External structure of mammals. General features and structure of mammals Land mammal features of external structure

Laboratory work No. 10

Issues for discussion

Test yourself

Task 5. Consider the structural features of birds. Indicate the structural features and functions of organ systems and individual organs. Fill out the table. 11 using the textbook “Zoology with elements of ecology” (Blinnikov V.I., pp. 139-146).

Table 11

Characteristics of the structure of birds

What progressive structural features appear in birds compared to reptiles?

Name the adaptations for flight in the internal structure of birds.

Name the structural features of the bird skeleton in connection with adaptation to flight.

Describe the mechanism of double breathing in birds.

What is the structure of a bird egg?

Tasks for independent work

Write down in your notebook the routes of infection and methods of preventing psittacosis. Find out how common psittacosis occurs in the Czech Republic. Use scientific literature and the Internet.

Write down in your notebook three representatives of birds from the Red Book of the Chechen Republic, three representatives from the Red Book of the Russian Federation. Indicate their habitats, reasons for the decline in numbers and ways to restore numbers. Please indicate whether these animals are included in the red list of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). For work, use the Internet, electronic versions and originals of the Red Book of the Czech Republic and the Red Book of the Russian Federation.

Target: study morphological features mammals

Tasks

Exercise 1. Examine the skeleton of a rabbit. Using fig. 33, find the sections of the spine, determine how the spine of a rabbit, a bird and a lizard differs. Pay attention to the arrangement of the rabbit's limbs compared to the lizard.

Task 2. Consider the shape of mammalian teeth on a wolf's skull. Notice how the teeth are differentiated in shape depending on the function they perform. In Fig. 34, find the main types of teeth.

Task 3. Consider the internal structure of the rat (Fig. 35). Pay attention to the location of the internal organs in the body cavity. Note the relatively large size of the cecum, the absence of a cloaca, and the separation of the anus from the genitourinary opening.

Task 4. Consider the alveoli of the lungs of mammals (Fig. 36). Pay attention to the intensity of entangling of the alveoli with blood vessels.

External structure

The animals have well-defined head, neck, body and tail. The head is usually distinguished between the cranial region, located behind the eyes, and the facial, or muzzle, located in front. The eyes are equipped with an upper, lower and third eyelid. Unlike birds, the nictitating membrane (third eyelid) only covers half of the mammal's eye. On the sides of the head are located big ears, at the end of the muzzle there are paired nostrils See www.studiosharp.ru professional knife sharpening machine.

The mouth is lined with fleshy lips characteristic of mammals. There are usually very coarse hairs on the upper lip - vibrissae.

Several of them are located above the eyes. They play the role of additional organs of touch. Under the root of the tail there is an anal opening, and somewhat anterior to it there is a genitourinary opening. In females, there are 4–5 pairs of nipples on the sides of the body on the ventral side. The limbs are five- or four-fingered, the fingers are armed with claws.

Skin

The fur that covers the body of mammals is a derivative of the skin. There are two types of hair - guard hair and soft hair - downy hair. The skin consists of two main layers - the epidermis and corium. The first is a thin stratum corneum, and the second is very thick and dense. Its lower part forms the subcutaneous tissue.

Skeleton

The spine consists of five sections: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral and caudal. The vertebrae have flat articular surfaces characteristic of mammals and are separated from each other by round cartilaginous discs - menisci.

The cervical region of all mammals (with very rare exceptions) contains 7 vertebrae. (Both the mouse and the giraffe have 7 cervical vertebrae). These vertebrae lack free ribs. The thoracic region contains 12-13 vertebrae, all of which are equipped with ribs. The front seven pairs of ribs connect to the sternum and are called “true ribs.” The next five pairs do not reach the sternum. The lumbar region is devoid of ribs and usually contains 6-7 vertebrae. The sacrum is formed in most mammals by four fused vertebrae. The anterior ones usually bear two processes, with the help of which the pelvis is articulated. The caudal region is very variable in the number of vertebrae.

The skull is divided into axial, consisting of the bones surrounding the brain, and visceral (facial), which includes the bones surrounding the mouth opening - the palate, the bones of the upper and mandibles.

The shoulder girdle is represented only by the scapula and clavicle, and mammals do not have a crow bone (coracoid). In fast runners, the collarbone usually disappears (ungulates). The pelvic region consists of a pair of innominate bones, each of which was formed by the fusion of the ilium, ischium and pubis. The skeleton of paired limbs has three typical sections. In the forelimbs these are the shoulder, forearm and hand, and in the hind limbs these are the thigh, lower leg and foot. In mammals, a rounded tendon bone, the patella, appears at the knee joint on the hind limbs.

Muscular system

This system in animals reaches exceptional development and complexity. They have several hundred individual striated muscles. A feature of the mammalian muscular system is the presence of a diaphragm and the appearance of subcutaneous muscles. The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscular septum that separates the thoracic region from the abdominal region. In the center it is perforated by the esophagus. The diaphragm takes part in the acts of breathing and defecation of animals. The subcutaneous muscles represent a continuous subcutaneous layer. With its help, animals can move areas of their skin. The same muscles take part in the formation of lips and cheeks. In monkeys it has almost disappeared and is preserved only on the face. There she received an unusually strong development - this is the so-called facial muscles.

Nervous system

The animal's brain has powerfully developed hemispheres of the forebrain and cerebellum. They cover all other parts of the brain on top.

The forebrain consists of the cerebral hemispheres, covered with gray brain matter - the cerebral cortex. The olfactory lobes extend forward from the hemispheres. Between the hemispheres there is a wide bridge of white nerve fibers.

The diencephalon has a funnel and optic chiasm, as in other classes of vertebrates. The pituitary gland is attached to the funnel of the diencephalon, while the epiphysis is located above the cerebellum on a long stalk. The midbrain is very small in size; in addition to the longitudinal groove, it also has a transverse groove, which is characteristic only of mammals. The cerebellum consists of an unpaired part - the vermis and two lateral parts, which are very large and are usually referred to as the cerebellar hemispheres. The medulla oblongata has a feature that is also unique to mammals. On the sides of this brain are bundles of nerve fibers going to the cerebellum. They are called the posterior cerebellar peduncles. The medulla oblongata passes into the spinal cord.

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Just as among plants there is the most adapted dominant group - angiosperms, so among animals there are organisms that are distinguished by higher specialization in the structure of external and internal organs. In this article we will consider the features of their structure, development, reproduction and classification.

Class mammals: general characteristics

Characteristics of mammals include the designation of all their features that they possess. Firstly, these are the most highly adapted animals that have managed to spread throughout the planet. They are found everywhere: in equatorial stripes, steppes, deserts and even in the waters of Antarctica.

Such a wide distribution across the planet is explained by the fact that internal structure mammals has its own advantages and features, which will be discussed later. Their appearance also did not remain unchanged. Almost all parts of the body undergo many adaptive modifications when it comes to any particular representative.

In addition, the behavior of this class of animals is also the most highly organized and complex. This is also evidenced by the fact that Homo sapiens is considered one of the orders of mammals.

Higher brain development allowed humans to rise above all other creatures. Today, mammals play a huge role in human life. They are for him:

• power supply;
• draft power;
• pets;
• source of laboratory material;
• agricultural workers.

The characteristics of mammals are given according to numerous studies from various sciences. But the main one is called theriology (“terios” - beast).

Classification of mammals

There are various options for combining different species into groups. But the diversity of representatives is too great to allow us to settle on just one option. Therefore, any classification can be supplemented, corrected and replaced with another.

Today there are about 5.5 thousand species of mammals, of which 380 species live in our country. All this diversity is united into 27 units. The groups of mammals are as follows:

• monotreme;
• opossums;
• coenolesta;
• microbiotheria;
• marsupials;
• bandicoots;
• two-incisor;
• jumpers;
• golden moles;
• aardvarks;
• hyraxes;
• proboscis;
• sirens;
• anteaters;
• armadillos;
• lagomorphs;
• rodents;
• tupai;
• woolwings;
• monkey;
• insectivores;
• bats;
• odd-toed ungulates;
• artiodactyls;
• cetaceans;
• predatory;
• pangolins.

All this inhabits all living environments and is distributed in all territories, regardless of climate. Also, extinct organisms are not included here, since together with them the number of mammals is about 20 thousand species.

External structure of mammals

As already mentioned, in addition to high organization inside, mammals have and obvious outside. There are several main such signs.

1. The presence of a mandatory smooth or rough coat (in the case of a hairy person).
2. Formations of the epidermis that perform protective function- horns, hooves, claws, hair, eyelashes, eyebrows.
3. The presence of skin glands: sebaceous and sweat.
4. There are seven vertebrae in the cervical spinal column.
5. The testes are oval shaped.
6. Viviparity as a way of reproducing offspring, and then caring for them.
7. The presence of mammary glands for feeding the young, which explains the name of the class.
8. Constant body temperature or homeothermy - warm-bloodedness.
9. The presence of a diaphragm.
10. Differentiated teeth of various structures and types.

Thus, the external structure of mammals clearly has its own characteristics. Based on their totality, one can identify the individual’s place in However, as always, there are exceptions. For example, the rodent mole rat does not have a constant body temperature and is classified as cold-blooded. And platypuses are incapable of viviparity, although they are primal animals.

