Mir station and ISS comparison. International Space Station (17 photos)

International space station. This is a 400-ton structure, consisting of several dozen modules with an internal volume of over 900 cubic meters, which serves as a home for six space explorers. The ISS is not just the largest structure ever created by man in space, but also a true symbol of international cooperation. But this colossus did not appear out of nowhere - it took over 30 launches to create it.

It all started with the Zarya module, delivered into orbit by the Proton launch vehicle back in November 1998.

Two weeks later, the Unity module launched into space aboard the shuttle Endeavor.

The Endeavor crew docked two modules, which became the main module for the future ISS.

The third element of the station was the Zvezda residential module, launched in the summer of 2000. Interestingly, Zvezda was initially developed as a replacement for the base module of the Mir orbital station (AKA Mir 2). But the reality that followed the collapse of the USSR made its own adjustments, and this module became the heart of the ISS, which in general is also not bad, because only after its installation it became possible to send long-term expeditions to the station.

The first crew departed to the ISS in October 2000. Since then, the station has been continuously inhabited for over 13 years.

In the same fall of 2000, the ISS was visited by several shuttles that mounted a power module with the first set of solar panels.

In the winter of 2001, the ISS was replenished with the Destiny laboratory module, delivered into orbit by the Atlantis shuttle. Destiny was docked with the Unity module.

The main assembly of the station was carried out by shuttles. In 2001 - 2002, they delivered external storage platforms to the ISS.

Manipulator arm "Canadarm2".

Airlock compartments "Quest" and "Pierce".

And most importantly, the truss elements that were used to store cargo outside the station, install radiators, new solar panels and other equipment. The total length of the trusses currently reaches 109 meters.

2003 Due to the Columbia shuttle disaster, work on assembling the ISS was suspended for almost three to three years.

2005 year. Finally, the shuttles return to space and construction of the station resumes

The shuttles deliver more and more truss elements into orbit.

With their help, new sets of solar panels are installed on the ISS, which makes it possible to increase its power supply.

In the fall of 2007, the ISS was replenished with the Harmony module (it docks with the Destiny module), which in the future will become a connecting node for two research laboratories: the European Columbus and the Japanese Kibo.

In 2008, Columbus was delivered into orbit by the shuttle and docked with Harmony (the lower left module at the bottom of the station).

March 2009. Shuttle Discovery delivers the final fourth set of solar panels into orbit. Now the station is operating at full capacity and can accommodate a permanent crew of 6 people.

In 2009, the station was replenished with the Russian Poisk module.

In addition, the assembly of the Japanese "Kibo" begins (the module consists of three components).

February 2010. The "Calm" module is added to the "Unity" module.

The famous “Dome”, in turn, is connected to “Tranquility”.

It's so good for making observations.

Summer 2011 - shuttles retire.

But before that, they tried to deliver as much equipment and equipment to the ISS as possible, including robots specially trained to kill all humans.

Fortunately, by the time the shuttles retired, the ISS assembly was almost complete.

But still not completely. The Russian laboratory module Nauka is planned to be launched in 2015, replacing Pirs.

In addition, it is possible that the experimental inflatable module Bigelow, which is currently being created by Bigelow Aerospace, will be docked to the ISS. If successful, it will become the first orbital station module created by a private company.

However, there is nothing surprising in this - a private Dragon truck already flew to the ISS in 2012, and why not private modules? Although, of course, it is obvious that it will still take quite some time before private companies will be able to create structures similar to the ISS.

Until this happens, it is planned that the ISS will operate in orbit until at least 2024 - although I personally hope that in reality this period will be much longer. Still, too much human effort was invested in this project to close it because of immediate savings, and not for scientific reasons. And even more so, I sincerely hope that no political squabbles will affect the fate of this unique structure.

2018 marks the 20th anniversary of one of the most significant international space projects, the largest artificial habitable satellite of the Earth - the International Space Station (ISS). 20 years ago, on January 29, the Agreement on the creation of a space station was signed in Washington, and already on November 20, 1998, construction of the station began - the Proton launch vehicle was successfully launched from the Baikonur cosmodrome with the first module - the Zarya functional cargo block (FGB) " In the same year, on December 7, the second element of the orbital station, the Unity connecting module, was docked with the Zarya FGB. Two years later, a new addition to the station was the Zvezda service module.

