The internal structure of the earth. What is happening inside our planet? There's no gravity
The internal structure of the Earth
Man has long wanted to know what is in the depths of the Earth. But to find out this is not so? It is easy and simple. Science has not yet invented such an apparatus in which a person could penetrate into the deep bowels of the planet and explore them. So far, people have managed to penetrate into the Earth to such an insignificant distance, which is like a mosquito bite of the “innards” of a person with a sting.
In this regard, our scientists have to judge the structure of the earth's interior by indirect evidence, since in order to drill a well or a mine a few kilometers deep, many months, or even years of expensive labor must be expended. So specialists have to explore the interior of the Earth using geophysical methods: seismic, gravimetric and magnetometric.
The first of these is the most important and is the main one. Its essence lies in the fact that on the surface of the Earth artificially (for example, by explosion) elastic oscillations are created - seismic waves, which have certain features when passing through the interior of the earth: in a dense medium, the speed of these waves increases, in a loose medium it sharply decreases, and in liquids Some of them don't spread at all.
Seismic waves are divided into volume and surface. Body waves - longitudinal and transverse - are elastic compression waves and elastic shear waves. Note that body waves propagate in the elastic Earth in the same way as light rays in optical media. Body waves, unlike surface waves, penetrate the entire body of our planet, that is, they literally “shine through” the Earth and, like X-ray analysis, reveal its internal structure.
Surface waves, like body waves, are of two types. They differ in the type of deformation. In the first case, it is purely shear, and in the second, it is both shear and volumetric. Surface wave velocities exhibit a dependence on the wavelength or frequency of the wave. This property of surface waves is used to study the structure of the outer layers of the Earth.
These drawings demonstrate the main modern ideas about the structure of the Earth and global processes taking place in its depths.
In this diagram, the Earth is "cut", like a watermelon, a slice is cut out of it. Above - a layer of the atmosphere, then - the earth's crust, below it is limited by the so-called Mohorovichich boundary. Then - the mantle (upper and lower); the outer (liquid) part of the earth's core and, finally, the solid, inner part of the core. The earth's crust along with top the mantle forms the so-called lithosphere, the plastic asthenosphere lies deeper.
Seismic vibrations, passing through the globe or partially reflected from sections of media with different densities, return to the Earth's surface, where they are recorded and studied. Based on the data obtained, one can judge the depths of certain sections, obtain information about the physical properties of those media through which seismic waves have passed, etc. For the same purpose, seismologists study earthquakes that cause elastic vibrations in a natural way.
As it turned out, the globe inside, like an onion, consists of several concentric shells nested one inside the other. Three shells (or geospheres) are most clearly distinguished, which have already been mentioned above: the outer earth's crust (lithosphere), the mantle, which makes up 83% of the Earth's volume and 67% of the mass of our planet, and the core in the middle.
During the transition from one geosphere to another, the velocities of seismic waves at their interface change abruptly. The surface separating the crust from the mantle is usually called the Mohorovichic surface or boundary (abbreviated as "moho" or "surface M").
For the first time, the idea of a spherical structure of our planet was expressed by E. Wiecher, a professor at the University of Göttingen, in 1897. At the beginning of the 20th century, the Austrian geologist E. Suess proposed to distinguish five shells of the Earth, each of which was given a name based on the first letters of the elements that dominate one or another shell: silicon, aluminum, magnesium, chromium, ferrum and nickel.
Subsequently, these ideas received scientific justification. Deep wells and mines have given geologists the opportunity to study only the upper layers earth's crust. However, the depth of the mine workings is still too small. The deepest well in the world was drilled on Kola Peninsula in our country, its depth is slightly more than 12 kilometers. The mines currently in use are much shallower. The maximum depth of one of the deepest mines - "East Rand" in South Africa - reaches only 3428 meters. If we compare these figures with the average radius of the Earth, it turns out that even the deepest modern well penetrates into the body of the Earth no deeper than a pin prick into the thick skin of a hippopotamus.
If you and I, dear readers, take a look at the earth's globe, then first of all it will strike us that land and water are collected in vast spaces: land - into continents, water - into oceans. True, we find islands in the oceans, and lakes on land. But this does not change the overall picture. Studies have shown that the division earth's surface to the continents and oceans is not at all accidental, but depends, as it turns out, on the structure of the earth's crust.