Skeleton and its features

The skeletal structure of mammals can rightfully be considered their distinctive feature. After all, only they clearly divide it into five main departments:

• scull;
• rib cage;
• spine;
• belt of lower and upper limbs;
• limbs.

At the same time, the spinal column also has its own characteristics. It includes:

• cervical;
• chest;
• lumbar;
• sacral sections.

The skull is much larger in size than that of all other representatives of the animal world. This indicates a higher organization of brain activity, mind, behavior and emotions. The lower jaw is movably attached to the skull; in addition, the facial structure has one zygomatic bone.

The structure of the skeleton of mammals is also special in that the spine consists of placetal (that is, flat) vertebrae. No other representative of the fauna has such a phenomenon. Besides, spinal cord is located inside the column in a straight cord, and its gray matter has the shape of a “butterfly”.

The limbs, or rather their skeletons, are not the same in the number of fingers, bone length and other parameters. This is explained by adaptation to a certain lifestyle. Therefore, such skeletal details should be studied for each individual representative.

What is located inside the animal organism and constitutes its essence is the most important part of the entire individual. It is the internal structure of mammals that allows them to occupy a dominant position on land and sea. All these features lie in the structure and functioning of each organ, and then in the whole organism.

In general, nothing exceptional is observed in their structure. General principles are saved. It’s just that some organs have reached their maximum development, which left an overall imprint on the perfection of the class.

The most extensive topic for study is the structure of mammals. The table will therefore be the best option reflect the general systemic organization of the internal structure of animals of this class. It can reflect the composition of organs, main systems and the functions they perform.

Structure and functions of mammalian internal organ systems

Organ system	Organs that make it up	Functions performed
Digestive	Oral cavity with tongue and teeth, esophagus, stomach, intestines and digestive glands	Captures and crushes food, pushes it into the internal environment and completely digests it into simple molecules
Respiratory	Trachea, larynx, bronchi, lungs, nasal cavity	Gas exchange with the environment, oxygen saturation of all organs and tissues
Blood	Heart, blood vessels, arteries, aorta, capillaries and veins	Implementation of blood circulation
Nervous	Spinal cord, brain and nerves extending from them, nerve cells	Providing innervation, irritability, response to all influences
Musculoskeletal	Skeleton, made up of bones and the muscles that attach to them	Ensuring constant body shape, movement, support
excretory	Kidneys, ureters, bladder	Removal of liquid metabolic products
Endocrine	Glands of external, internal and mixed secretion	Regulation of the functioning of the entire body and many internal processes (growth, development, formation of fluids)
Reproductive system	Includes external and internal genitalia involved in fertilization and fetal formation	Reproduction
Sense organs	Analyzers: visual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory, tactile, vestibular	Providing orientation in space, adaptation to the surrounding world

Circulatory system

The structural features of mammals include the presence of a four-chambered heart. This occurs due to the formation of a complete septum. It is this fact that stands at the forefront of the fact that these animals are warm-blooded, have constant temperature body and homeostasis internal environment the body as a whole.

Nervous system

The brain and spinal cord, their structure and functioning are structural features of mammals. After all, no animal is capable of experiencing as many emotions as they do. Nature has endowed them with the ability to think, remember, think, make decisions, and quickly and correctly respond to dangers.

If we talk about a person, then it is generally difficult to convey the full scope of the superiority of reason. Animals have instincts and intuition that help them live. All this is controlled by the brain, together with other systems.

Digestive system

The internal structure of mammals allows them not only to adapt to living conditions, but also to choose their food. So, in ruminants special structure stomach, which allows them to process grass almost continuously.

The structure of the dental apparatus also varies greatly depending on the type of nutrition. In herbivores, incisors predominate, while in carnivores, fangs are clearly visible. All these are features digestive system. In addition, each species produces its own set of digestive enzymes to make food digestion easier and more efficient.

Excretory organ system

The internal organs of mammals, which take part in the excretion of liquid metabolic products, are arranged according to the same principle. The kidneys process a huge volume of fluid and form a filtrate - urine. It is secreted through the ureters into the bladder, which, when filled, is emptied into the environment.

Endocrine system

The entire internal structure of mammals is united and coordinated in its work. However, there are two systems that are coordinators and regulators for everyone else. This:

• nervous;
• endocrine.

If the first does this through nerve impulses and irritations, then the second uses hormones. These chemical compounds have enormous power. Almost all processes of growth, development, maturation, production of emotions, secretion of glandular products, metabolic mechanisms are the result of the work of this particular system. It includes such important organs as:

• adrenal glands;
• thyroid;
• thymus;
• pituitary;
• hypothalamus and others.

Sense organs

The reproduction and development of mammals, their orientation in the surrounding world, adaptive reactions - all this would be impossible without what analyzers compose them, we have already indicated in the table. I just want to emphasize the importance and high level development of each of them.

The organs of vision are very well developed, although not as acute as in birds. Hearing is a very important analyzer. For predators and their victims, this is the basis and key to a successful life. The victim can hear a lion's roar from several kilometers away.

Helps to quickly change body position, move and feel comfort during any turns of the body. The sense of smell also serves as the key to a well-fed day. After all, most predators sense their victims by smell.

Reproduction and developmental features of mammals

The reproduction and development of mammals occurs according to all generally accepted principles. Females and males have mating and fertilization process. After this, the female bears the baby and reproduces it. However, further on the difference between mammals and all other, lower-organized individuals begins. They take care of their offspring, introducing them into adulthood and independent life.

The number of cubs is not so large, so each of them receives care, affection and love from their parents. Man, as the pinnacle of development in the animal world, also demonstrates a high degree of maternal instinct.

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FEDERAL EDUCATION AGENCY

STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

HIGHER STATE EDUCATION

"NOVOSIBIRSK STATE PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY"

FACULTY OF PRIMARY CLASSES

Discipline: Zoology

Structural features and behavioral features of mammals

Performed:

Vashchenko Elena Gennadievna

Novosibirsk 2010

Introduction

1. Common features mammals

1.2 Structural features of mammals

2. Peculiarities of mammalian behavior

2.2 Interspecies aggression

2.3 Intraspecific aggression

Conclusion

Bibliography

INTRODUCTION

Zoology - scientific discipline that studies the animal world, large component biology. Based on the objectives of the study, zoology is divided into a number of disciplines: systematics, morphology, embryology, animal genetics, zoogeography, etc. Based on the objects of research, protozoology, which studies protozoa, is distinguished, invertebrate zoology and vertebrate zoology. The last object of study includes theriology, studying mammals.

The emergence of mammals became possible as a result of the formation of a number of large aromorphoses, which reduced the dependence of animals on changes external environment. Mammals evolved from ancient reptiles at the very beginning of the Mesozoic era, i.e. earlier than birds, but the development that led to the modern richness of forms of this class of vertebrates belongs to Cenozoic era, after the extinction of large reptiles.

I decided to talk about mammals because... they are the most highly specialized group of land animals. There are currently more than 4,000 species of mammals.

In the first chapter of the essay, I will give an overview of the general features of mammals that distinguish them from other animals, then I will describe the features of their structure and behavior. I will dwell on the behavioral features of mammals in more detail, because... This topic is very interesting and fascinating, but is not covered in the biology textbook.

1. GENERAL FEATURES OF MAMMALS

Mammals - warm-blooded vertebrates from the amniote group. As I already said, this is the most highly specialized group of land animals, which is distinguished by the following progressive features.

1. Highly developed central nervous system and sensory organs. The cerebral cortex, formed by gray matter, appears, which ensures a high level of nervous activity and complex adaptive behavior.

2. Thermoregulation system, ensuring relative constancy of body temperature.

3. Live birth(except for oviparous ones) and feeding the cubs with mother's milk, which ensures better safety of the offspring.

Height of organization of mammals It is also expressed in the fact that all their organs achieve the greatest differentiation, and the brain has the most perfect structure. The center of higher nervous activity is especially developed in it - the cerebral cortex, consisting of gray brain matter. Due to this reactions and behavior of mammalsAnddeliver exceptional perfection. This is facilitated by very complex sense organs, especially hearing and smell. The rapid progressive development of mammals was also facilitated by the differentiation of teeth into incisors, canines and molars.

The acquisition played a huge role in the development of this group heatOblood, that is, a constantly high body temperature. It occurs due to: a) unmixed blood circulation, b) enhanced gas exchange, c) thermoregulatory devices

Unmixed circulation, as in birds, is achieved by a four-chambered heart and the preservation of only one (left) aortic arch in animals. The acquisition of an alveolar lung structure and the appearance of a diaphragm led to increased gas exchange. Diaphragm- This is a muscular septum that completely divides the body into two parts - the thoracic and abdominal. The diaphragm is involved in the act of inhalation and exhalation. Thermoregulation achieved by the appearance of hair and skin glands

Thanks to the perfection of the digestive, respiratory and circulatory systems, the entire metabolism of mammals proceeds very intensively, which, along with high body temperature, makes them less dependent on environmental climatic conditions than amphibians and reptiles. Fast progressive development animals is also due to the fact that the highest of them developed viviparity. The embryo is nourished in the womb through special body - placenta. After birth, the baby is fed milk. It is secreted by special mammary glands. All this greatly increases the survival rate of offspring.