On November 2, 2000, the International Space Station (ISS) began its operation in manned mode. The Soyuz TM-31 spacecraft with the crew of the first long-term expedition docked to the Zvezda service module.The ship's approach to the station was carried out according to the scheme that was used during flights to the Mir station. Ninety minutes after docking, the hatch was opened and the ISS-1 crew stepped aboard the ISS for the first time.The ISS-1 crew included Russian cosmonauts Yuri GIDZENKO, Sergei KRIKALEV and American astronaut William SHEPHERD.

Arriving at the ISS, the cosmonauts reactivated, retrofitted, launched and configured the systems of the Zvezda, Unity and Zarya modules and established communications with mission control centers in Korolev and Houston near Moscow. Over the course of four months, 143 sessions of geophysical, biomedical and technical research and experiments were carried out. In addition, the ISS-1 team provided dockings with the Progress M1-4 cargo spacecraft (November 2000), Progress M-44 (February 2001) and the American shuttle Endeavor (Endeavour, December 2000) , Atlantis (“Atlantis”; February 2001), Discovery (“Discovery”; March 2001) and their unloading. Also in February 2001, the expedition team integrated the Destiny laboratory module into the ISS.

On March 21, 2001, with the American space shuttle Discovery, which delivered the crew of the second expedition to the ISS, the team of the first long-term mission returned to Earth. The landing site was the Kennedy Space Center, Florida, USA.

In subsequent years, the Quest airlock chamber, the Pirs docking compartment, the Harmony connecting module, the Columbus laboratory module, the Kibo cargo and research module, the Poisk small research module, were docked to the International Space Station. residential module “Tranquility”, observation module “Domes”, small research module “Rassvet”, multifunctional module “Leonardo”, transformable test module “BEAM”.

Today the ISS is the largest international project, a manned orbital station used as a multi-purpose space research facility. The space agencies ROSCOSMOS, NASA (USA), JAXA (Japan), CSA (Canada), ESA (European countries) participate in this global project.

With the creation of the ISS, it became possible to perform scientific experiments in the unique conditions of microgravity, in a vacuum and under the influence of cosmic radiation. The main areas of research are physical and chemical processes and materials in space, Earth exploration and development technologies outer space, man in space, space biology and biotechnology. Considerable attention in the work of astronauts on the International Space Station is paid to educational initiatives and the popularization of space research.

The ISS is a unique experience of international cooperation, support and mutual assistance; construction and operation in low-Earth orbit of large engineering structure, which is of paramount importance for the future of all humanity.

Briefly about the article: The ISS is humanity's most expensive and ambitious project on the path to space exploration. However, the construction of the station is in full swing, and it is still unknown what will happen to it in a couple of years. We talk about the creation of the ISS and plans for its completion.

Space house

International Space Station

You remain in charge. But don't touch anything.

A joke made by Russian cosmonauts about American Shannon Lucid, which they repeated every time they exited the Mir station into outer space (1996).

Back in 1952, German rocket scientist Wernher von Braun said that humanity would very soon need space stations: once it goes into space, it will be unstoppable. And for the systematic exploration of the Universe, orbital houses are needed. On April 19, 1971, the Soviet Union launched the first space station in human history, Salyut 1. It was only 15 meters long, and the volume of habitable space was 90 square meters. By today's standards, the pioneers flew into space on unreliable scrap metal stuffed with radio tubes, but then it seemed that there were no more barriers for humans in space. Now, 30 years later, there is only one habitable object hanging over the planet - “International Space Station.”

It is the largest, most advanced, but at the same time the most expensive station among all that have ever been launched. Questions are increasingly being asked: do people need it? Like, what do we really need in space if there are still so many problems on Earth? Perhaps it’s worth figuring out what this ambitious project is?

The roar of the cosmodrome

The International Space Station (ISS) is a joint project of 6 space agencies: Federal Space Agency (Russia), National Aeronautics and Space Agency (USA), Japan Aerospace Exploration Administration (JAXA), Canadian Space Agency (CSA/ASC), Brazilian Space Agency (AEB) and European Space Agency (ESA).

