and baboons grunt and make barking sounds, and gorillas also roar as a sign of warning and threat.
Among the threatening signals are sudden jumping to your feet and drawing your head into your shoulders, striking the ground with your hands, violently shaking trees and randomly throwing stones. By displaying the bright color of its muzzle, the African mandrill tames its subordinates. In a similar situation, the proboscis monkey from Borneo shows off its huge nose.
Staring in a baboon or gorilla signifies a threat, and in a baboon it is accompanied by frequent blinking, movement of the head up and down, flattening of the ears and arching of the eyebrows. To maintain order in the group, dominant baboons and gorillas periodically cast icy gazes at females, cubs and subordinate males. When two unfamiliar gorillas suddenly come face to face, staring can be a challenge. First, a roar is heard, two powerful animals retreat, and then suddenly approach each other, bending their heads forward. Stopping just before they touch, they begin to gaze intently into each other's eyes until one of them retreats. Real contractions are rare.
Signals such as grimacing, yawning, moving the tongue, flattening the ears, and smacking the lips can be either friendly or unfriendly. So, if a baboon flattens its ears, but does not accompany this action with a direct gaze or blinking, its gesture means submission.
Some primates use their tails to communicate. For example, a male lemur rhythmically moves his tail before mating, and a female langur lowers her tail to the ground when the male approaches her. In some species of primates, subordinate males raise their tails when a dominant male approaches, indicating that they belong to a lower social rank.
Some aquatic mammals, especially those that spend part of their time on land, perform demonstrative actions related to the defense of territory and reproduction. With these few exceptions, visual communication is poorly used.
In aquatic mammals, tactile organs are distributed throughout the skin, and the sense of touch, especially important during periods of courtship and caring for offspring, is well developed. So, during the mating season, a pair of sea lions often sits facing each other, intertwining their necks and caressing each other for hours.
Communication in animals has always been of great interest to researchers. Communication systems in the animal world are more primary and primitive compared to humans and are defined as ‘biologically appropriate joint behavior aimed at adapting to the environment and regulated, in particular, by signaling’ (I.N. Gorelov).
The main problem that experts are trying to solve is the relationship between nature and nurture, i.e. natural, congenital and acquired, educated. Instinctive mechanisms are thought to develop in three directions:
1) preservation of the species (sexual behavior, care of offspring, etc.),
2) preservation of the individual (satisfying hunger and thirst, searching for food, stockpiling supplies, etc.) and
3) ensuring more or less constant security (protection from bad weather conditions, enemies, separation from fellow humans, etc.).
It is in the latter case that the mechanisms of behavior have an intermediate focus: they ensure communication between the individual and the species. Here we're talking about about the adaptation of an individual's behavior to the forms of behavior of other representatives of the species. Cognitive processes here are aimed at distinguishing between friends and enemies, behavioral programs - at joint flight or attack, warning or pursuit. The roots of communication should be sought in concerted, coordinated behavior to ensure protection and safety. The quasi-social behavior of animals extends to the first two areas of instinctive behavior (reproduction and food search).
One example of communication is birdsong. Birds learn to sing through the process of ‘nurture’. Each bird has its own way of performing a song that is common to the entire species. Moreover, individual characteristics in some geographic areas even lead to the emergence of 'regional dialects'.
Even more interesting is the way in which information about the danger is disseminated. There are two types of danger: predators and nest predators. If a bird sees a predator, it makes a specific sound, similar to a whistle, indicating the need to hide. If a nest destroyer appears, the bird makes an intermittent staccato sound, which serves as a call to battle, gathering neighboring birds in order to drive the attacker away from the nests. The difference between predators is learned by birds during development and passed on to the next generation; it can be used in the training process (even a milk bottle can be taught to be scared).
When a bee discovers a new source of nectar, it returns to the hive and, if the nectar is nearby, performs a circular dance, through which it tells its friends the location of the nectar. Other bees join in this dance, sensing the smell of nectar on the body of the messenger bee. They then fly around the hive and find flowers that match the message. If the nectar is located at a distance of more than 90 m from the hive, then the messenger bee performs a figure-eight dance, swaying its abdomen during a straight-line movement at the intersection of two circles. The dance shows the exact distance to the nectar and the direction towards it relative to the sun. The vertical direction in the honeycomb corresponds to the position of the sun, and the angle between the vertical and the figure-of-eight sector indicates the angle between the direction towards the sun and towards the nectar. The distance is shown by the number of swings at the stage of rectilinear movement. In addition, bees regulate the temperature in the hive by trembling their wings.
Primates have an even more sophisticated communication system; to a certain, very limited extent, they are able to assimilate human language. South African monkeys, for example, have a set of gestures and sounds to indicate predators. It has four 'words' for 1) flying predators, 2) four-legged predators (such as leopards), 3) snakes, and 4) other primates. Each of the warning signs triggers different behaviors. The leopard sign causes the monkeys to climb to the tops of the trees, while the air raid sign causes them to fall like stones into the depths of the tree foliage. The signals themselves are innate, but young individuals learn them from their elders and sometimes get confused (scared, say, by a falling leaf of a tree). In the green macaque, the existence of 36 clearly different sounds was discovered, also grouped into anxiety classes. Chimpanzees have cries of joy when finding food (loud cries with squeals, while they first hug and pat each other, only then turning to food), greeting sounds when meeting friends and comrades, especially brothers and sisters after a long separation, calling sounds , inspiring other members of the group when fighting the enemy, means sound communication between mother and child, etc. The greatest variety is shown by the sound signals of social existence (the growl of a strong rival, the quiet grumbling of a herd when crossing the savannah to maintain contact, etc.).