The fact is that the continental crust is arranged differently and differs in thickness, as well as in its structure, from the oceanic one. If we attribute to the continents the entire area occupied by a continuous continental crust, then such continents will be much larger than those observed by us on the globe. It turns out that shallow seas and bays and just coastal sea zones up to 200 meters deep (and sometimes more) are all parts of the continents that are only temporarily flooded by the sea. They are called the shelf. On the shelves, for example, are the White, Azov, East Siberian, Hudson Bay, etc.
The oceanic crust, on the contrary, does not occupy the entire space of the oceans, since it is located only where the depth of the sea exceeds ... 4 kilometers. The rest of the Earth's area is covered with an intermediate type of crust. In general, the entire earth's crust occupies about 1% by volume and about 0.5% by weight.
The uppermost shell of our planet - the earth's crust (layer A) - is a very thin "veil", under which the restless bowels of the Earth are hidden. On average, the thickness of the crust or, figuratively speaking, the thin film in which the globe is "wrapped" is only 0.6% of the length of the Earth's radius.
The earth's crust is separated from the underlying layer, as already mentioned, by the Mohorovichic surface. This surface repeats the relief of the earth's surface in an inverted form, that is, as if reflected in a horizontal mirror. Below it is the mantle of the Earth, the uppermost part (layer B) of which, directly under the crust, is called the substrate. The density of the mantle substance is higher than the density of the rocks of the earth's crust and varies from 3.3 g/cm 3 in the upper part to 6–9 g/cm 3 in the lower part of the mantle. Some scientists divide the mantle into upper and lower (the border between them lies at a depth of 900 kilometers).
The upper mantle has been studied better than the lower one, but much is still not entirely clear about it. A characteristic feature of the structure of the upper mantle is its stratification. For example, at a depth of about 100 kilometers under the continents and about 50 kilometers under the oceans, there is a layer close to melting or even containing melts of its constituent rocks, it is called the asthenosphere (Gutenberg layer). Due to the plasticity of the asthenosphere, which can literally be translated as a "weak sphere", the solid blocks (slabs) of the earth's crust lying above it can slide over it.
Molten magma, which feeds terrestrial volcanoes, is formed only in certain places in the crust or comes there from separate chambers (pockets) located in the substrate or asthenosphere, and perhaps somewhat deeper. The hardness of the upper mantle is also confirmed by the fact that it (as well as the crust) contains earthquake foci located at a depth of up to 700 kilometers. There are no deeper earthquakes.
The rest of the upper mantle under the asthenosphere is called the Golitsyn layer (layer C). At the same time, the lower mantle (layer D), located in the depth interval from 900 to 2920 kilometers, is characterized by a high density of matter and a high velocity of propagation of elastic oscillations. Beyond that is only the Earth's core.
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Planet Earth keeps a huge number of secrets, a special place among which is the mystery of its internal structure. The deepest mines that man has managed to create reach a length of only a few kilometers. Despite the fact that it is impossible to get inside our planet, scientists have managed to compile an approximate picture of its internal structure.
What is happening inside our planet?
Everything that is in the center of the Earth must be in a molten and liquid state. However, in reality this does not happen, because for every 1 cm 3 of the mantle from the surface of the earth's crust, a pressure of 13 tons is exerted. This is approximately the weight of a KAMAZ loaded with asphalt. Scientists suggest that for this reason the mantle and core may be in a solid state.
If our planet could be cut into two halves, then the layers that are in the center of the Earth would be visible to us as several circular layers. The first one is the earth's crust. Its thickness is approximately 20 to 50 km. The type of earth's crust, called continental, consists of granite. In some places, such as the Grand Canyon, the water washed away upper layer the earth's crust, and the granite layer became available for study and observation. The earth's crust is also located at the bottom of the oceans, but its thickness is much less - only about 4.5 km. It consists not of granite, but of basalt.
The mantle is the layer behind the Earth's crust
If we move to the center of our planet, then the mantle will follow the earth's crust. Researchers call this layer "the most powerful." The thickness of the mantle reaches 3000 km. If a tunnel could be dug through the mantle, it would take 36 hours for a car to drive from one end to the other at a speed of 80 km/h. However, in reality such a journey is impossible. After all, the mantle of the earth is a place where enormous temperatures and enormous pressure prevail. Presumably, it consists of lead, magnesium and iron, and the temperature of this layer reaches 2 thousand o C. No one has ever actually seen the mantle - after all, even this gigantic temperature, according to researchers, increases by 1 o C with moving deeper into the every 30 meters. The mantle receives a large number of heat and from the core, which has an even higher temperature.