Thanks to the height of their organization and perfect psyche, by the beginning of the Cenozoic era (65 million years ago), mammals were able to displace the reptiles that had dominated the Earth until then and occupy all the main habitats.

2. CCASTRUCTURE FEATURES OF MAMMALS

External structure

Animals have well expressed: head, neck, torso and tail. On the head Usually a distinction is made between the cranial region, located behind the eyes, and the facial, or muzzle, located in front. Eyes equipped with upper, lower and third eyelids. Unlike birds, the nictitating membrane (third eyelid) only covers half of the mammal's eye. On the sides of the head there are large ears, at the end of the muzzle there are paired nostrils. Mouth bordered by fleshy lips characteristic of mammals. There are usually very coarse hairs on the upper lip - vibrissae. Several of them are located above the eyes. They play the role of additional organs of touch. Under the root of the tail there is an anal opening, and somewhat anterior to it there is a genitourinary opening. Females have 4-5 pairs of nipples on the sides of the body on the ventral side. The limbs are five- or four-fingered, the fingers are armed with claws.

Skin

Wool, covering the body of mammals, is a derivative of the skin. There are two types of hair - guard hair and soft hair - downy hair. The skin consists of two main layers - epidermis And corium. The first is a thin stratum corneum, and the second is very thick and dense. Its lower part forms the subcutaneous tissue.

Skeleton

The spine consists of five sections: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral and caudal. The vertebrae have flat articular surfaces characteristic of mammals and are separated from each other by round cartilaginous discs - menisci.

The cervical region of all mammals (with very rare exceptions) contains 7 vertebrae. (Both the mouse and the giraffe have 7 cervical vertebrae). These vertebrae lack free ribs. The thoracic region contains 12-13 vertebrae, all of which are equipped with ribs. The front seven pairs of ribs connect to the sternum and are called “true ribs.” The next five pairs do not reach the sternum. The lumbar region is devoid of ribs and usually contains 6-7 vertebrae. The sacrum is formed in most mammals by four fused vertebrae. The anterior ones usually bear two processes, with the help of which the pelvis is articulated. The caudal region is very variable in the number of vertebrae.

Scull is divided into axial, consisting of the bones surrounding the brain, and visceral (facial), which includes the bones surrounding the mouth opening - the palate, the bones of the upper and lower jaws.

Shoulder girdle is represented only by the scapula and clavicle, and mammals do not have a crow bone (coracoid). In fast runners, the collarbone usually disappears (ungulates). The pelvic region consists of a pair of innominate bones, each of which was formed by the fusion of the ilium, ischium and pubis. The skeleton of paired limbs has three typical sections. In the forelimbs these are the shoulder, forearm and hand, and in the hind limbs these are the thigh, lower leg and foot. In mammals, a rounded tendon bone appears at the knee joint on the hind limbs - the patella.

Muscular system

This system in animals reaches exceptional development and complexity. They have several hundred individual striated muscles. A feature of the mammalian muscular system is the presence of a diaphragm and the appearance of subcutaneous muscles. Diaphragm- This is a dome-shaped muscular septum that separates the thoracic region from the abdominal region. In the center it is perforated by the esophagus. The diaphragm takes part in the acts of breathing and defecation of animals. The subcutaneous muscles represent a continuous subcutaneous layer. With its help, animals can move areas of their skin. The same muscles take part in the formation of lips and cheeks. In monkeys it has almost disappeared and is preserved only on the face. There she received an unusually strong development - this is the so-called facial muscles.

Nervous system

Brain The beast has powerfully developed hemispheres of the forebrain and cerebellum. They cover all other parts of the brain on top.

Forebrain consists of the cerebral hemispheres covered with gray brain matter - the cerebral cortex. The olfactory lobes extend forward from the hemispheres. Between the hemispheres there is a wide bridge of white nerve fibers.

Diencephalon has a funnel and optic chiasm, as in other classes of vertebrates. The pituitary gland is attached to the funnel of the diencephalon, while the epiphysis is located above the cerebellum on a long stalk. Midbrain It is distinguished by its very small size; in addition to the longitudinal groove, it also has a transverse one, which is characteristic only of mammals. Cerebellum consists of an unpaired part - the vermis and two lateral ones, which are very large and are usually designated as the cerebellar hemispheres. Medulla has a feature that is also characteristic only of mammals. On the sides of this brain are bundles of nerve fibers going to the cerebellum. They are called the posterior cerebellar peduncles. The medulla oblongata passes into the spinal cord.

Sense organs

They are very highly developed in mammals, and, in accordance with the ecological specialization of a particular group, the sense of smell, vision, hearing, and touch are of leading importance. The hearing organs of animals are especially well developed. They have bony ear tympani and large, movable outer ears.

Digestive organs

Oral cavity limited in animals to the lips. The lips are involved in grasping and holding prey. The oral cavity is limited above by a hard bony palate. Due to this, the choanae (inner nostrils) are pushed back towards the pharynx. This allows animals to breathe while food is in the mouth. The sides of the oral cavity are limited by soft muscular cheeks, and at the bottom there is a large muscular tongue. Its functions are to perceive taste sensations and push food under the teeth during chewing and into the pharynx during swallowing. Ducts open into the mouth salivary glands(4 paired glands - parotid, infraorbital, submandibular and sublingual). Teeth do not grow to the surface of the bone, as in previous classes, but sit in independent cells. The teeth are differentiated into incisors, canines and molars. The tooth itself consists of such parts as a crown with a working surface, the body of the tooth and its root. Throat of Beasts short, the windpipe and choanae open into it. Thus, in mammals, the pharynx is the crossroads of two pathways - the alimentary and the respiratory. Esophagus It is a simple, highly extensible muscular tube. After passing through the diaphragm, it connects to the stomach. Stomach has the appearance of a large horseshoe-shaped curved bag that lies across the body. The peritoneum, filled with fat, hangs from the stomach and covers everything like an apron. internal organs. Liver is located under the diaphragm, its flows open in duodenum, in the loop of which lies the pancreas. Most mammals have a gallbladder. Intestines can be of different lengths, it depends on the composition of the feed. The herbivorous rabbit has a very long intestine - 15-16 times longer than body. Its sections are the small, large and rectal intestines. At the beginning of the large intestine in mammals there is an unpaired blind outgrowth - the cecum. The intestine opens outwards with an independent anal opening.

Respiratory system

Larynx, as usual for mammals, has a cricoid cartilage, in front of which is the large thyroid cartilage. The mammalian larynx is complex. On inside The vocal cords are stretched in the larynx. These are paired elastic folds of the mucous membrane, stretched in the cavity of the larynx and limiting the glottis. Lungs represent a pair of spongy bodies hanging freely into the chest cavity. Their internal structure is characterized by great complexity. The trachea near the lungs divides into two bronchi. The bronchi, entering the lungs, are divided into secondary bronchi, which in turn are divided into bronchi of the third and fourth order. They end in bronchioles. The ends of the bronchioles are swollen and entwined with blood vessels. These are the so-called alveoli, where gas exchange occurs.

Circulatory system

Heart animals, like birds, have four chambers, and the left ventricle drives blood through the systemic circulation and, like birds, has much thicker walls than the right. A large vessel departs from the left ventricle - the aorta, which begins the systemic circulation. Arterial blood supplies all organs of the body, and venous blood is collected through the vein system. The largest of them - the posterior and two anterior vena cava - flow into the right atrium. From the right atrium, blood enters the right ventricle, from here the pulmonary circulation, or, as it is also called, pulmonary circulation, begins. Venous blood is ejected from the right ventricle into the large pulmonary artery. This artery divides into right and left, leading to the lungs. From each lung, blood collects in the pulmonary vein (the blood in it is arterial), both veins merge and flow into the left atrium. Next, from the left atrium, blood pours into the left ventricle and again flows through the systemic circulation.

Organs, secretions

U mammals are a pair of bean-shaped kidneys located in the lumbar region. From the inner concave side of each kidney there is a ureter (a thin tube) that drains directly into the bladder. The bladder opens into the urethra.

Genitals

In mammals, these are paired testes (in males) or paired ovaries (in females). The testes have a characteristic oval shape. The appendages of the testes are adjacent to them. The paired vas deferens open into the beginning of the urethra. The terminal parts of the vas deferens are expanded into the seminal vesicles. The paired ovaries of the female have an oval-flattened shape. Near each ovary there is an oviduct. At one end the oviduct opens into the body cavity, and at the opposite end it passes into the uterus without a visible boundary. The uterus of animals is two-horned, the right and left horns of the uterus independently open into the vagina. It is unpaired. The posterior end gradually passes into the urethra and the bladder opens into it. The vagina opens externally through the urogenital opening.

Development of the embryo

Egg cells develop in the ovary, then mature cells exit the ovary into the body cavity and are captured there by the oviduct funnel. Thanks to the flickering movements of the cilia of the tube (oviduct), the egg moves along it, and if the female is fertilized, then in the tube (usually in its first third) the egg and sperm merge. The fertilized egg continues to slowly descend into the uterus and at the same time its fragmentation begins (dividing the egg into many cells). Having reached the uterus, the egg, which by that time has turned into a dense multicellular ball, is embedded in the wall. There they start to come to him nutrients. Quite soon, a placenta forms around the implanted embryo. This is the membrane of the fruit, very characteristic of mammals. The placenta is a spongy organ rich in blood vessels, in which a child's and maternal parts are distinguished. The nursery consists of the villi of the embryonic membrane, and the maternal - from the wall of the uterus. During childbirth, the muscular layer of the uterus contracts strongly and the baby's placenta (chorion), by that time connected very slightly with the mucous membrane of the uterus, opens and comes out along with the newborn in the form of a child's place.