However, not all members of the latter took part in the ISS project - Great Britain, Ireland, Portugal, Austria and Finland refused, and Greece and Luxembourg joined later. In fact, the ISS is based on a synthesis of failed projects - the Russian Mir-2 station and the American Liberty station.

Work on the creation of the ISS began in 1993. The Mir station was launched on February 19, 1986 and had a warranty period of 5 years. In fact, she spent 15 years in orbit - due to the fact that the country simply did not have the money to launch the Mir-2 project. Americans had similar problems - cold war ended, and their station “Freedom”, on the design of which about 20 billion dollars had already been spent, was out of work.

Russia had 25 years of experience working with orbital stations and unique methods for long-term (over a year) human stay in space. In addition, the USSR and the USA had good experience collaboration on board the Mir station. In conditions when no country could independently build an expensive orbital station, the ISS became the only alternative.

On March 15, 1993, representatives of the Russian Space Agency and the scientific and production association Energia approached NASA with a proposal to create the ISS. On September 2, a corresponding government agreement was signed, and by November 1, a detailed work plan was prepared. Financial questions interactions (supply of equipment) were decided in the summer of 1994, and 16 countries joined the project.

Go!

The deployment of the ISS was started by Russia on November 20, 1998. The Proton rocket launched the Zarya functional cargo block into orbit, which, along with the American docking module NODE-1, delivered into space on December 5 of the same year by the Endever shuttle, formed the “backbone” of the ISS.

"Zarya"- the successor of the Soviet TKS (transport supply ship), designed to serve the Almaz battle stations. At the first stage of assembling the ISS, it became a source of electricity, an equipment warehouse, and a means of navigation and orbit adjustment. All other modules of the ISS now have a more specific specialization, while Zarya is almost universal and in the future will serve as a storage facility (power, fuel, instruments).

Officially, Zarya is owned by the United States - they paid for its creation - but in fact the module was assembled from 1994 to 1998 at the Khrunichev State Space Center. It was included in the ISS instead of the Bus-1 module, designed by the American corporation Lockheed, because it cost 450 million dollars versus 220 million for Zarya.

Zarya has three docking gates - one at each end and one at the side. Its solar panels reach 10.67 meters in length and 3.35 meters in width. In addition, the module has six nickel-cadmium batteries capable of delivering about 3 kilowatts of power (at first there were problems charging them).

Along the outer perimeter of the module there are 16 fuel tanks with a total volume of 6 cubic meters (5700 kilograms of fuel), 24 rotary jet engines big size, 12 small ones, as well as 2 main engines for serious orbital maneuvers. Zarya is capable of autonomous (unmanned) flight for 6 months, but due to delays with the Russian Zvezda service module, it had to fly empty for 2 years.

Unity module(created by the Boeing Corporation) went into space after Zarya in December 1998. Equipped with six docking airlocks, it became the central connection point for subsequent station modules. Unity is vital to the ISS. The working resources of all station modules - oxygen, water and electricity - pass through it. Unity also has a basic radio communications system installed that allows it to use Zarya's communications capabilities to communicate with Earth.

Service module “Zvezda”- the main Russian segment of the ISS - launched on July 12, 2000 and docked with Zarya 2 weeks later. Its frame was built back in the 1980s for the Mir-2 project (the design of the Zvezda is very reminiscent of the first Salyut stations, and its design features are similar to the Mir station).

Simply put, this module is housing for astronauts. It is equipped with life support, communications, control, data processing systems, as well as a propulsion system. total weight module - 19050 kilograms, length - 13.1 meters, span of solar panels - 29.72 meters.

“Zvezda” has two sleeping places, an exercise bike, a treadmill, a toilet (and other hygienic facilities), and a refrigerator. External visibility is provided by 14 portholes. The Russian electrolytic system “Electron” decomposes waste water. Hydrogen is removed overboard, and oxygen enters the life support system. The “Air” system works in tandem with the “Electron”, absorbing carbon dioxide.

Theoretically, waste water can be purified and reused, but this is rarely practiced on the ISS - fresh water is delivered on board by Progress cargo ships. It must be said that the Electron system malfunctioned several times and the cosmonauts had to use chemical generators - the same “oxygen candles” that once caused a fire at the Mir station.