Scientists throughout the history of the development of geology have wondered what is at the center of the earth. However, until now, knowledge about this part of our planet cannot be called exhaustive. It is reliably known that the upper layers of the mantle consist of rock, which is called peridotite. In turn, peridotite consists of many minerals - olivine, pyroxene, as well as garnet known to all jewelers, which is used to make jewelry.
Center of the planet
Finally, in the very center of the Earth is the core. It is located directly under the mantle. Its diameter is approximately 6400 km. At first glance, the core of the Earth, isolated from heat and the sun, should have a very low temperature. However, this area is just a place of unthinkable heat. Here the temperature ranges from 2200 to 3300 o C. The Earth's core is a liquid, molten metal with an admixture of sulfur and oxygen. This part of our planet has a huge density, because it is most squeezed by the entire mass of the upper layers.
Why are the metals at the center of the earth so hot? It is believed that heat has been stored in the core of our planet for 4.6 billion years, since it was formed. However, most of the heat, according to geologists, is the result of radioactive decay processes inside the Earth.
How is the structure of the Earth studied?
How did scientists manage to discover everything that is in the center of the Earth, to get an idea of its internal structure? Indeed, in reality, no device can reach the center of our planet. First of all, it became possible to draw conclusions about the internal structure of our planet thanks to the study of volcanic eruptions. During eruptions, hot gas and molten metals escape from the bowels of the Earth. Thus, scientists were able to understand what is in the center of the earth. The mystery of the structure of our planet was also solved by studying seismic activity.
Study of seismic activity
At a depth of about 3 thousand km. seismic waves move differently than on the surface of the planet. Some can abruptly change the direction of their movement, others - suddenly disappear. Encountering formations of different hardness, seismic waves change their character. With the help of sensitive equipment, scientists managed to recreate the alleged internal structure our planet. Such research became possible only thanks to scientific progress, the development of technology. Once upon a time, mankind was inclined to believe that the Earth is at the center of the universe, and is also flat. However, these naive assumptions were refuted long ago. Today humanity has every opportunity to further explore our mysterious planet, including its internal structure.
(lesson "Building the globe", 6th grade)
Geography lesson in grade 6 "Structure of the globe"
The purpose of the lesson: formation of ideas about the internal structure of the globe: the core, mantle, earth's crust, lithosphere, about methods of studying the earth's interior.
Tasks:
Educational: to acquaint children with the inner layers: the earth's crust, mantle, core; establish similarities and differences in the continental and oceanic crust; give concepts: lithosphere; give an idea of the study of the earth's crust.
Developing: to form the ability to apply the acquired knowledge in solving practical problems, to highlight the main thing from what they saw and heard, to fill in tables, cluster diagrams.
Educational:
To educate students in the ability to work in small groups (pairs), the ability to listen to the answers of classmates, analyze and evaluate them. Formation of independent, responsible thinking in students. Cultivate a positive attitude towards the answers of classmates.
Forms of organization learning activities: frontal, individual, steam room.
Teaching methods: visual - illustrative, explanatory illustrative, partially - search, practical work.
Receptions: Analysis, synthesis, conclusion, generalization, visual forms of material organization.
Equipment: screen, laptop, presentation, cards with the table "Internal structure of the Earth"
Lesson type: lesson learning new material
During the classes
I. Organizing time. Reflection (1 min.)
Hello guys. Today, guests came to us to see how our lesson is going, how you are doing. Let's say hello to them.
II. Message new topic. Goal setting (5 min.).
So, we are moving on to the study of section 3 called ...
And we will find out by doing the test " Geographic map". Recall the material of the previous section.
Perform the task in the route sheet, fill in the table, choosing the letters with the correct answers. Slide 2.
Mutual check of answers. Evaluation.