In addition to sounds, animals also use other communication channels. Smell and smell, so important for bees, ants, and lower apes, are less important for higher primates. In the latter, silent communication is predominantly visual (gestures) and tactile (touch). During a hike, the male in front raises his paw (arm?) - a stop signal for the herd (group?), a chimpanzee with a high social status(boss, 'godfather') can gesture to allow his subordinates to eat food, a chimpanzee mother, by touching the shoulder of the baby (child), does not allow him, for example, to run somewhere, combing a fellow's fur is a sign of submission and lack of aggressive intentions, a demonstration of anal area is also a gesture of submission or subordination; the struggle between rivals is accompanied by appropriate gestures and facial expressions. Interestingly, a confident leader rarely resorts to symbolic threats, and rarely demands that subordinates ‘show their butts’. An insecure leader too often demands gestures of submission; as a result, these gestures become stereotypical, their original semantics are ‘eroded’, and such a leader loses his position.
An example of a demonstration of a dominant position: monkeys drum on the ground and their own chest, raise their fur, making aggressive sounds, wave specially broken branches, twist young trees into a ram's horn, pull out tree roots, throw sand or earth. A branch specially broken off to demonstrate one’s strength, and not for any physiological needs, is a sign, a means of communication. The desire for social dominance has such a strong motivational basis that even food and sexual needs can recede into the background.
Thus, the first means of communication arise from instinctive behavior and can be varied under the influence of conditions and behavior correction in the process of mutual learning. This behavior is recorded in memory, and, freed from the influence of hereditary factors, acquires a new meaning and relatively independent existence (pounce - imitation of a pounce - a hint of imitation; accidentally showing teeth during a yawn can be taken as a sign of threat; raising a hand to climb tree and stopping for this - raising a hand as a stop signal; demonstration of the anal area by a female baboon as a call for copulation - a signal of peacefulness in the male towards the winner). An animal’s memory stores not only behavioral patterns, but also the reaction of the environment, that is, of its fellow animals. In the future, ineffective moments of the behavioral act are reduced, and those important for changing the behavior of other communicants are emphasized. The behavioral act becomes a communicative act. The biorelevant becomes semiotic (Yu.S. Stepanov). Communication, therefore, is a separate part joint activities, aimed at regulating this activity itself (meta-activity).
Man is not so far removed from his fellow animals. Humans also display herd behavior; groups of people can act both like a pack of wolves and like a herd of sheep; many people divide those around them into friends and enemies, ours and others; we lick the hands or even the backsides of superior human beings, we throw stones at the fallen; the leader in human social systems plays the role of leader of the pack; insecure and unstable leaders, as a rule, exhibit nervous communication and require signs of attention; kids throw sand in the sandbox; young children can behave defiantly towards adults without fear of punishment; among teenage boys there is a special greeting ritual in the form of shaking hands ‘in a circle’; often social dominance or self-assertion in young human individuals is expressed in gestures and screams reminiscent of primates; in adolescents, fights and imitation of fights, cases of vandalism (unmotivated destruction of public buildings and structures, for example, by fans of football clubs), etc. are observed.
We should not forget the biological roots of communication, we should not forget where man came from, but we should – and in practical behavior as well – remember that man nevertheless emerged as a species from a primitive state. Where should he go: back or forward? Communication contributes to its development as a social being, to the development of man as a species as a whole, and individual representatives of this species Animal symbolicum (E. Cassirer, lat. ‘animal that uses symbols’). That's why the level communicative competence correlates with the level of socialization of the individual, with the level of his manifestation of intelligence and other human qualities.
As we see, even at the prehuman stage, communication exhibits its main features:
A) intersubjectivity;
B) active nature;
C) we can say that communicators are not born, communications are learned, although there are certain biological, natural prerequisites for learning communicative activities.
ANIMAL COMMUNICATION
All animals have to get food, defend themselves, guard the boundaries of their territory, look for marriage partners, and take care of their offspring. All this would be impossible if systems and means of communication, or communication, of animals did not exist. Communication occurs when an animal or group of animals gives a signal that causes a response. Usually (but not always) those who send and those who receive a communication signal belong to the same species. An animal that has received a signal does not always respond to it with a clear reaction. For example, a dominant ape in a group may ignore a signal from a subordinate ape; however, even this dismissive attitude is a response because it reminds the subordinate animal that the dominant ape occupies a higher position in the social hierarchy of the group. Most species do not have a “real language” as we understand it. Animal "conversation" consists of relatively few basic signals that are necessary for the survival of the individual and species; These signals do not carry any information about the past and future, as well as about any abstract concepts. However, according to some scientists, humans will be able to communicate with animals, most likely aquatic mammals, in the coming decades. A communication signal can be transmitted by sound or a system of sounds, gestures or other body movements, including facial movements; position and color of the body or its parts; release of odorous substances; finally, physical contact between individuals. Animals receive communication signals and other information about the outside world through the physical senses of sight, hearing and touch, and the chemical senses of smell and taste. For animals with highly developed vision and hearing, the perception of visual and sound signals is of primary importance, but in most animals the “chemical” senses are most developed. Relatively few animals, mainly primates, convey information using a combination of different signals - gestures, body movements and sounds, which expands the capabilities of their “vocabulary”. The higher the position of an animal in the evolutionary hierarchy, the more complex its sense organs and the more perfect its biocommunication apparatus. For example, insects' eyes cannot focus, and they see only blurry silhouettes of objects; on the contrary, vertebrates' eyes focus, so they perceive objects quite clearly. Humans and many animals produce sounds using the vocal cords located in the larynx. Insects make sounds by rubbing one part of their body against another, and some fish “drum” by clicking their gill covers. All sounds have certain characteristics - vibration frequency (pitch), amplitude (loudness), duration, rhythm and pulsation. Each of these characteristics is important for a particular animal when it comes to communication. In humans, the organs of smell are located in the nasal cavity, taste - in the mouth; however, in many animals, such as insects, the olfactory organs are located on the antennae, and the taste organs are located on the limbs. Often the hairs (sensilla) of insects serve as organs of tactile sense, or touch. When the senses detect changes in the environment, such as a new sight, sound, or smell, the information is transmitted to the brain, and this “biological computer” sorts and integrates all incoming data so that its owner can respond accordingly.