In February 2001, a laboratory module was attached to the ISS (on one of the Unity gateways) "Destiny"(“Destiny”) is an aluminum cylinder weighing 14.5 tons, 8.5 meters long and 4.3 meters in diameter. It is equipped with five mounting racks with life support systems (each weighs 540 kilograms and can produce electricity, cool water and control air composition), as well as six racks with scientific equipment delivered a little later. The remaining 12 empty installation spaces will be filled over time.

In May 2001, the main airlock compartment of the ISS, the Quest Joint Airlock, was attached to Unity. This six-ton ​​cylinder, measuring 5.5 by 4 meters, is equipped with four high-pressure cylinders (2 - oxygen, 2 - nitrogen) to compensate for the loss of air released outside, and is relatively inexpensive - only 164 million dollars.

Its working space of 34 cubic meters is used for spacewalks, and the size of the airlock allows the use of spacesuits of any type. The fact is that the design of our Orlans assumes their use only in Russian transition compartments, a similar situation with American EMUs.

In this module, astronauts going into space can also rest and breathe pure oxygen to get rid of decompression sickness (with a sharp change in pressure, nitrogen, the amount of which in the tissues of our bodies reaches 1 liter, turns into a gaseous state).

The last of the assembled modules of the ISS is the Russian docking compartment Pirs (SO-1). The creation of SO-2 was stopped due to problems with financing, so the ISS now has only one module, to which the Soyuz-TMA and Progress spacecraft can be easily docked - and three of them at once. In addition, cosmonauts wearing our spacesuits can go outside from it.

And finally, we cannot help but mention another module of the ISS - the baggage multi-purpose support module. Strictly speaking, there are three of them - “Leonardo”, “Raffaello” and “Donatello” (Renaissance artists, as well as three of the four Ninja Turtles). Each module is an almost equilateral cylinder (4.4 by 4.57 meters) transported on shuttles.

It can store up to 9 tons of cargo (full weight - 4082 kilograms, with a maximum load - 13154 kilograms) - supplies delivered to the ISS and waste removed from it. All module luggage is in the normal air environment, so astronauts can reach it without using spacesuits. The luggage modules were manufactured in Italy by order of NASA and belong to the American segments of the ISS. They are used alternately.

Useful little things

In addition to the main modules, the ISS contains a large number of additional equipment. It is smaller in size than the modules, but without it the operation of the station is impossible.

The working “arms,” or rather the “arm” of the station, is the “Canadarm2” manipulator, mounted on the ISS in April 2001. This high-tech machine, worth $600 million, is capable of moving objects weighing up to 116 tons - for example, assisting in the installation of modules, docking and unloading shuttles (their own “hands” are very similar to “Canadarm2”, only smaller and weaker).

The actual length of the manipulator is 17.6 meters, diameter is 35 centimeters. It is controlled by astronauts from a laboratory module. The most interesting thing is that “Canadarm2” is not fixed in one place and is able to move along the surface of the station, providing access to most of its parts.

Unfortunately, due to differences in connection ports located on the surface of the station, “Canadarm2” cannot move around our modules. In the near future (presumably 2007), it is planned to install ERA (European Robotic Arm) on the Russian segment of the ISS - a shorter and weaker, but more accurate manipulator (positioning accuracy - 3 millimeters), capable of working in semi-automatic mode without constant control by astronauts.

In accordance with the safety requirements of the ISS project, a rescue ship is constantly on duty at the station, capable of delivering the crew to Earth if necessary. Now this function is performed by the good old Soyuz (TMA model) - it is capable of taking 3 people on board and ensuring their vital functions for 3.2 days. “Soyuz” have a short warranty period for staying in orbit, so they are replaced every 6 months.

The workhorses of the ISS are currently the Russian Progresses - siblings of the Soyuz, operating in unmanned mode. During the day, an astronaut consumes about 30 kilograms of cargo (food, water, hygiene products, etc.). Consequently, for a regular six-month duty at the station, one person needs 5.4 tons of supplies. It is impossible to carry so much on the Soyuz, so the station is supplied mainly by shuttles (up to 28 tons of cargo).