3. SPECIALESSENTIALS OF MAMMAL BEHAVIOR

Intraspecific behavior in mammals is characterized by aggression. It is due to the protection of the species from external and intraspecific factors. Often aggressive behavior manifests itself already in the early stages of ontogenesis, which can lead to the destruction of the youngest cub (kainism), and sometimes to its being eaten by its fellows (cannibalism). Due to aggressive behavior, infanticide (infanticide) is also possible in predatory mammals (lions), rodents (gophers), etc. When defending a group territory, collective aggressive behavior of the owners towards strangers is observed. In many cases, aggressive behavior is stimulated by sex hormones. Under the influence of aggressive influence, the body experiences a state of tension, stress. Under moderate stress, increased activity of the autonomic nervous system is detected. Stimulation of the adrenal medulla through the autonomic nerves causes them to release adrenaline into the blood. At the same time, changes occur in various parts of the body. The secretion of sweat glands begins, the hair stands on end, the heart beats faster, breathing becomes more frequent and deeper, blood from the digestive tract is redirected to the muscles. All this prepares the body for energetic actions of the required type. Under the influence of chronic stress, the animal becomes ill and may die.

The forms of aggression are diverse, we will try to classify them.

3.1 Interspecies aggression

1. Aggression of a predator towards its prey

In nature, some species inevitably attack others. The mutual influence of predator and prey leads to evolutionary competition, forcing one of them to adapt to the development of the other. But it is worth noting that a predator never completely destroys the prey population; some balance is always established between them. Strictly speaking, ethologists do not consider the behavior of a predator to be aggressive at all (Lorenz, Dolnik, etc.) or consider it a special form of aggression, different from all others. “When a wolf catches a hare, this is not aggression, but hunting. Likewise, when a hunter shoots ducks or a fisherman catches fish, it is not aggressive behavior. After all, they all feel no hostility, no fear, no anger, no hatred towards the victim.” AK. Lorenz writes: “The internal origins of the behavior of a hunter and a fighter are completely different. When a lion kills a buffalo, the buffalo arouses in him no more aggression than does the delicious turkey hanging in the pantry, which I look at with the same pleasure, arouse in me. The difference in internal motivations is clearly visible even in expressive movements. If a dog chases a hare, then it has exactly the same tense and joyful expression with which it greets its owner or anticipates something pleasant. And from the lion’s face, at the dramatic moment of the jump, you can quite clearly see how this is recorded on many great photos that he is not angry at all. Growling, pinned ears and other expressive movements associated with fighting behavior can be seen in hunting predators only when they are seriously afraid of their armed prey, but even then only in the form of a hint.”

A wonderful illustration of all that has been said is an excerpt from J. London’s story “White Fang”, where a wolf cub, having just dealt with partridge chicks, enters into a fight with the mother partridge. “...He was met by a winged whirlwind. The rapid onslaught and furious blows of the wings blinded and stunned the wolf cub. He buried his head in his paws and squealed. The blows rained down with renewed vigor. The mother partridge was furious. Then the wolf cub got angry. He jumped up with a growl and began to fight back with his paws, then he plunged his small teeth into the bird’s wing and began to pull and drag it from side to side with all his strength. The partridge rushed, hitting him with its other wing. This was the wolf cub's first fight. He was jubilant. He forgot all his fear of the unknown and was no longer afraid of anything. He tore and beat the living creature that struck him. Moreover, this living creature was meat. The wolf cub was possessed by a thirst for blood. He was too absorbed in the fight and too happy to feel his happiness...”

2. a) Much closer to genuine aggression than the hunter’s attack on the prey, the opposite case is the counterattack of the prey against the predator. An attack on a predator-devourer has obvious meaning for the conservation of the species. Even when the attacker is small, he causes very sensitive troubles to the object of the attack. This is especially true for herd animals, which attack the predator en masse (the so-called mobing). There are many examples. Ungulates often form a tight ring, putting their horns forward and protecting their young. This is how musk oxen repel attacks from wolves, and how buffalos defend themselves from lions. In our domestic cows and pigs, the instinct of a general attack on the wolf is firmly in the blood.

2. b)Like when a predator attacks prey or when baitingschnicknamed by his victims, The species-preserving function of the third type of combat behavior, which Lorenz called critical reaction, is also obvious. The expression “fight like a cornered rat” symbolizes a desperate struggle into which the fighter puts everything because he can neither escape nor expect mercy. This form of fighting behavior, the most violent, is motivated by fear (aggression and fear are twins), a strong desire to escape, which cannot be realized because the danger is too close. The animal, one might say, no longer risks turning its back to her - and attacks itself, with the “courage of despair.” This is what happens when escape is impossible due to limited space - as in the case of a cornered rat - but the need to protect the brood or family can do the same. The attack of the mother female on any object that comes too close to the cubs should also be considered a critical reaction. Upon sudden appearance dangerous enemy within a certain critical zone, many animals attack him furiously, although they would have fled from a much greater distance if they had noticed his approach from afar.

In addition to these special cases of interspecies struggle, there are other, less specific ones. Any two animals of different species, approximately equal in strength, can fight over food, shelter, etc. In all of the above cases of struggle between animals there is a common feature: it is quite clear what benefit each of the participants in the battle receives for the preservation of the species. But intraspecific aggression (aggression in the narrow and only sense of the word) also serves to preserve the species, although this is not so obvious.

3.2 Insideid aggression

1. Territorial aggression(aggression aimed at protecting territory)

Active protection - essential feature territorial behavior. Aggression is manifested towards any member of the same species, especially the same sex. It reaches its maximum at the beginning of the breeding season, when territories are just being established. The territory should not be imagined as a clearly defined space with precisely defined boundaries (it can also be temporary). As a rule, this zone is determined only by the fact that the readiness of a given animal to fight is highest in the place most familiar to it, namely, in the center of its area. That is, the threshold of aggressiveness is lowest where the animal feels most confident, where its aggression is least suppressed by the desire to escape. With distance from this “headquarters”, combat readiness decreases as the situation becomes more alien and fearsome. As one approaches the center of the habitat, aggressiveness increases exponentially. This increase is so great that it compensates for all differences in size and strength that may occur in adult sexually mature individuals of the same species.

When the defeated one takes flight, one can observe a phenomenon that occurs in all self-regulating systems with inhibition, namely, oscillations. The pursued, as he approaches his headquarters, regains his courage, and the pursuer, having penetrated into enemy territory, loses his courage. As a result, the fugitive suddenly turns around and - as suddenly as energetically - attacks the recent winner, whom he now beats and drives away. All this is repeated several more times, and, in the end, the fighters stop at a very definite point of balance, where they only threaten each other.

This simple mechanism of struggle for territory ideally solves the problem of a “fair”, that is, the most beneficial for the entire species in its entirety, distribution of individuals across the area in which this type can live. At the same time, even the weaker ones can feed themselves and give birth to offspring, albeit in a more modest space.

Animals can achieve the same effect without aggressive behavior, simply avoiding each other. “Local marking” plays an important role here, especially on the periphery of the site. Feces, secretions of skin glands, optical signs - bark torn from tree trunks, trampled grass, etc. Mammals for the most part “think with their noses,” so it is not surprising that they have vital role plays marking its possessions with smell. Many mammals leave scent signals in places where they meet or expect to meet a rival. Dogs urinate for this purpose; hyenas, martens, chamois, antelopes and other species use special glands, the secretions of which mark the soil, bushes, stumps, stones, etc. Brown bear scratching his back against a tree, urinating at the same time. Although such marks already hide a silent threat of aggression.

Fight for territory- a very important function of males. Without good land, a family or herd cannot exist; the prosperity of the group depends on their quantity and quality. You need to constantly try to expand your possessions, including at the expense of neighboring groups. Therefore, clashes over territories are inevitable. Human ancestors also lived in territorial groups, and for them the struggle for territory was inevitable. Territorial wars became the main occupation in life for some tribes.

So, taking into account the above, it can be considered reliable that uniform distribution in the space of animals of the same species is the most important function of intraspecific aggression. In addition, Manning highlights another aspect of territorial behavior. Interestingly, in territorial animals, the first reaction of a male to a female contains elements of attack and flight. Such aggressiveness is very important in the formation of “couple attachment.” This aggression, although it can occur between male and female, is largely redirected outward, towards neighboring animals. Often a male attacks a male, and a female attacks a female. The cooperation of a male and a female in defending a territory strengthens the bond between them.