AQUATIC INVERTEBRATES
Aquatic invertebrates communicate primarily through visual and auditory signals. Bivalves, barnacles and other similar invertebrates make sounds by opening and closing their shells or houses, and crustaceans such as spiny lobsters make loud scraping sounds by rubbing their antennae against their shells. Crabs warn or scare off strangers by shaking their claws until they begin to crack, and male crabs emit this signal even when a person approaches. Due to the high sound conductivity of water, signals emitted by aquatic invertebrates are transmitted over long distances. Vision plays a significant role in the communication of crabs, lobsters and other crustaceans. The brightly colored claws of male crabs attract females while warning rival males to keep their distance. Some species of crabs perform a mating dance, in which they swing their large claws in a rhythm characteristic of that species. Many deep-sea marine invertebrates, e.g. sea worm Odontosyllis, have rhythmically flashing glowing organs, called photophores. Some aquatic invertebrates, such as lobsters and crabs, have taste buds at the base of their legs. Others do not have special olfactory organs, but most of the body surface is sensitive to the presence of chemicals in the water. Among aquatic invertebrates, chemical signals are used by ciliated ciliates (Vorticella) and sea acorns, and among European land snails - the grape snail (Helix pomatia). Suvoyki and sea acorns simply stand out chemical substances, which attract individuals of their species, while the snails shoot thin, dart-shaped “love arrows” at each other. These miniature structures contain a substance that prepares the recipient for sperm transfer. A number of aquatic invertebrates, mainly some coelenterates (jellyfish), use tactile signals for communication. If one member of a large colony of coelenterates touches another, it immediately contracts, turning into a tiny lump. Immediately all other individuals of the colony repeat the action of the contracted animal.
FISH
Fish use at least three types of communication signals: auditory, visual and chemical, often combining them. Fish make sounds by rattling their gill covers, and using their swim bladders they make grunts and whistles. Sound signals are used to gather in a flock, as an invitation to breed, to defend the territory, and also as a method of recognition. Fish do not have eardrums, and they hear differently from humans. The system of thin bones, the so-called. Weber's apparatus transmits vibrations from the swim bladder to the inner ear. The range of frequencies that fish perceive is relatively narrow - most do not hear sounds above the upper “C” and best perceive sounds below the “A” of the third octave. Pisces have good eyesight, but they see poorly in the dark, for example in the depths of the ocean. Most fish perceive color to some degree. This is important during the mating season because the bright colors of individuals of one sex, usually males, attract individuals of the opposite sex. The color changes serve as a warning to other fish not to invade another's territory. During the breeding season, some fish, such as the three-spined stickleback, perform mating dances; others, such as catfish, display threat by turning wide open mouth towards the stranger. Fish, like insects and some other animals, use pheromones - chemical signaling substances. Catfish recognize individuals of their species by tasting the substances they secrete, probably produced by the gonads or contained in the urine or mucous cells of the skin. The taste buds of catfish are located in the skin, and any of them can remember the taste of the other’s pheromones if they have ever been close to each other. The next meeting of these fish may end in war or peace, depending on the previously established relationship.