After the cessation of their flights, from February 1, 2003 to July 26, 2005, the entire load for the station’s clothing support lay with the Progresses (2.5 tons of load). After unloading the ship, it was filled with waste, undocked automatically and burned up in the atmosphere somewhere over the Pacific Ocean.

Crew: 2 people (as of July 2005), maximum 3

Orbit altitude: From 347.9 km to 354.1 km

Orbital inclination: 51.64 degrees

Daily revolutions around the Earth: 15.73

Distance traveled: About 1.5 billion kilometers

Average speed: 7.69 km/s

Current weight: 183.3 tons

Fuel weight: 3.9 tons

Volume of living space: 425 square meters

average temperature on board: 26.9 degrees Celsius

Estimated completion of construction: 2010

Planned lifespan: 15 years

Complete assembly of the ISS will require 39 shuttle flights and 30 Progress flights. In its finished form, the station will look like this: air space volume - 1200 cubic meters, weight - 419 tons, power supply - 110 kilowatts, total length of the structure - 108.4 meters (modules - 74 meters), crew - 6 people.

At a crossroads

Until 2003, the construction of the ISS continued as usual. Some modules were cancelled, others were delayed, sometimes problems arose with money, faulty equipment - in general, things were going hard, but still, over the 5 years of its existence, the station became inhabited and scientific experiments were periodically carried out on it.

On February 1, 2003, the space shuttle Columbia died upon entering the dense layers of the atmosphere. American program manned flights were suspended for 2.5 years. Considering that the station modules awaiting their turn could only be launched into orbit by shuttles, the very existence of the ISS was under threat.

Fortunately, the US and Russia were able to agree on a redistribution of costs. We took over the provision of cargo to the ISS, and the station itself was switched to standby mode - two cosmonauts were constantly on board to monitor the serviceability of the equipment.

Shuttle launches

After the successful flight of the Discovery shuttle in July-August 2005, there was hope that construction of the station would continue. First in line for launch is the twin of the “Unity” connecting module - “Node 2”. Its preliminary start date is December 2006.

The European scientific module “Columbus” will be the second: launch is scheduled for March 2007. This laboratory is already ready and waiting in the wings - it will need to be attached to “Node 2”. It boasts good anti-meteor protection, a unique apparatus for studying the physics of liquids, as well as a European physiological module (comprehensive medical examination directly on board the station).

Following “Columbus” will be the Japanese laboratory “Kibo” (“Hope”) - its launch is scheduled for September 2007. It is interesting in that it has its own mechanical manipulator, as well as a closed “terrace” where experiments can be carried out in outer space. without actually leaving the ship.

The third connecting module - “Node 3” is scheduled to go to the ISS in May 2008. In July 2009, it is planned to launch a unique rotating centrifuge module CAM (Centrifuge Accommodations Module), on board of which artificial gravity will be created in the range from 0.01 to 2 g. It is designed mainly for Scientific research- permanent residence of astronauts in conditions of gravity, so often described by science fiction writers, is not provided for.

In March 2009, “Cupola” (“Dome”) will fly to the ISS - an Italian development, which, as its name suggests, is an armored observation dome for visual control of the station’s manipulators. For safety, the windows will be equipped with external shutters to protect against meteorites.

The last module delivered to the ISS by American shuttles will be the “Science and Power Platform” - a massive block of solar batteries on an openwork metal truss. It will provide the station with the energy necessary for the normal functioning of the new modules. It will also feature an ERA mechanical arm.

Launches on Protons

Russian Proton rockets are expected to carry three large modules to the ISS. So far, only a very rough flight schedule is known. So, in 2007 it is planned to add to the station our spare functional cargo block (FGB-2 - Zarya’s twin), which will be turned into a multifunctional laboratory.

In the same year, the European robotic arm ERA should be deployed by Proton. And finally, in 2009 it will be necessary to put into operation a Russian research module, functionally similar to the American “Destiny”.

* * *

The ISS is the largest, most expensive and long-term space project in the history of mankind. While the station has not yet been completed, its cost can only be estimated approximately - over 100 billion dollars. Criticism of the ISS most often boils down to the fact that with this money it is possible to carry out hundreds of unmanned scientific expeditions to the planets of the solar system.