2. Mating tournaments

A certain category of individuals is always involved in mating battles. In most cases, males fight, attacking exclusively or mainly other males of their own species. Sometimes both male and female fight, and when this happens, the male attacks another male, and the female attacks another female. Different types they fight differently. First of all, the weapons used are unequal. Dogs bite each other, horses and many other ungulates try to kick their opponents with their forelimbs. Deer measure their strength by locking antlers. What are these collisions for? Charles Darwin already noted that sexual selection - the selection of the best, most powerful animals for procreation - is largely determined by the struggle of rival animals, especially males. The strength of the father provides direct advantages to the offspring in those species where the father takes an active part in caring for the children, especially in their protection. The close connection between the care of males for their offspring and their fights is most clearly manifested in those animals that are not territorial in the sense described above, but lead a more or less nomadic lifestyle, such as large ungulates, land monkeys, etc. In these animals, intraspecific aggression does not play a significant role in the distribution of space; in the dispersal of species such as bison, various antelopes, horses, which gather in huge communities and to which the division of areas and the struggle for territory are completely alien, because there is plenty of food for them. However, the males of these animals fight each other violently and dramatically, and the selection resulting from this fight results in the emergence of large and well-armed family defenders. This is how such impressive fighters as buffalo bulls or large male baboons arise.

In this regard, it is necessary to mention one more fact - purely intraspecific selection can lead to the appearance of not only useless traits in terms of adaptation to the environment, but also directly harmful to conservationespecies. Deer antlers, for example, developed exclusively for duels; these antlers are not suitable for anything else. Deer protect themselves from predators only with their front hooves. Such characters develop in cases where selection is directed solely by competition among relatives, without connection with the extraspecific environment. Returning to the topic of the importance of dueling for the preservation of the species, we can say that it serves useful selection only where fighters are tested not only by intraspecific dueling rules, but also by fights with an external enemy. Essential Function a duel is the choice of a fighting defender of the family, thus, another function of intraspecific aggression is to protect the offspring. Proof can be found in the fact that in many animals in which only one sex cares for the offspring, representatives of this particular sex are truly aggressive towards their relatives, or their aggressiveness is incomparably stronger. Something similar is observed in humans.

4. Aregression in the community of social animals, leading to mouthAnew hierarchy

Hierarchy- this is the principle of organization, without which, obviously, an orderly system cannot develop living together higher animals. It consists in the fact that each of the individuals living together knows who is stronger than himself and who is weaker. A relationship of dominance and submission is established in the group, while the number and severity of clashes is reduced because everyone can retreat before the stronger without a fight - and can expect that the weaker, in turn, will retreat in front of him if they get in each other's way. Dolnik emphasizes that victory in skirmishes does not necessarily go to the stronger one. It is given to those who are more aggressive: they like to impose conflicts, they threaten a lot and skillfully, and they themselves withstand other people’s threats relatively easily. So, the individual that wins most often becomes dominant. A moment inevitably comes when the dominant takes out his anger on the subdominant (due to a spontaneous outbreak of aggression). He will not answer him, but will redirect the aggression to someone lower on the hierarchical ladder (after all, it’s scary to touch a dominant). By redirecting, aggression will reach those at the lowest level. There is no one to take out aggression on, and it often accumulates. IN large group“on top” there is always a dominant, but there may already be two or three subdominants. This forms a hierarchical pyramid, the bottom layer of which consists of individuals who give in to everyone. They have accumulated a lot of unrealized aggressiveness, hidden by ingratiating behavior in front of their superiors. This is the law of nature and it is impossible to resist it.

Dog-headed monkeys - baboons, hamadryas and others - form hierarchical pyramids based on age. At the head of the group are several older males who have the greatest power and are responsible for the safety of the group (gerontocracy). But, younger males can form alliances and attack superior individuals. Although these alliances are not strong, because the monkeys betray each other all the time, especially when it comes to fighting. Thus, unions can change the hierarchical pyramid through a “revolution from below.” The formation of a pyramid based on age is also characteristic of humans. In traditional societies, the age hierarchy is very strictly observed. But the formation of alliances of subordinates with the aim of overthrowing dominants is also a common thing, known from antiquity to the present day.

The wide distribution of hierarchy convincingly indicates its important species-preserving function: thus, unnecessary struggle between members of the community is avoided. Here the question arises: how is this better than a direct ban on aggression towards members of the community? Ethologists argue that it is impossible to avoid aggression. Firstly, often to the community ( wolf pack or a herd of monkeys) aggressiveness towards other communities of the same species is extremely necessary, so that fighting should be excluded only within the group. Secondly, the tensions that arise within a community as a result of aggressive impulses and the hierarchy that grows out of them can give it much useful structure and strength. The further apart the ranks of two animals are, the less hostility there is between them. And since superior individuals (especially males) necessarily interfere in the conflicts of their inferiors, the principle “The place of the strong is on the side of the weak!” is triggered.

Age hierarchy It also did not arise by chance. With the general progress of evolution, the role of the experience of old animals is increasingly increasing; one can even say that the joint social life of the most intelligent mammals acquires due to this new feature in preserving the species, namely the traditional transmission of individually acquired information. Naturally, the opposite statement is equally true: joint social life produces selection pressure towards better development learning abilities, since these abilities in social animals benefit not only the individual, but also the community as a whole. Thus long life, significantly exceeding the period of sexual activity, acquires value for the conservation of the species.

CONCLUSION

In the first chapter of the essay, I examined the main features of the progressive evolution of mammals, which helped them become the dominant animals on the planet. These are three main groups of adaptations: those associated with constant high body temperature; related to the characteristics of reproduction and raising of young; associated with the large brain in animals of this group. The structure and physiology of animals, and their modern taxonomy are also considered.

In the second chapter, I examined the behavioral features of mammals, in particular interspecific and species aggression. It has been proven that life without aggression is impossible, even if you create an ideal environment that does not contain any irritants. With prolonged failure to perform any instinctive action (manifestation of aggression), the threshold of irritation decreases. A decrease in the threshold of irritation can lead to the fact that, under special conditions, its value can drop to zero, that is, the corresponding instinctive action can “break through” without any external stimulus. In principle, every truly instinctive action, which is deprived of the opportunity to discharge, leads the animal into a state of general anxiety and forces it to search for a discharge stimulus. And a decrease in the irritating threshold and search behavior, rarely in any cases, manifest themselves as clearly as in the case of aggression.

The benefits of aggression can be considered proven. Living space is distributed among animals in such a way that, if possible, everyone finds food for themselves. For the benefit of posterity they are chosen best fathers and the best mothers. Children are protected. The community is organized in such a way that a few sophisticated males have sufficient authority so that decisions necessary for the community are not only made, but also carried out. The purpose of aggression is never to destroy a relative, although, of course, during a fight an accident can occur when a horn hits the eye or a fang hits the carotid artery. Aggression is not at all a destructive principle - it is only part of the organization of all living beings, preserving their system of functioning and their very life. Like everything in the world, it can make a mistake - and in doing so destroy a life. However, in the great achievements of the formation of the organic world, this power is intended for good.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST

1 .Levitin M.G. Biology: Botany. Zoology. Human anatomy and physiology. [Text]/ M.G. Levitin, T.P. Levitin. - St. Petersburg: “Paritet”, 2000;

2 .Lecture in zoology. Features of animals;

3. DolnikIN. Naughty child of the biosphere [Text]/V. Dolnik. - M.: “Pedagogy - press”, 1994;

4. LorenzTO. Aggression: the so-called “evil” [Text]/K. Lorenz. - M.: “Progress”, 1994;

5. ManningABOUT. Animal behavior [Text]/O. Manning. - M.: “Mir”, 1982;

6. Dewsbury, D. Animal behavior: comparative aspects[Text]/D. Dewsbury. - M.: “Mir”, 1981;

7. Fabry, TO. Fundamentals of zoopsychology[Text]/K. Fabry. - M.: MSU, 1976;

8. TinbergenN. Social behavior animals[Text]/N. Tinbergen.- M.: “Mir”, 1993;

9. BramA. Animal life: Mammals[Text]/A. Brem. - M.: “Terra”, 1992;

10. Tanner ABOUT. Methods of protection in animals [Text]/O. Tenner. - M.: “Mir”, 1985;

11. Biological encyclopedic dictionary [Text]/ M.: “ Soviet encyclopedia", 1989;

12. LondonJ. White Fang [Text]/ J. London. - Ekaterinburg: “Northern House”, 1992.

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FEDERAL EDUCATION AGENCY

STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

HIGHER STATE EDUCATION

"NOVOSIBIRSK STATE PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY"

FACULTY OF PRIMARY CLASSES

Discipline: Zoology

Structural features and behavioral features of mammals

Performed:

Vashchenko Elena Gennadievna

Novosibirsk 2010

Introduction

Common Mammal Features

Structural features of mammals

Peculiarities of mammalian behavior

Interspecies aggression

Intraspecific aggression

Conclusion

Bibliography

INTRODUCTION

Zoology – a scientific discipline that studies the animal world, a major component of biology. Based on the objectives of the study, zoology is divided into a number of disciplines: systematics, morphology, embryology, animal genetics, zoogeography, etc. Based on the objects of research, protozoology, which studies protozoa, is distinguished, invertebrate zoology and vertebrate zoology. The last object of study includes theriology, studying mammals.

The emergence of mammals became possible as a result of the formation of a number of large aromorphoses, which reduced the dependence of animals on changes in the external environment. Mammals evolved from ancient reptiles at the very beginning of the Mesozoic era, i.e. earlier than birds, but the development that led to the modern richness of forms of this class of vertebrates dates back to the Cenozoic era, after the extinction of large reptiles.