INSECTS
Insects are generally tiny creatures, but their social organization rivals that of human society. Insect communities could never form, much less survive, without communication between their members. Insects communicate using visual cues, sounds, touch and chemical signals, including taste stimuli and odors, and they are extremely sensitive to sounds and odors. Insects were perhaps the first on land to make sounds, usually similar to tapping, popping, scratching, etc. These noises are not particularly musical, but they are produced by highly specialized organs. Insect calls are influenced by light intensity, the presence or absence of other insects nearby, and direct contact with them. One of the most common sounds is stridulation, i.e. a chattering sound caused by rapid vibration or rubbing of one part of the body against another at a certain frequency and in a certain rhythm. This usually happens according to the “scraper-bow” principle. In this case, one leg (or wing) of the insect, which has 80-90 small teeth along the edge, quickly moves back and forth along the thickened part of the wing or other part of the body. Grasshoppers and grasshoppers use just such a chirping mechanism, while grasshoppers and trumpeters rub their modified forewings against each other. The male cicadas produce the loudest chirping sounds. On the underside of the abdomen of these insects there are two membranous membranes - the so-called. timbal organs. These membranes are equipped with muscles and can bend in and out, like the bottom of a tin. When the tymbal muscles contract rapidly, the pops or clicks merge, creating an almost continuous sound. Insects can make sounds by banging their heads on wood or leaves and their abdomens and front legs on the ground. Some species, such as the death's-head hawk-moth, have actual miniature sound chambers and produce sounds by drawing air in and out through membranes in these chambers. Many insects, especially flies, mosquitoes and bees, make sounds in flight by vibrating their wings; some of these sounds are used in communication. Queen bees chatter and buzz: the adult queen hums, and the immature queens chatter as they try to escape from their cells. The vast majority of insects do not have a developed hearing system and use antennas to capture sound vibrations passing through air, soil and other substrates. More subtle discrimination of sound signals is provided by tympanic organs similar to the ear (in moths, locusts, some grasshoppers, cicadas); hair-like sensilla, consisting of vibration-sensitive bristles on the surface of the body; chordotonal (string-shaped) sensilla located in various parts of the body; finally, specialized so-called popliteal organs in the legs that perceive vibration (in grasshoppers, crickets, butterflies, bees, stoneflies, ants). Many insects have two types of eyes - simple ocelli and paired compound eyes, but in general their vision is poor. They can usually only perceive light and dark, but some, such as bees and butterflies, can perceive colors. Visual signals serve various functions. Some insects use them for courtship and threats. Thus, in fireflies, luminescent flashes of cold yellow-green light, produced with a certain frequency, serve as a means of attracting individuals of the opposite sex. Bees, having discovered a food source, return to the hive and notify other bees about its location and distance through special movements on the surface of the hive (the so-called bee dance). The constant licking and sniffing of each other by ants indicates the importance of touch as one of the means of organizing these insects into a colony. In the same way, by touching the abdomen of their “cows” (aphids) with their antennae, the ants inform them that they must secrete a drop of “milk”. Pheromones are used as sexual attractants and stimulants, as well as warning and trace substances by ants, bees, butterflies, including silkworm, cockroaches and many other insects. These substances, usually in the form of odorous gases or liquids, are secreted by special glands located in the mouth or abdomen of the insect. Some sexual attractants (such as those used by moths) are so effective that they can be perceived by individuals of the same species at a concentration of only a few molecules per cubic centimeter of air.
Amphibians and reptiles
Forms of communication between amphibians and reptiles are relatively simple. This is partly due to a poorly developed brain, as well as the fact that these animals lack care for their offspring.
Amphibians. Among amphibians, only frogs, toads and tree frogs make loud sounds; Of the salamanders, some squeak or whistle quietly, others have vocal folds and emit a quiet bark. The sounds made by amphibians can mean a threat, a warning, a call for reproduction, they can be used as a signal of trouble or as a means of protecting the territory. Some species of frogs croak in groups of three, and a large chorus may consist of several loud-voiced trios. In the spring, during the breeding season, in many species of frogs and toads the throat becomes bright color: It often turns dark yellow, speckled with black, and is usually brighter in color in females than in males. Some species use seasonal throat coloration not only to attract a mate, but also as a visual signal warning that territory is occupied. Some toads, in defense, emit a highly acidic fluid produced by the parotid glands (one behind each eye). The Colorado toad can spray this poisonous liquid up to 3.6 m away. At least one species of salamander uses a special “love drink” produced during the mating season by special glands located near the head.
Reptiles. Some snakes hiss, others make cracking noises, and in Africa and Asia there are snakes that chirp using scales. Since snakes and other reptiles do not have external ear openings, they only sense vibrations that pass through the soil. So the rattlesnake is unlikely to hear its own rattle. Unlike snakes, tropical gecko lizards have external ear openings. Geckos click very loudly and make sharp sounds. In the spring, male alligators roar to attract females and scare away other males. Crocodiles make loud alarm sounds when they are frightened and hiss loudly, threatening an intruder who has invaded their territory. Baby alligators squeak and croak hoarsely to get their mother's attention. The Galapagos giant or elephant tortoise makes a low, raspy roar, and many other tortoises hiss menacingly. Many reptiles drive away strangers of their own or other species invading their territory, demonstrating threatening behavior - they open their mouths, inflate body parts (like a spectacled snake), beat their tails, etc. Snakes have relatively poor vision; they see the movement of objects, and not their shape and color; Species that hunt in open areas have sharper vision. Some lizards, such as geckos and chameleons, perform ritual dances during courtship or sway in a peculiar way when moving. The sense of smell and taste is well developed in snakes and lizards; in crocodiles and turtles it is relatively weak. Rhythmically sticking out its tongue, the snake enhances its sense of smell, transferring odorous particles to a special sensory structure - the so-called so-called sensory structure located in the mouth. Jacobson's organ. Some snakes, turtles and alligators secrete musky fluid as warning signals; others use scent as a sexual attractant.
BIRDS
Communication in birds has been better studied than in any other animal. Birds communicate with members of their own species, as well as other species, including mammals and even humans. To do this, they use sound (not only voice), as well as visual signals. Thanks to the developed hearing system, consisting of the outer, middle and inner ear, birds hear well. The vocal apparatus of birds, the so-called. The lower larynx, or syrinx, is located in the lower part of the trachea. Schooling birds use a more diverse range of sound and visual signals than solitary birds, which sometimes know only one song and repeat it over and over again. Flocking birds have signals that gather a flock, notify about danger, signals “all is calm” and even calls for a meal. In birds, it is predominantly males who sing, but more often not to attract females (as is usually believed), but to warn that the territory is under protection. Many songs are very intricate and are provoked by the release of the male sex hormone - testosterone - in the spring. Most of the “conversations” in birds take place between the mother and the chicks, who beg for food, and the mother feeds, warns or calms them. Bird song is shaped by both genes and learning. The song of a bird raised in isolation is incomplete, i.e. deprived of individual “phrases” sung by other birds. A non-vocal sound signal - the wing drum - is used by the collared grouse during the mating period to attract a female and warn male competitors to stay away. One of the tropical manakins clicks its tail feathers like castanets during courtship. At least one bird, the African honeyguide, communicates directly with humans. The honey guide feeds on beeswax, but cannot extract it from hollow trees where bees make their nests. By repeatedly approaching the person, calling loudly and then heading towards the tree with the bees, the honeyguide leads the person to their nest; after the honey is taken, it eats the remaining wax. During the breeding season, males of many bird species adopt complex signaling postures, preen their feathers, perform courtship dances, and perform various other actions accompanied by sound signals. The head and tail feathers, crowns and crests, even the apron-like arrangement of breast feathers are used by males to demonstrate their readiness to mate. The mandatory love ritual of the wandering albatross is a complex mating dance performed jointly by the male and female. The mating behavior of male birds sometimes resembles acrobatic stunts. Thus, the male of one of the species of birds of paradise performs a real somersault: sitting on a branch in full view of the female, presses his wings tightly to his body, falls from the branch, makes a complete somersault in the air and lands in the original position.