There is some truth to such accusations. However, this is a very limited approach. Firstly, it does not take into account the potential profit from the development of new technologies when creating each new module of the ISS - and yet its instruments really cost cutting edge Sciences. Their modifications can be used in everyday life and can bring enormous income.

We must not forget that thanks to the ISS program, humanity has the opportunity to preserve and increase all the precious technologies and skills of manned space flights that were obtained in the second half of the 20th century at an incredible price. In the “space race” of the USSR and the USA, a lot of money was spent, many people died - all this may be in vain if we stop moving in the same direction.

Webcam on the International Space Station

Ibuki(Japanese: いぶき Ibuki, Breath) is an Earth remote sensing satellite, the world's first spacecraft whose task is to monitor greenhouse gases. The satellite is also known as The Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite, or GOSAT for short. "Ibuki" is equipped infrared sensors, which determine the density carbon dioxide and methane in the atmosphere. In total, the satellite has seven different scientific instruments. Ibuki was developed by the Japanese space agency JAXA and launched on January 23, 2009 from the Tanegashima Satellite Launch Center. The launch was carried out using a Japanese H-IIA launch vehicle.

Video broadcast life on the space station includes internal view module, in the case when the astronauts are on duty. The video is accompanied by live audio of negotiations between the ISS and MCC. Television is only available when the ISS is in contact with the ground via high-speed communications. If the signal is lost, viewers can see a test picture or graphics card world, which shows the location of the station in orbit in real time. Because the ISS orbits the Earth every 90 minutes, the sun rises or sets every 45 minutes. When the ISS is in darkness, the external cameras may show blackness, but can also show a breathtaking view of the city lights below.

International Space Station, abbr. The ISS (International Space Station, abbr. ISS) is a manned orbital station used as a multi-purpose space research complex. The ISS is a joint international project in which 15 countries participate: Belgium, Brazil, Germany, Denmark, Spain, Italy, Canada, the Netherlands, Norway, Russia, USA, France, Switzerland, Sweden, Japan. The ISS is controlled by: the Russian segment - from Space Flight Control Center in Korolev, the American segment from the Mission Control Center in Houston. There is a daily exchange of information between the Centers.

Means of communication
The transmission of telemetry and the exchange of scientific data between the station and the Mission Control Center is carried out using radio communications. In addition, radio communications are used during rendezvous and docking operations; they are used for audio and video communication between crew members and with flight control specialists on Earth, as well as relatives and friends of the astronauts. Thus, the ISS is equipped with internal and external multi-purpose communication systems.
The Russian segment of the ISS communicates directly with Earth using the Lyra radio antenna installed on the Zvezda module. "Lira" makes it possible to use the "Luch" satellite data relay system. This system was used to communicate with the Mir station, but it fell into disrepair in the 1990s and is not currently used. To restore the system's functionality, Luch-5A was launched in 2012. At the beginning of 2013, it is planned to install specialized subscriber equipment on the Russian segment of the station, after which it will become one of the main subscribers of the Luch-5A satellite. The launches of 3 more satellites “Luch-5B”, “Luch-5V” and “Luch-4” are also expected.
Other Russian system communications, "Voskhod-M", provides telephone communication between the modules "Zvezda", "Zarya", "Pirs", "Poisk" and the American segment, as well as VHF radio communication with ground centers control using external antennas of the Zvezda module.
In the American segment, two separate systems located on the Z1 truss are used for communication in the S-band (audio transmission) and Ku-band (audio, video, data transmission). Radio signals from these systems are transmitted to American TDRSS geostationary satellites, which allows for almost continuous contact with mission control in Houston. Data from Canadarm2, the European Columbus module and the Japanese Kibo module are redirected through these two communication systems, however American system TDRSS data transmission will eventually be supplemented by the European satellite system (EDRS) and a similar Japanese one. Communication between modules is carried out via an internal digital wireless network.
During spacewalks, astronauts use a UHF VHF transmitter. VHF radio communications are also used during docking or undocking by the Soyuz, Progress, HTV, ATV and Space Shuttle spacecraft (although the shuttles also use S- and Ku-band transmitters via TDRSS). With its help, these spacecraft receive commands from the mission control center or from the ISS crew members. Automatic spacecraft are equipped with their own means of communication. Thus, ATV ships use a specialized Proximity Communication Equipment (PCE) system during rendezvous and docking, the equipment of which is located on the ATV and on the Zvezda module. Communication is carried out through two completely independent S-band radio channels. PCE begins to function, starting from relative ranges of about 30 kilometers, and is turned off after the ATV is docked to the ISS and switches to interaction via the on-board MIL-STD-1553 bus. For precise definition relative position of the ATV and the ISS, a system of laser rangefinders installed on the ATV is used, making accurate docking with the station possible.
The station is equipped with approximately one hundred ThinkPad laptop computers from IBM and Lenovo, models A31 and T61P. These are ordinary serial computers, which, however, have been modified for use in the ISS, in particular, the connectors and cooling system have been redesigned, the 28 Volt voltage used at the station has been taken into account, and the safety requirements for working in zero gravity have been met. Since January 2010, the station has provided direct Internet access for the American segment. Computers on board the ISS are connected via Wi-Fi wireless network and are connected to the Earth at a speed of 3 Mbit/s for downloading and 10 Mbit/s for downloading, which is comparable to a home ADSL connection.