At right choice answers, you will get the topic of the next section. HYDROSPHERE
1. The named scale "1 cm - 6 m" is indicated on the local plan. What numerical scale corresponds to it?
A) 1:6 B) 1:6000
B) 1:60 D) 1:600
2. The conditional line on a geographical map dividing the Earth into the Northern and Southern Hemispheres is called:
C) Tropic of the North K) prime meridian
B) the southern tropic I) the equator
3. The circumference of the Earth at the equator:
A) 4400 km I) 400000 km
D) 40,000 km D) 40040 km
4. Geographic longitude happens:
M) northern and southern O) southern and eastern
B) north and west P) western and eastern
5. From the equator is counted:
C) west and east longitudes
T) north and south longitude
C) western and eastern latitude
A) northern and southern latitude
6. Using the qualitative background method on the map, you can depict:
C) the depth of the ocean D) rivers
C) cities I) mineral deposits
7. The azimuth of the direction to the northeast is:
Y) 0° F) 45°
P) 90° D) 295°
8. The excess of one point on the earth's surface over another is called:
A) relief M) absolute height
L) isohypse E) relative height
9. Isohypses are lines of equals:
A) depths G) temperatures
P) heights U) speeds
10. The thicker the isohypses are located on the map, the slope:
P) higher K) longer
A) tougher U) smoother
0-1 errors - "5"
2-3 errors - "4"
4-5 errors - "3" slide 3
What is a globe?
Today we will find out with you and figure out what structure our Earth has inside .. So, what is the topic of the lesson today? (offer options for lesson topics).
The theme of the lesson is "STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH". slide 4
Record the topic of the lesson and the date in a notebook.
Based on the topic, formulate the purpose of the lesson.
After reviewing the text in the textbook, break it into parts.
So, study this topic we will be on the following schedule:
1) The internal structure of the Earth;
2) Study of the bowels of the Earth;
3) Lithosphere.
III. Learning new material (22 min)
1) The structure of the globe
Now we will read the story “Candy Earth” by roles (role distribution) slide 5
Vasya: Kolya, Kolya! - Vasya ran into the room, - such an idea came to my mind!
Kolya: What, Vasya?
Vasya: The earth is like a ball, right? - said Vasya.
Kolya: Well, yes...
Vasya: So if we dig through the Earth, we'll end up in a different place, right?
Kolya: Exactly! - Kolya was delighted, - Let's go to the grandmother, ask where we have a shovel.
Vasya: Run!
Kolya: Baaaaaaaaaaa!
Grandmother: What, Kolya?
Kolya: Grandmother, where is our shovel?
Grandmother: In the barn, Kolenka. Why do you need a shovel? Grandma replied.
Kolya: We want to dig the Earth, maybe we’ll get somewhere, - Kolya said happily.
Grandma smiled and asked:
Grandmother: Do you even know how it works?
Vasya: And what is there to know, - answered Vasya, - earth by earth - what could be simpler!
Grandmother: No. Not everything is so simple - answered the grandmother.
Kolya: But as? Grandma, tell me please. Well please! - Began to beg Grandma Kolya.
Grandmother: Well, okay, okay - the grandmother agreed, and began her story.
Grandmother: The earth is like a candy: in the center there is a nut - the core, then comes the creamy filling - this is the mantle, and on top the chocolate icing is the earth's crust. The distance from here to the center of the core is more than 6,000 km, and you want to go right through, - Grandma chuckled.
Kolya: So, everything is canceled, - Kolya was upset ...
Vasya: Yeah, it would be nice to have such a candy, - Vasya said dreamily.
- Summing up the story
Working with the picture “What can the Earth be compared with” Slide 6.
Can you compare the planet with an egg, a peach, a cherry, a watermelon? What is the similarity?
Shell, peel - the earth's crust; protein, pulp - mantle; nucleolus, protein - nucleus. The earth has a layered structure.
Work with the textbook. Filling in the table. Pair work (in writing). Slide 7
Using the textbook material (p. 57 § 9), fill in the gaps (cells) in the table “Internal structure of the Earth”. Pair work (mutual check). Grading the score sheet.
The internal structure of the Earth
| Shell name | Size (thickness) | condition | Temperature |
|
| Earth's crust | Miscellaneous: increases by 3°C for every 100 m (starting from a depth of 20-30m) |
|||
| 2.9 thousand km | bottom - solid medium-semi-liquid top - hard | |||
| 3.5 thousand km | hard, iron (external liquid, internal solid) |
slide 8.
Self-assessment. Putting a mark on the score sheet
Fizminutka
Words categorized by class:+ 6000°С, core, +3°С, mantle, earth's crust, 5-10 km., continental
1) What is the core temperature?
2) By how many degrees does the temperature of the earth's crust increase for every 100 m?
3) The shell of the Earth, consisting mainly of iron.
4) The thickness of this layer of the Earth is 2900 km.
5) The top layer of the Earth?.
6) What is the earth's crust consists of 3 layers?
7) What is the thickness of the oceanic crust?