TERRESTRIAL MAMMALS
It has long been known that land mammals make mating calls and threat sounds, leave scent marks, sniff and gently caress each other. However, compared to what we know about the communication of birds, bees and some other animals, information about communication terrestrial mammals quite scarce. In the communication of terrestrial mammals, information about emotional states- fear, anger, pleasure, hunger and pain. However, this far from exhausts the content of communications even in non-primate animals. Animals wandering in groups, through visual signals, maintain the integrity of the group and warn each other about danger; bears within their territory peel off the bark on tree trunks or rub against them, thus informing about their body size and gender; skunks and a number of other animals secrete odorous substances for protection or as sexual attractants; male deer organize ritual tournaments to attract females during the rutting season; wolves express their attitude by aggressive growling or friendly tail wagging; seals in rookeries communicate using calls and special movements; angry bear coughs threateningly. Mammalian communication signals were developed for communication between individuals of the same species, but often these signals are also perceived by individuals of other species that are nearby. In Africa, the same spring is sometimes used for watering at the same time by different animals, such as wildebeest, zebra and waterbuck. If a zebra, with its keen sense of hearing and smell, senses the approach of a lion or other predator, its actions inform its neighbors at the watering hole, and they react accordingly. In this case, interspecific communication takes place. Man uses his voice to communicate to an immeasurably greater extent than any other primate. For greater expressiveness, words are accompanied by gestures and facial expressions. Other primates use signal postures and movements in communication much more often than we do, and use their voice much less often. These components of primate communicative behavior are not innate - animals learn in various ways communication as you grow older. Raising cubs in the wild is based on imitation and the development of stereotypes; they are looked after most of the time and punished when necessary; they learn what's edible by watching their mothers and learn gestures and vocal communication mostly through trial and error. The assimilation of communicative behavioral stereotypes is a gradual process. The most interesting features of primate communication behavior are easier to understand when we consider the circumstances in which different types of signals are used - chemical, tactile, auditory and visual.
Chemical signals. Chemical signals are most often used by primates that are potential prey and occupy a limited territory. The sense of smell is of particular importance for tree-dwelling primitive nocturnal primates (prosimians), such as tupai and lemurs. Tupai mark territory using secretions from glands located in the skin of the throat and chest. In some lemurs such glands are located in the armpits and even on the forearms; As the animal moves, it leaves its scent on the plants. Other lemurs use urine and feces for this purpose. Great apes, like humans, do not have a developed olfactory system. In addition, only a few of them have skin glands specifically designed to produce signaling substances.
Tactile signals. Touch and other bodily contacts - tactile signals - are widely used by monkeys when communicating. Langurs, baboons, gibbons and chimpanzees often hug each other in a friendly manner, and a baboon may lightly touch, poke, pinch, bite, sniff or even kiss another baboon as a sign of genuine affection. When two chimpanzees meet for the first time, they may gently touch the stranger's head, shoulder or thigh.
Monkeys constantly pick through their fur - cleaning each other (this behavior is called grooming), which serves as a manifestation of true closeness and intimacy. Grooming is especially important in primate groups where social dominance is maintained, such as rhesus monkeys, baboons and gorillas. In such groups, a subordinate individual often communicates, by loudly smacking her lips, that she wants to groom another who occupies a higher position in the social hierarchy. The sounds produced by apes and apes are relatively simple. For example, chimpanzees often scream and squeal when they are scared or angry, and these are truly basic signals. However, they also have an amazing noise ritual: periodically they gather in the forest and drum their hands on the protruding roots of trees, accompanying these actions with screams, squeals and howls. This drumming and singing festival can last for hours and can be heard from at least a kilometer and a half away. There is reason to believe that in this way chimpanzees call their fellows to places abounding in food. It has long been known that gorillas beat their chests. In fact, these are not blows with a fist, but slaps with half-bent palms on the swollen chest, since the gorilla first takes in a full chest of air. Slaps inform group members that an intruder, and possibly an enemy, is nearby; at the same time they serve as a warning and threat to the stranger. Chest beating is only one of a whole series of similar actions, which also include sitting in an upright position, tilting the head to the side, screaming, grumbling, getting up, tearing and throwing plants. Only the dominant male, the leader of the group, has the right to carry out such actions; subordinate males and even females perform parts of the repertoire. Gorillas, chimpanzees and baboons grunt and make barking sounds, and gorillas also roar as a sign of warning and threat.