Orbit altitude
The altitude of the ISS orbit is constantly changing. Due to the remnants of the atmosphere, a gradual braking and altitude decrease occur. All incoming ships help raise the altitude using their engines. At one time they limited themselves to compensating for the decline. Recently, the altitude of the orbit has been steadily increasing. February 10, 2011 — The flight altitude of the International Space Station was about 353 kilometers above sea level. On June 15, 2011 it increased by 10.2 kilometers and amounted to 374.7 kilometers. On June 29, 2011, the orbital altitude was 384.7 kilometers. In order to reduce the influence of the atmosphere to a minimum, the station had to be raised to 390-400 km, but American shuttles could not rise to such a height. Therefore, the station was maintained at altitudes of 330-350 km by periodic correction by engines. Due to the end of the shuttle flight program, this restriction has been lifted.

Timezone
The ISS uses Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), which is almost exactly equidistant from the times of the two control centers in Houston and Korolev. Every 16 sunrises/sunsets, the station's windows are closed to create the illusion of darkness at night. The team typically wakes up at 7 a.m. (UTC), and the crew typically works about 10 hours every weekday and about five hours every Saturday. During shuttle visits, the ISS crew usually follows Mission Elapsed Time (MET) - the total flight time of the shuttle, which is not tied to a specific time zone, but is calculated solely from the time the space shuttle took off. The ISS crew advances their sleep times before the shuttle arrives and returns to their previous sleep schedule after the shuttle departs.

Atmosphere
The station maintains an atmosphere close to that of Earth. Normal atmospheric pressure on the ISS is 101.3 kilopascals, the same as at sea level on Earth. The atmosphere on the ISS does not coincide with the atmosphere maintained in the shuttles, therefore, after the space shuttle docks, the pressures and composition of the gas mixture on both sides of the airlock are equalized. From approximately 1999 to 2004, NASA existed and developed the IHM (Inflatable Habitation Module) project, which planned to use atmospheric pressure at the station to deploy and create the working volume of an additional habitable module. The body of this module was supposed to be made of Kevlar fabric with a sealed inner shell of gas-tight synthetic rubber. However, in 2005, due to the unsolved nature of most of the problems posed in the project (in particular, the problem of protection from space debris particles), the IHM program was closed.

Microgravity
The gravity of the Earth at the height of the station's orbit is 90% of the gravity at sea level. The state of weightlessness is due to the constant free fall of the ISS, which, according to the equivalence principle, is equivalent to the absence of gravity. The station environment is often described as microgravity, due to four effects:

Braking pressure of the residual atmosphere.

Vibrational accelerations due to the operation of mechanisms and the movement of the station crew.

Orbit correction.

The heterogeneity of the Earth's gravitational field leads to the fact that different parts of the ISS are attracted to the Earth with different strengths.

All these factors create accelerations reaching values ​​of 10-3...10-1 g.