I decided to talk about mammals because... they are the most highly specialized group of land animals. There are currently more than 4,000 species of mammals.

In the first chapter of the essay, I will give an overview of the general features of mammals that distinguish them from other animals, then I will describe the features of their structure and behavior. I will dwell on the behavioral features of mammals in more detail, because... This topic is very interesting and fascinating, but is not covered in the biology textbook.

GENERAL FEATURES OF MAMMALS

Mammals – warm-blooded vertebrates from the amniote group. As I already said, this is the most highly specialized group of land animals, which is distinguished by the following progressive features.

Highly developed central nervous system and sensory organs. The cerebral cortex, formed by gray matter, appears, which ensures a high level of nervous activity and complex adaptive behavior.

Thermoregulation system, ensuring relative constancy of body temperature.

Live birth(except for oviparous ones) and feeding the cubs with mother's milk, which ensures better safety of the offspring.

Height of organization of mammals It is also expressed in the fact that all their organs achieve the greatest differentiation, and the brain has the most perfect structure. The center of higher nervous activity is especially developed in it - the cerebral cortex, consisting of gray brain matter. Due to this reactions and behavior of mammals reach exceptional perfection. This is facilitated by very complex sense organs, especially hearing and smell. The rapid progressive development of mammals was also facilitated by the differentiation of teeth into incisors, canines and molars.

The acquisition played a huge role in the development of this group warm-blooded, that is, a constantly high body temperature. It occurs due to: a) unmixed blood circulation, b) enhanced gas exchange, c) thermoregulatory devices

Unmixed circulation, as in birds, is achieved by a four-chambered heart and the preservation of only one (left) aortic arch in animals. The acquisition of an alveolar lung structure and the appearance of a diaphragm led to increased gas exchange. Diaphragm- This is a muscular septum that completely divides the body into two parts - the thoracic and abdominal. The diaphragm is involved in the act of inhalation and exhalation. Thermoregulation achieved by the appearance of hair and skin glands

Thanks to the perfection of the digestive, respiratory and circulatory systems, the entire metabolism of mammals proceeds very intensively, which, along with high body temperature, makes them less dependent on environmental climatic conditions than amphibians and reptiles. The rapid progressive development of animals is also due to the fact that the highest of them developed viviparity. The embryo is nourished in the womb through a special organ - placenta. After birth, the baby is fed milk. It is secreted by special mammary glands. All this greatly increases the survival rate of offspring.

Thanks to the height of their organization and perfect psyche, by the beginning of the Cenozoic era (65 million years ago), mammals were able to displace the reptiles that had dominated the Earth until then and occupy all the main habitats.

STRUCTURE FEATURES OF MAMMALS

External structure

Animals have well expressed: head, neck, torso and tail. On the head Usually a distinction is made between the cranial region, located behind the eyes, and the facial, or muzzle, located in front. Eyes equipped with upper, lower and third eyelids. Unlike birds, the nictitating membrane (third eyelid) only covers half of the mammal's eye. On the sides of the head there are large ears, at the end of the muzzle there are paired nostrils. Mouth bordered by fleshy lips characteristic of mammals. There are usually very coarse hairs on the upper lip - vibrissae. Several of them are located above the eyes. They play the role of additional organs of touch. Under the root of the tail there is an anal opening, and somewhat anterior to it there is a genitourinary opening. In females, there are 4–5 pairs of nipples on the sides of the body on the ventral side. The limbs are five- or four-fingered, the fingers are armed with claws.

Skin

Wool, covering the body of mammals, is a derivative of the skin. There are two types of hair - guard hair and soft hair - downy hair. The skin consists of two main layers - epidermis And corium. The first is a thin stratum corneum, and the second is very thick and dense. Its lower part forms the subcutaneous tissue.

Skeleton

The spine consists of five sections: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral and caudal. The vertebrae have flat articular surfaces characteristic of mammals and are separated from each other by round cartilaginous discs - menisci.

The cervical region of all mammals (with very rare exceptions) contains 7 vertebrae. (Both the mouse and the giraffe have 7 cervical vertebrae). These vertebrae lack free ribs. The thoracic region contains 12-13 vertebrae, all of which are equipped with ribs. The front seven pairs of ribs connect to the sternum and are called “true ribs.” The next five pairs do not reach the sternum. The lumbar region is devoid of ribs and usually contains 6-7 vertebrae. The sacrum is formed in most mammals by four fused vertebrae. The anterior ones usually bear two processes, with the help of which the pelvis is articulated. The caudal region is very variable in the number of vertebrae.

Scull is divided into axial, consisting of the bones surrounding the brain, and visceral (facial), which includes the bones surrounding the mouth opening - the palate, the bones of the upper and lower jaws.

Shoulder girdle is represented only by the scapula and clavicle, and mammals do not have a crow bone (coracoid). In fast runners, the collarbone usually disappears (ungulates). The pelvic region consists of a pair of innominate bones, each of which was formed by the fusion of the ilium, ischium and pubis. The skeleton of paired limbs has three typical sections. In the forelimbs these are the shoulder, forearm and hand, and in the hind limbs these are the thigh, lower leg and foot. In mammals, a rounded tendon bone, the patella, appears at the knee joint on the hind limbs.

Muscular system

This system in animals reaches exceptional development and complexity. They have several hundred individual striated muscles. A feature of the mammalian muscular system is the presence of a diaphragm and the appearance of subcutaneous muscles. Diaphragm- This is a dome-shaped muscular septum that separates the thoracic region from the abdominal region. In the center it is perforated by the esophagus. The diaphragm takes part in the acts of breathing and defecation of animals. The subcutaneous muscles represent a continuous subcutaneous layer. With its help, animals can move areas of their skin. The same muscles take part in the formation of lips and cheeks. In monkeys it has almost disappeared and is preserved only on the face. There she received an unusually strong development - this is the so-called facial muscles.

PAGE_BREAK--

Nervous system

Brain The beast has powerfully developed hemispheres of the forebrain and cerebellum. They cover all other parts of the brain on top.

Forebrain consists of the cerebral hemispheres covered with gray brain matter - the cerebral cortex. The olfactory lobes extend forward from the hemispheres. Between the hemispheres there is a wide bridge of white nerve fibers.

Diencephalon has a funnel and optic chiasm, as in other classes of vertebrates. The pituitary gland is attached to the funnel of the diencephalon, while the epiphysis is located above the cerebellum on a long stalk. Midbrain It is distinguished by its very small size; in addition to the longitudinal groove, it also has a transverse one, which is characteristic only of mammals. Cerebellum consists of an unpaired part - the vermis and two lateral ones, which are very large and are usually designated as the cerebellar hemispheres. Medulla has a feature that is also characteristic only of mammals. On the sides of this brain are bundles of nerve fibers going to the cerebellum. They are called the posterior cerebellar peduncles. The medulla oblongata passes into the spinal cord.

Sense organs

They are very highly developed in mammals, and, in accordance with the ecological specialization of a particular group, the sense of smell, vision, hearing, and touch are of leading importance. The hearing organs of animals are especially well developed. They have bony ear tympani and large, movable outer ears.

Digestive organs

Oral cavity limited in animals to the lips. The lips are involved in grasping and holding prey. The oral cavity is limited above by a hard bony palate. Due to this, the choanae (inner nostrils) are pushed back towards the pharynx. This allows animals to breathe while food is in the mouth. The sides of the oral cavity are limited by soft muscular cheeks, and at the bottom there is a large muscular tongue. Its functions are to perceive taste sensations and push food under the teeth during chewing and into the pharynx during swallowing. The ducts of the salivary glands open into the mouth (4 paired glands - parotid, infraorbital, submandibular and sublingual). Teeth do not grow to the surface of the bone, as in previous classes, but sit in independent cells. The teeth are differentiated into incisors, canines and molars. The tooth itself consists of such parts as a crown with a working surface, the body of the tooth and its root. Throat of Beasts short, the windpipe and choanae open into it. Thus, in mammals, the pharynx is the crossroads of two pathways - the alimentary and the respiratory. Esophagus It is a simple, highly extensible muscular tube. After passing through the diaphragm, it connects to the stomach. Stomach has the appearance of a large horseshoe-shaped curved bag that lies across the body. A fat-filled peritoneum hangs from the stomach, which covers all the internal organs like an apron. Liver located under the diaphragm, its flows open into the duodenum, in the loop of which lies the pancreas. Most mammals have a gallbladder. Intestines can be of different lengths, it depends on the composition of the feed. The herbivorous rabbit has a very long intestine - 15-16 times longer than the body. Its sections are the small, large and rectal intestines. At the beginning of the large intestine in mammals there is an unpaired blind outgrowth - the cecum. The intestine opens outwards with an independent anal opening.

Respiratory system

Larynx, as usual for mammals, has a cricoid cartilage, in front of which is the large thyroid cartilage. The mammalian larynx is complex. The vocal cords are stretched on the inside of the larynx. These are paired elastic folds of the mucous membrane, stretched in the cavity of the larynx and limiting the glottis. Lungs represent a pair of spongy bodies hanging freely into the chest cavity. Their internal structure is characterized by great complexity. The trachea near the lungs divides into two bronchi. The bronchi, entering the lungs, are divided into secondary bronchi, which in turn are divided into bronchi of the third and fourth order. They end in bronchioles. The ends of the bronchioles are swollen and entwined with blood vessels. These are the so-called alveoli, where gas exchange occurs.