Visual signals. Gestures, facial expressions, and sometimes also body position and muzzle color are the main visual signals great apes. Among the threatening signals are sudden jumping to your feet and drawing your head into your shoulders, striking the ground with your hands, violently shaking trees and randomly throwing stones. By displaying the bright color of its muzzle, the African mandrill tames its subordinates. In a similar situation, the proboscis monkey from Borneo shows off its huge nose. Staring in a baboon or gorilla means a threat. In the baboon, it is accompanied by frequent blinking, movement of the head up and down, flattening of the ears and arching of the eyebrows. To maintain order in the group, dominant baboons and gorillas periodically cast icy gazes at females, cubs and subordinate males. When two unfamiliar gorillas suddenly come face to face, staring can be a challenge. First, a roar is heard, two powerful animals retreat, and then suddenly approach each other, bending their heads forward. Stopping just before they touch, they begin to gaze intently into each other's eyes until one of them retreats. Real contractions are rare. Signals such as grimacing, yawning, moving the tongue, flattening the ears, and smacking the lips can be either friendly or unfriendly. So, if a baboon flattens its ears, but does not accompany this action with a direct gaze or blinking, its gesture means submission. Chimpanzees use rich facial expressions to communicate. For example, a tightly clenched jaw with exposed gums means a threat; frown - intimidation; a smile, especially with the tongue sticking out, is friendliness; pulling back the lower lip until teeth and gums show - a peaceful smile; by pouting her lips, the mother chimpanzee expresses her love for her baby; Repeated yawning indicates confusion or difficulty. Chimpanzees often yawn when they notice someone is watching them. Some primates use their tails to communicate. For example, a male lemur rhythmically moves his tail before mating, and a female langur lowers her tail to the ground when the male approaches her. In some species of primates, subordinate males raise their tails when a dominant male approaches, indicating that they belong to a lower social rank.
Sound signals. Interspecific communication is widespread among primates. Langurs, for example, closely monitor the alarm calls and movements of peacocks and deer. Grazing animals and baboons respond to each other's warning calls, so predators have little chance of surprise attacks.
AQUATIC MAMMALS
Sounds are like signals. Aquatic mammals, like land mammals, have ears consisting of an external opening, a middle ear with three auditory ossicles, and an inner ear connected by the auditory nerve to the brain. Marine mammals have excellent hearing, which is also helped by the high sound conductivity of water. Seals are among the noisiest aquatic mammals. During the breeding season, females and young seals howl and moo, and these sounds are often drowned out by the barks and roars of males. Males roar mainly to mark territory, in which they each gather a harem of 10-100 females. Vocal communication in females is not so intense and is associated primarily with mating and caring for offspring. Whales constantly make sounds such as clicking, creaking, low-pitched sighs, as well as something like the creaking of rusty hinges and muffled thuds. It is believed that many of these sounds are nothing more than echolocation, used to detect food and navigate underwater. They can also be a means of maintaining group integrity. Among aquatic mammals, the undisputed champion in emitting sound signals is the bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus). The sounds made by dolphins have been described as moaning, squeaking, whining, whistling, barking, squealing, meowing, creaking, clicking, chirping, grunting, shrill screams, as well as being reminiscent of the noise of a motor boat, the creaking of rusty hinges, etc. These sounds consist of a continuous series of vibrations at frequencies ranging from 3,000 to more than 200,000 hertz. They are produced by blowing air through the nasal passage and two valve-like structures inside the blowhole. Sounds are modified by increasing and decreasing tension in the nasal valves and by the movement of "reeds" or "plugs" located within the airways and blowhole. The sound produced by dolphins, similar to the creaking of rusty hinges, is “sonar,” a kind of echolocation mechanism. By constantly sending these sounds and receiving their reflections from underwater rocks, fish and other objects, dolphins can easily move even in complete darkness and find fish. Dolphins undoubtedly communicate with each other. When a dolphin makes a short, sad whistle, followed by a high-pitched, melodious whistle, it is a distress signal, and other dolphins will immediately swim to the rescue. The cub always responds to the mother's whistle addressed to him. When angry, dolphins "bark" and the yapping sound, made only by males, is believed to attract females.
Visual signals. Visual signals are not essential in the communication of aquatic mammals. In general, their vision is not sharp and is also hampered by the low transparency of ocean water. One example of visual communication worth mentioning is that the hooded seal has an inflating muscular pouch above its head and snout. When threatened, the seal quickly inflates the pouch, which turns bright red. This is accompanied by a deafening roar, and the trespasser (if it is not a person) usually retreats. Some aquatic mammals, especially those that spend part of their time on land, perform demonstrative actions related to the defense of territory and reproduction. With these few exceptions, visual communication is poorly used.
Olfactory and tactile signals. Olfactory signals probably do not play a major role in the communication of aquatic mammals, serving only for the mutual recognition of parents and young in those species that spend a significant part of their lives on rookeries, for example, seals. Whales and dolphins appear to have a keen sense of taste, which helps them determine whether a fish they catch is worth eating. In aquatic mammals, tactile organs are distributed throughout the skin, and the sense of touch, especially important during periods of courtship and caring for offspring, is well developed. So, during the mating season, a pair of sea lions often sits facing each other, intertwining their necks and caressing each other for hours.