Observing the ISS
The size of the station is sufficient for its observation with the naked eye from the surface of the Earth. The ISS is observed as quite bright Star, moving quite quickly across the sky approximately from west to east (angular velocity of about 1 degree per second.) Depending on the observation point, the maximum value of its stellar magnitude can take a value from? 4 to 0. European Space Agency, together with the website “ www.heavens-above.com", provides the opportunity for everyone to find out the schedule of ISS flights over a certain populated area planets. By going to the website page dedicated to the ISS and entering the name of the city of interest in Latin letters, you can get the exact time and a graphical representation of the station’s flight path over it for the coming days. The flight schedule can also be viewed at www.amsat.org. The ISS flight path can be seen in real time on the website of the Federal Space Agency. You can also use the Heavensat (or Orbitron) program.

The choice of some orbital parameters for the International Space Station is not always obvious. For example, a station can be located at an altitude of 280 to 460 kilometers, and because of this, it is constantly experiencing the inhibiting influence of the upper layers of the atmosphere of our planet. Every day, the ISS loses approximately 5 cm/s in speed and 100 meters in altitude. Therefore, it is necessary to periodically raise the station, burning the fuel of ATV and Progress trucks. Why can't the station be raised higher to avoid these costs?

The range assumed during the design and the current real position are dictated by several reasons. Every day, astronauts and cosmonauts receive high doses of radiation, and beyond the 500 km mark its level increases sharply. And the limit for a six-month stay is set at only half a sievert; only a sievert is allotted for the entire career. Each sievert increases the risk of cancer by 5.5 percent.

On Earth, we are protected from cosmic rays by the radiation belt of our planet’s magnetosphere and atmosphere, but they work weaker in near space. In some parts of the orbit (the South Atlantic Anomaly is such a spot of increased radiation) and beyond it, strange effects can sometimes appear: flashes appear in closed eyes. These are cosmic particles passing through the eyeballs; other interpretations claim that the particles excite the parts of the brain responsible for vision. This can not only interfere with sleep, but also once again unpleasantly reminds you of high level radiation on the ISS.

In addition, Soyuz and Progress, which are now the main crew change and supply ships, are certified to operate at altitudes of up to 460 km. The higher the ISS is, the less cargo can be delivered. The rockets that send new modules for the station will also be able to bring less. On the other hand, the lower the ISS, the more it decelerates, that is, more of the delivered cargo must be fuel for subsequent orbit correction.

Scientific tasks can be carried out at an altitude of 400-460 kilometers. Finally, the position of the station is affected by space debris - failed satellites and their debris, which have enormous speed relative to the ISS, which makes a collision with them fatal.

There are resources on the Internet that allow you to monitor the orbital parameters of the International Space Station. You can obtain relatively accurate current data, or track their dynamics. At the time of writing this text, the ISS was at an altitude of approximately 400 kilometers.

The ISS can be accelerated by elements located at the rear of the station: these are Progress trucks (most often) and ATVs, and, if necessary, the Zvezda service module (extremely rare). In the illustration before the kata, a European ATV is running. The station is raised often and little by little: corrections occur approximately once a month in small portions of about 900 seconds of engine operation; Progress uses smaller engines so as not to greatly influence the course of the experiments.

The engines can be turned on once, thus increasing the flight altitude on the other side of the planet. Such operations are used for small ascents, since the eccentricity of the orbit changes.

A correction with two activations is also possible, in which the second activation smoothes the station’s orbit to a circle.

Some parameters are dictated not only by scientific data, but also by politics. It is possible to give the spacecraft any orientation, but during launch it will be more economical to use the speed provided by the rotation of the Earth. Thus, it is cheaper to launch the vehicle into an orbit with an inclination equal to the latitude, and maneuvers will require additional fuel consumption: more for movement towards the equator, less for movement towards the poles. The ISS's orbital inclination of 51.6 degrees may seem strange: NASA vehicles launched from Cape Canaveral traditionally have an inclination of about 28 degrees.

When the location of the future ISS station was discussed, it was decided that it would be more economical to give preference to the Russian side. Also, such orbital parameters allow you to see more of the Earth's surface.

But Baikonur is located at a latitude of approximately 46 degrees, so why is it common for Russian launches is the inclination of 51.6°? The fact is that there is a neighbor to the east who will not be too happy if something falls on him. Therefore, the orbit is tilted to 51.6° so that during launch no parts of the spacecraft could under any circumstances fall into China and Mongolia.