Circulatory system

Heart animals, like birds, have four chambers, and the left ventricle drives blood through the systemic circulation and, like birds, has much thicker walls than the right. A large vessel departs from the left ventricle - the aorta, which begins the systemic circulation. Arterial blood supplies all organs of the body, and venous blood is collected through the vein system. The largest of them - the posterior and two anterior vena cava - flow into the right atrium. From the right atrium, blood enters the right ventricle, from here the pulmonary circulation, or, as it is also called, pulmonary circulation, begins. Venous blood is ejected from the right ventricle into the large pulmonary artery. This artery divides into right and left, leading to the lungs. From each lung, blood collects in the pulmonary vein (the blood in it is arterial), both veins merge and flow into the left atrium. Next, from the left atrium, blood pours into the left ventricle and again flows through the systemic circulation.

Organs, secretions

U mammals are a pair of bean-shaped kidneys located in the lumbar region. From the inner concave side of each kidney there is a ureter (a thin tube) that drains directly into the bladder. The bladder opens into the urethra.

Genitals

In mammals, these are paired testes (in males) or paired ovaries (in females). The testes have a characteristic oval shape. The appendages of the testes are adjacent to them. The paired vas deferens open into the beginning of the urethra. The terminal parts of the vas deferens are expanded into the seminal vesicles. The paired ovaries of the female have an oval-flattened shape. Near each ovary there is an oviduct. At one end the oviduct opens into the body cavity, and at the opposite end it passes into the uterus without a visible boundary. The uterus of animals is two-horned, the right and left horns of the uterus independently open into the vagina. It is unpaired. The posterior end gradually passes into the urethra and the bladder opens into it. The vagina opens externally through the urogenital opening.

Development of the embryo

Egg cells develop in the ovary, then mature cells exit the ovary into the body cavity and are captured there by the oviduct funnel. Thanks to the flickering movements of the cilia of the tube (oviduct), the egg moves along it, and if the female is fertilized, then in the tube (usually in its first third) the egg and sperm merge. The fertilized egg continues to slowly descend into the uterus and at the same time its fragmentation begins (dividing the egg into many cells). Having reached the uterus, the egg, which by that time has turned into a dense multicellular ball, is embedded in the wall. There, nutrients begin to flow to it. Quite soon, a placenta forms around the implanted embryo. This is the membrane of the fruit, very characteristic of mammals. The placenta is a spongy organ rich in blood vessels, in which a child's and maternal parts are distinguished. The nursery consists of the villi of the embryonic membrane, and the mother's - from the wall of the uterus. During childbirth, the muscular layer of the uterus contracts strongly and the baby's placenta (chorion), by that time connected very slightly with the mucous membrane of the uterus, opens and comes out along with the newborn in the form of a child's place.

BEHAVIORAL FEATURES OF MAMMALS

Intraspecific behavior in mammals is characterized by aggression. It is due to the protection of the species from external and intraspecific factors. Often aggressive behavior manifests itself already in the early stages of ontogenesis, which can lead to the destruction of the youngest cub (kainism), and sometimes to its being eaten by its fellows (cannibalism). Due to aggressive behavior, infanticide (infanticide) is also possible in predatory mammals (lions), rodents (gophers), etc. When defending a group territory, collective aggressive behavior of the owners towards strangers is observed. In many cases, aggressive behavior is stimulated by sex hormones. Under the influence of aggressive influence, the body experiences a state of tension, stress. Under moderate stress, increased activity of the autonomic nervous system is detected. Stimulation of the adrenal medulla through the autonomic nerves causes them to release adrenaline into the blood. At the same time, changes occur in various parts of the body. The secretion of sweat glands begins, the hair stands on end, the heart beats faster, breathing becomes more frequent and deeper, blood from the digestive tract is redirected to the muscles. All this prepares the body for energetic actions of the required type. Under the influence of chronic stress, the animal becomes ill and may die.

The forms of aggression are diverse, we will try to classify them.

3.1 Interspecies aggression

1. Aggression of the predator towards the prey

In nature, some species inevitably attack others. The mutual influence of predator and prey leads to evolutionary competition, forcing one of them to adapt to the development of the other. But it is worth noting that a predator never completely destroys the prey population; some balance is always established between them. Strictly speaking, ethologists do not consider the behavior of a predator to be aggressive at all (Lorenz, Dolnik, etc.) or consider it a special form of aggression, different from all others. “When a wolf catches a hare, this is not aggression, but hunting. Likewise, when a hunter shoots ducks or a fisherman catches fish, it is not aggressive behavior. After all, they all feel no hostility, no fear, no anger, no hatred towards the victim.” AK. Lorenz writes: “The internal origins of the behavior of a hunter and a fighter are completely different. When a lion kills a buffalo, the buffalo arouses in him no more aggression than does the delicious turkey hanging in the pantry, which I look at with the same pleasure, arouse in me. The difference in internal motivations is clearly visible even in expressive movements. If a dog chases a hare, then it has exactly the same tense and joyful expression with which it greets its owner or anticipates something pleasant. And from the lion’s face, at the dramatic moment of the jump, you can quite clearly see, as is recorded in many excellent photographs, that he is not angry at all. Growling, pinned ears and other expressive movements associated with fighting behavior can be seen in hunting predators only when they are seriously afraid of their armed prey, but even then only in the form of a hint.”

A wonderful illustration of all that has been said is an excerpt from J. London’s story “White Fang”, where a wolf cub, having just dealt with partridge chicks, enters into a fight with the mother partridge. “...He was met by a winged whirlwind. The rapid onslaught and furious blows of the wings blinded and stunned the wolf cub. He buried his head in his paws and squealed. The blows rained down with renewed vigor. The mother partridge was furious. Then the wolf cub got angry. He jumped up with a growl and began to fight back with his paws, then he plunged his small teeth into the bird’s wing and began to pull and drag it from side to side with all his strength. The partridge rushed, hitting him with its other wing. This was the wolf cub's first fight. He was jubilant. He forgot all his fear of the unknown and was no longer afraid of anything. He tore and beat the living creature that struck him. Moreover, this living creature was meat. The wolf cub was possessed by a thirst for blood. He was too absorbed in the fight and too happy to feel his happiness...”

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2. a) Much closer to genuine aggression than the hunter’s attack on the prey, the opposite case is the counterattack of the prey against the predator. An attack on a predator-devourer has obvious meaning for the conservation of the species. Even when the attacker is small, he causes very sensitive troubles to the object of the attack. This is especially true for herd animals, which attack the predator en masse (the so-called mobing). There are many examples. Ungulates often form a tight ring, putting their horns forward and protecting their young. This is how musk oxen repel attacks from wolves, and how buffalos defend themselves from lions. In our domestic cows and pigs, the instinct of a general attack on the wolf is firmly in the blood.

2. b) As when a predator attacks prey or when a predator is baited by its victims, The species-preserving function of the third type of combat behavior, which Lorenz called critical reaction, is also obvious. The expression “fight like a cornered rat” symbolizes a desperate struggle into which the fighter puts everything because he can neither escape nor expect mercy. This form of fighting behavior, the most violent, is motivated by fear (aggression and fear are twins), a strong desire to escape, which cannot be realized because the danger is too close. The animal, one might say, no longer risks turning its back to her - and attacks itself, with the “courage of despair.” This is what happens when escape is impossible due to limited space - as in the case of a cornered rat - but the need to protect the brood or family can do the same. The attack of the mother female on any object that comes too close to the cubs should also be considered a critical reaction. When a dangerous enemy suddenly appears within a certain critical zone, many animals attack him furiously, although they would run from a much greater distance if they noticed his approach from afar.

In addition to these special cases of interspecies struggle, there are other, less specific ones. Any two animals of different species, approximately equal in strength, can fight over food, shelter, etc. In all of the above cases of struggle between animals there is a common feature: it is quite clear what benefit each of the participants in the battle receives for the preservation of the species. But intraspecific aggression (aggression in the narrow and only sense of the word) also serves to preserve the species, although this is not so obvious.

3.2 Intraspecific aggression

1. Territorial aggression(aggression aimed at protecting territory)

Active protection- an essential sign of territorial behavior. Aggression is manifested towards any member of the same species, especially the same sex. It reaches its maximum at the beginning of the breeding season, when territories are just being established. The territory should not be imagined as a clearly defined space with precisely defined boundaries (it can also be temporary). As a rule, this zone is determined only by the fact that the readiness of a given animal to fight is highest in the place most familiar to it, namely, in the center of its area. That is, the threshold of aggressiveness is lowest where the animal feels most confident, where its aggression is least suppressed by the desire to escape. With distance from this “headquarters”, combat readiness decreases as the situation becomes more alien and fearsome. As one approaches the center of the habitat, aggressiveness increases exponentially. This increase is so great that it compensates for all differences in size and strength that may occur in adult sexually mature individuals of the same species.