STUDY METHODS
Ideally, animal communication should be studied in natural conditions , but for many species (especially mammals) this is difficult to do due to the secretive nature of the animals and their constant movements. In addition, many animals are nocturnal. Birds are often frightened by the slightest movement or even just the sight of a person, as well as the warning calls and actions of other birds. Laboratory studies of animal behavior provide a lot of new information, but in captivity animals behave differently than in freedom. They even develop neuroses and often stop reproductive behavior. Any scientific problem usually requires the use of observational and experimental methods. Both are best done under controlled laboratory conditions. However, laboratory conditions are not entirely suitable for studying communication, since they limit the freedom of action and reaction of the animal. In field studies, cover made from bushes and branches is used to observe some mammals and birds. A person in a shelter can cover up his scent with a few drops of skunk fluid or other strong-smelling substance. Photographing animals requires good cameras and especially telephoto lenses. However, the noise made by the camera may scare the animal away. To study sound signals, a sensitive microphone and sound recording equipment are used, as well as a disc-shaped parabolic reflector made of metal or plastic, which focuses sound waves on a microphone placed at its center. After recording, sounds that the human ear cannot hear can be detected. Some sounds made by animals are in the ultrasonic range; they can be heard when the tape is played at a slower speed than when recording. This is especially useful when studying the sounds made by birds. Using a sound spectrograph, a graphic recording of sound, a “voice print,” is obtained. By “dissecting” a sound spectrogram, one can identify various components of a bird’s call or the sounds of other animals, compare mating calls, calls for food, threatening or warning sounds, and other signals. In laboratory conditions, the behavior of fish and insects is studied mainly, although a lot of information has been obtained about mammals and other animals. Dolphins quickly get used to open laboratories - swimming pools, dolphinariums, etc. Laboratory computers “remember” the sounds of insects, fish, dolphins and other animals and make it possible to identify stereotypes of communicative behavior. If a person learned to communicate with animals, it would bring a lot of benefits. For example, we could obtain from dolphins and whales information about the life of the sea that is inaccessible, or at least difficult to obtain, by humans. By studying the communication systems of animals, humans will be able to better imitate the visual and auditory signals of birds and mammals. Such imitation has already brought benefits, making it possible to attract the studied animals in their natural habitats, as well as to repel pests. Taped alarm calls are played through loudspeakers to scare off starlings, gulls, crows, rooks and other birds that damage plantings and crops, and synthesized insect sex attractants are used to lure insects into traps. Studies of the structure of the “ear” located on the front legs of the grasshopper have made it possible to improve the design of the microphone.
LITERATURE
Lilly J. Man and Dolphin. M., 1965 Chauvin R. From bee to gorilla. M., 1965 Goodall J. Chimpanzees in nature: behavior. M., 1992
Collier's Encyclopedia. - Open Society. 2000 .
1. Communication: definition, basic elements
Exist various definitions concepts " communication"(lat. communico– I make it common, I connect, I communicate). In everyday life this term is used as a synonym communication.
Communication in human society means “communication” (almost a synonym in all languages except Russian), the exchange of thoughts, knowledge, feelings, and behavior patterns.
IN modern understanding communication is a socially conditioned process of transmitting and perceiving information in conditions of interpersonal and mass communication through different channels using various communication means.
Mechanistic and activity approaches (paradigms)
Mechanistic– communication is understood as a unidirectional process of encoding and receiving information by the recipient of the message. In the activity approach communication is understood as a joint activity of communication participants, during which a common (to a certain limit) view of things and actions with them is developed.
Communication does not only occur in human social systems. A certain kind of communication is also characteristic of animals.(mating dances of birds, mating of wood grouse, language of bees, etc.), and for mechanisms, i.e. objects created by man (pipelines, sewers, transport, telegraph and telephone signals, interconnection of computers on the Internet, etc.; however, this should not include human communication using mechanisms).
In the technical field The word communication is very often used in the plural: communications (pipes can be counted). Human communication is an uncountable concept, therefore the use plural not entirely appropriate in this area. It is more correct to talk about the means and types of communication, its methods and participants, i.e. use counting words (such as a kilogram of sugar, a cup of tea, type and method of activity, types of communication, etc.). The use of the plural: communications and their varieties is similar to the colloquial two teas, three coffees, two information and is apparently due to the fact that the sphere social sciences Recently it has been replenished with not very competent specialists in pipes and communications. Interestingly, a similar problem arose in English language. There are two competing forms: uncountable communication and countable communications, and two opinions about which of them should be used in relation to human communication.
Communication in animals and insects
Communication in animals has always been of great interest to researchers. Communication systems in the animal world are more primary and primitive compared to humans and are defined as ‘biologically appropriate joint behavior aimed at adapting to the environment and regulated, in particular, by signaling’ (I.N. Gorelov).
The main problem that experts are trying to solve is the relationship between nature and nurture, i.e. natural, congenital and acquired, educated. Instinctive mechanisms are thought to develop in three directions:
· preservation of the species (sexual behavior, care of offspring, etc.),
· preservation of the individual (satisfying hunger and thirst, searching for food, stockpiling supplies, etc.) and
· ensuring more or less constant security (protection from bad weather conditions, enemies, separation from fellow humans, etc.).
It is in the latter case that the mechanisms of behavior have an intermediate focus: they ensure communication between the individual and the species. Here we are talking about adapting the behavior of an individual to the forms of behavior of other representatives of the species. Cognitive processes here are aimed at distinguishing between friends and enemies, behavioral programs - at joint flight or attack, warning or pursuit. The roots of communication should be sought in concerted, coordinated behavior to ensure protection and safety. The quasi-social behavior of animals extends to the first two areas of instinctive behavior (reproduction and food search).
One example of communication is birdsong. Birds learn to sing through the process of ‘nurture’. Each bird has its own way of performing a song that is common to the entire species. Moreover, individual characteristics in some geographic areas even lead to the emergence of 'regional dialects'.