When the defeated one takes flight, one can observe a phenomenon that occurs in all self-regulating systems with inhibition, namely, oscillations. The pursued, as he approaches his headquarters, regains his courage, and the pursuer, having penetrated into enemy territory, loses his courage. As a result, the fugitive suddenly turns around and - as suddenly as energetically - attacks the recent winner, whom he now beats and drives away. All this is repeated several more times, and, in the end, the fighters stop at a very definite point of balance, where they only threaten each other.

This simple mechanism of struggle for territory ideally solves the problem of a “fair”, that is, the most beneficial for the entire species in its entirety, distribution of individuals across the area in which a given species can live. At the same time, even the weaker ones can feed themselves and give birth to offspring, albeit in a more modest space.

Animals can achieve the same effect without aggressive behavior, simply avoiding each other. “Local marking” plays an important role here, especially on the periphery of the site. Feces, secretions of skin glands, optical signs - bark torn from tree trunks, trampled grass, etc. Mammals for the most part “think with their noses,” so it is not surprising that they play a crucial role in marking their possessions with smell. Many mammals leave scent signals in places where they meet or expect to meet a rival. Dogs urinate for this purpose; hyenas, martens, chamois, antelopes and other species use special glands, the secretions of which mark the soil, bushes, stumps, stones, etc. The brown bear itches its back against a tree, while urinating. Although such marks already hide a silent threat of aggression.

Fight for territory- a very important function of males. Without good land, a family or herd cannot exist; the prosperity of the group depends on their quantity and quality. You need to constantly try to expand your possessions, including at the expense of neighboring groups. Therefore, clashes over territories are inevitable. Human ancestors also lived in territorial groups, and for them the struggle for territory was inevitable. Territorial wars became the main occupation in life for some tribes.

So, taking into account the above, it can be considered reliable that the uniform distribution in space of animals of the same species is the most important function of intraspecific aggression. In addition, Manning highlights another aspect of territorial behavior. Interestingly, in territorial animals, the first reaction of a male to a female contains elements of attack and flight. Such aggressiveness is very important in the formation of “couple attachment.” This aggression, although it can occur between male and female, is largely redirected outward, towards neighboring animals. Often a male attacks a male, and a female attacks a female. The cooperation of a male and a female in defending a territory strengthens the bond between them.

2. Marriage tournaments

A certain category of individuals is always involved in mating battles. In most cases, males fight, attacking exclusively or mainly other males of their own species. Sometimes both male and female fight, and when this happens, the male attacks another male, and the female attacks another female. Different species fight differently. First of all, the weapons used are unequal. Dogs bite each other, horses and many other ungulates try to kick their opponents with their forelimbs. Deer measure their strength by locking antlers. What are these collisions for? Charles Darwin already noted that sexual selection - the selection of the best, most powerful animals for procreation - is largely determined by the struggle of rival animals, especially males. The strength of the father provides direct advantages to the offspring in those species where the father takes an active part in caring for the children, especially in their protection. The close connection between the care of males for their offspring and their fights is most clearly manifested in those animals that are not territorial in the sense described above, but lead a more or less nomadic lifestyle, such as large ungulates, land monkeys, etc. In these animals, intraspecific aggression does not play a significant role in the distribution of space; in the dispersal of species such as bison, various antelopes, horses, which gather in huge communities and to which the division of areas and the struggle for territory are completely alien, because there is plenty of food for them. However, the males of these animals fight each other violently and dramatically, and the selection resulting from this fight results in the emergence of large and well-armed family defenders. This is how such impressive fighters as buffalo bulls or large male baboons arise.

In this regard, it is necessary to mention one more fact - Purely intraspecific selection can lead to the appearance of traits that are not only useless in terms of adaptation to the environment, but also directly harmful to the preservation of the species. Deer antlers, for example, developed exclusively for duels; these antlers are not suitable for anything else. Deer protect themselves from predators only with their front hooves. Such characters develop in cases where selection is directed solely by competition among relatives, without connection with the extraspecific environment. Returning to the topic of the importance of dueling for the preservation of the species, we can say that it serves useful selection only where fighters are tested not only by intraspecific dueling rules, but also by fights with an external enemy. The most important function of a duel is the choice of a fighting defender of the family, thus, another function of intraspecific aggression is to protect the offspring. Proof can be found in the fact that in many animals in which only one sex cares for the offspring, representatives of this particular sex are truly aggressive towards their relatives, or their aggressiveness is incomparably stronger. Something similar is observed in humans.

Aggression in a community of social animals leading to the establishment of hierarchy

Hierarchy- this is the principle of organization, without which, obviously, the ordered joint life of higher animals cannot develop. It consists in the fact that each of the individuals living together knows who is stronger than himself and who is weaker. A relationship of dominance and submission is established in the group, while the number and severity of clashes is reduced because everyone can retreat before the stronger without a fight - and can expect that the weaker, in turn, will retreat in front of him if they get in each other's way. Dolnik emphasizes that victory in skirmishes does not necessarily go to the stronger one. It is given to those who are more aggressive: they like to impose conflicts, they threaten a lot and skillfully, and they themselves withstand other people’s threats relatively easily. So, the individual that wins most often becomes dominant. A moment inevitably comes when the dominant takes out his anger on the subdominant (due to a spontaneous outbreak of aggression). He will not answer him, but will redirect the aggression to someone lower on the hierarchical ladder (after all, it’s scary to touch a dominant). By redirecting, aggression will reach those at the lowest level. There is no one to take out aggression on, and it often accumulates. In a large group, there is always a dominant at the top, but there may already be two or three subdominants. This forms a hierarchical pyramid, the bottom layer of which consists of individuals who give in to everyone. They have accumulated a lot of unrealized aggressiveness, hidden by ingratiating behavior in front of their superiors. This is the law of nature and it is impossible to resist it.

Dog-headed monkeys - baboons, hamadryas and others - form hierarchical pyramids based on age. At the head of the group are several older males who have the greatest power and are responsible for the safety of the group (gerontocracy). But, younger males can form alliances and attack superior individuals. Although these alliances are not strong, because the monkeys betray each other all the time, especially when it comes to fighting. Thus, unions can change the hierarchical pyramid through a “revolution from below.” The formation of a pyramid based on age is also characteristic of humans. In traditional societies, the age hierarchy is very strictly observed. But the formation of alliances of subordinates with the aim of overthrowing dominants is also a common thing, known from antiquity to the present day.

The wide distribution of hierarchy convincingly indicates its important species-preserving function: thus, unnecessary struggle between members of the community is avoided. Here the question arises: how is this better than a direct ban on aggression towards members of the community? Ethologists argue that it is impossible to avoid aggression. Firstly, often a community (a wolf pack or a herd of monkeys) urgently needs aggressiveness towards other communities of the same species, so that fighting should be excluded only within the group. Secondly, the tensions that arise within a community as a result of aggressive impulses and the hierarchy that grows out of them can give it much useful structure and strength. The further apart the ranks of two animals are, the less hostility there is between them. And since superior individuals (especially males) necessarily interfere in the conflicts of their inferiors, the principle “The place of the strong is on the side of the weak!” is triggered.

Age hierarchy It also did not arise by chance. With the general progress of evolution, the role of the experience of old animals is increasingly increasing; one can even say that the joint social life of the most intelligent mammals acquires due to this a new function in the preservation of the species, namely, the traditional transmission of individually acquired information. Naturally, the opposite statement is equally true: joint social life produces selection pressure towards better development of learning abilities, since these abilities in social animals benefit not only the individual, but also the community as a whole. Thus, a long life, significantly exceeding the period of sexual activity, acquires value for the preservation of the species.

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CONCLUSION

In the first chapter of the essay, I examined the main features of the progressive evolution of mammals, which helped them become the dominant animals on the planet. These are three main groups of adaptations: those associated with constant high body temperature; related to the characteristics of reproduction and raising of young; associated with the large brain in animals of this group. The structure and physiology of animals, and their modern taxonomy are also considered.

In the second chapter, I examined the behavioral features of mammals, in particular interspecific and species aggression. It has been proven that life without aggression is impossible, even if you create an ideal environment that does not contain any irritants. With prolonged failure to perform any instinctive action (manifestation of aggression), the threshold of irritation decreases. A decrease in the threshold of irritation can lead to the fact that, under special conditions, its value can drop to zero, that is, the corresponding instinctive action can “break through” without any external stimulus. In principle, every truly instinctive action, which is deprived of the opportunity to discharge, leads the animal into a state of general anxiety and forces it to search for a discharge stimulus. And a decrease in the irritating threshold and search behavior, rarely in any cases, manifest themselves as clearly as in the case of aggression.

The benefits of aggression can be considered proven. Living space is distributed among animals in such a way that, if possible, everyone finds food for themselves. For the benefit of the offspring, the best fathers and the best mothers are chosen. Children are protected. The community is organized in such a way that a few sophisticated males have sufficient authority so that decisions necessary for the community are not only made, but also carried out. The purpose of aggression is never to destroy a relative, although, of course, during a fight an accident can occur when a horn hits the eye or a fang hits the carotid artery. Aggression is not at all a destructive principle - it is only part of the organization of all living beings, preserving their system of functioning and their very life. Like everything in the world, it can make a mistake - and in doing so destroy a life. However, in the great achievements of the formation of the organic world, this power is intended for good.

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