Even more interesting is the way in which information about the danger is disseminated. There are two types of danger: predators and nest predators. If a bird sees a predator, it makes a specific sound, similar to a whistle, indicating the need to hide. If a nest destroyer appears, the bird makes an intermittent staccato sound, which serves as a call to battle, gathering neighboring birds in order to drive the attacker away from the nests. The difference between predators is learned by birds during development and passed on to the next generation; it can be used in the training process (even a milk bottle can be taught to be scared).
In addition to sounds, animals also use other communication channels. Smell and smell, so important for bees, ants, and lower apes, are less important for higher primates. In the latter, silent communication is predominantly visual (gestures) and tactile (touch). During a hike, the male in front raises his paw (arm?) - a stop signal for the herd (group?), a chimpanzee with a high social status (boss, 'godfather') can gesture to allow his subordinates to eat food, a mother chimpanzee touches the shoulder of the cub (child) ) does not allow him, for example, to run somewhere, combing a fellow dog’s fur is a sign of submission and lack of aggressive intentions, demonstration of the anal area is also a gesture of submission or subordination, the fight between rivals is accompanied by appropriate gestures and facial expressions. Interestingly, a confident leader rarely resorts to symbolic threats, and rarely demands that subordinates ‘show their butts’. An insecure leader too often demands gestures of submission; as a result, these gestures become stereotypical, their original semantics are ‘eroded’, and such a leader loses his position.
An example of demonstrating a dominant position: monkeys drum on the ground and their own chest, raise their fur, making aggressive sounds, and wave specially broken off branches, twist young trees into ram's horns, pull out tree roots, throw sand or earth. A branch specially broken off to demonstrate one’s strength, and not for any physiological needs, is a sign, a means of communication. The desire for social dominance has such a strong motivational basis that even food and sexual needs can recede into the background.
Thus, the first means of communication arise from instinctive behavior, which can vary under the influence of conditions and correction of behavior in the process of mutual learning. This behavior is recorded in memory, and freed from the influence of hereditary factors, it acquires a new meaning and relatively independent existence (pounce - imitation of a pounce - a hint of imitation; accidentally showing teeth during a yawn can be taken as a sign of threat; raising a hand to climb a tree and stopping for this - raising a hand as a stop signal; demonstration of the anal area by a female baboon as a call for copulation - a signal of peacefulness in the male towards the winner). An animal’s memory stores not only behavioral patterns, but also the reaction of the environment, that is, of its fellow animals. In the future, ineffective moments of the behavioral act are reduced, and those important for changing the behavior of other communicants are emphasized. The behavioral act becomes a communicative act. The biorelevant becomes semiotic (Yu.S. Stepanov). Communication, therefore, is an isolated part of joint activity, aimed at regulating this activity itself (meta-activity).
COMMUNICATION FUNCTIONS
Basic communication functions :
ü informative – transmission of true or false information;
ü interactive (incentive ) - organization of interaction between people, for example, coordination of actions, distribution of functions, influence on the mood, beliefs, behavior of the interlocutor through the use of various forms influences: suggestion, order, request, persuasion;
ü perceptual - perception of each other by communication partners and the establishment of mutual understanding on this basis;
ü expressive - arousal or change in the nature of emotional experiences.
Communication process is the exchange of information between two or more people. The main goal of the communication process is to ensure understanding of the information being exchanged, i.e. message.
It is customary to highlight the following elements communications:
Source communicator (sender, addressee) sends a message, choosing a code and channel under the influence of a stimulus. The source communicator plays a decisive role in the communication process. He is the initiator of the communication process, sets its goals, and determines the recipient (addressee). The effectiveness of communication depends on the validity of the actions of the source communicator. To carry out effective communication, it is necessary to clearly define its goals, correctly highlight target audience and understand the desired response.
Code– these are the rules by which signs expressing the content of a message are combined;
Channels– these are natural, presentational message carriers, for example, voice, face, etc., and artificial, representational ones: books, paintings, radio, telephone. Each channel has a certain bandwidth, i.e. the amount of information that can be transmitted over it in a certain time;
Recipient communicator (recipient, addressee) must decode the message, i.e. he must know the rules by which the message he receives is formed.
Feedback is a reaction to a message received by the source from the recipient. The reaction is to talk about clarity or incomprehensibility, agreement and disagreement, etc. and can cause an additional message.
Noises- internal and external interference in communicators that arises during the transmission and reception of messages. The hindrances are:
ü noises in the environment (for example, a conversation in the audience);
ü physical damage (deafness, blindness, etc.);
ü semantic problems (incomprehensible words, polysemy of words, expressions, different understanding of signs, etc.);
ü organizational disorder (jumping from topic to topic, going in circles);
ü social noise (inconsistency with social norms, for example, something that is not customary to talk about or can cause conflict);
ü psychological problems (stress, irritation).
Types of communication
By composition of communicants allocate intrapersonal, interpersonal, group And mass communication.
Intrapersonal communication equated to a conversation with oneself, a person conducts a conversation with himself, carries out an internal “monologue”.
Interpersonal communication associated with ideal model communication and in many ways primary, it involves two communicators (but there are options for an observer, a participant observer, communication against the background of present witnesses, etc.);
Group communication carried out within a group, between groups, individual-group (for example, an interview with a political leader or a conversation between a leader and employees); There are differences not so much quantitative as qualitative: different goals are in communication in small and large groups (for example, chat rooms and forums on the Internet).
Mass communication occurs when a message is received or used a large number of people, often consisting of groups with different interests and communicative experience (TV, radio, Internet differ in the degree of coverage).
By way of establishing and maintaining contact communications are divided into immediate (direct) And indirect (remote).