2) The study of the bowels of the Earth.
Slide 9
Geological methods - based on the study of rock outcrops, sections of mines and mines, boreholes, make it possible to judge the structure of the near-surface part of the earth's crust. The world's deepest well on the Kola Peninsula has already reached a depth of more than 12 km, with a design depth of up to 15 km. In volcanic regions, the products of volcanic eruptions can be used to judge the composition of matter at depths of 50-100 km.
In general, the deep internal structure of the Earth is studied mainly by geophysical methods. One of the most important methods is the seismic (Greek "seismos" - shaking) method based on the study of natural earthquakes and "artificial earthquakes" caused by explosions or shock vibration effects on the earth's crust.
Viewing the video clip "Studying the bowels of the Earth" Slideshow 10
3) Lithosphere
Guys, what is the lithosphere? Find the definition of the word "Lithosphere" in the text on page 60 and write it in your notebook.
Lithosphere: "lithos" - a stone, "sphere" - a ball. This is a hard, stone shell of the Earth, consisting of the earth's crust and the upper part of the mantle.
Writing a definition in a notebook
IV. Fixing (7 min).
1) "Find matches"
Self-assessment: 0 errors - "5", 1 error - "4", 2 errors - "3"
2) Fill in the blanks
In the center of the Earth there is a core, the radius of which is approximately equal to 3.5 thousand km, and the temperatures correspond to 6000 ° C. The largest inner shell in terms of volume is the mantle, the temperature of which is 2000 °C. In its upper part, a solid layer stands out, which, together with the earth's crust, forms a solid shell of the earth - the lithosphere. The earth's crust is divided into two main types: continental and oceanic. Under the continents, the crust is thicker than under the oceans and has 3 layers.
Check by reading the answers one by one
Self-assessment: 0-1 error - "5", 2-3 errors - "4", 4-5 errors - "3"
2) Cluster Slide 11.
Key phrase - The structure of the globe
Group work.
V. Final part (5 min)
1. Homework: &9, make a mind map to it slide 12.
2. Reflection
Technological map of the lesson
Subject: geography
Lesson topic: "The structure of the globe"
Type of lesson: a lesson in mastering new knowledge
The purpose of the lesson: the formation of ideas about the internal structure of the globe: the core, mantle, earth's crust, lithosphere, about ways to study the earth's interior.
Technology of the lesson: the development of critical thinking, the technology of semantic reading
| Lesson stage | Teacher activity | Student activities | Planned educational outcomes |
||
| subject | metasubject | Personal |
|||
| Organizing time. Reflection Knowledge update Determining the topic of the lesson, setting goals | Greetings. Inclusion in the business rhythm. Checking the readiness of students for the lesson. Reflection of mood and emotional state Activates knowledge on the passed section "Geographic map". Offers to check the correctness of the answers, Perform a mutual check Leads a dialogue. Guys, tell me what I have in my hands? (the globe) What is a globe? Have you ever wanted to know and see what the Earth has inside? Today we will find out with you and figure out what structure our Earth has inside .. So, what is the topic of the lesson today? Informs the topic of the lesson "The structure of the globe" Lesson plan: 1) The internal structure of the Earth; 2) Study of the bowels of the Earth; 3) Lithosphere. | Welcome teachers. They tune in to the lesson, to the perception of the topic. Determine your readiness for the lesson Perform the "Geographic map" test. Receive in the answer the topic of the next section "Lithosphere". Mutual verification. Check the correctness of the answers. Evaluate. Students answer questions and formulate independently the topic and purpose of the lesson. Most of the children take part in the dialogue. Students can express their own opinion. Write down the topic of the lesson in a notebook Accept the lesson plan | Apply the acquired knowledge Application of acquired knowledge. Formulation of the topic and purpose of the lesson | Communicative UUD (use written speech when answering, use the ability to listen and hear) Regulatory UUD (organize their activities with the goal in mind) Cognitive UUD (extract the necessary information) Personal UUD (showing interest in the task at hand) Regulatory UUD (plan activities) Communicative UUD (formulate, suggest the topic and purpose of the lesson). Awareness of the purpose of the lesson | Formation of norms and rules of behavior in society. Formation of motivation Understanding the significance of the acquired knowledge. Formation of the motivational basis of educational activity. Forming a respectful attitude towards a different opinion |
| Learning new material | Offers to discuss the story What else can you compare the planet Earth, its inner content? Suggests to see examples on the slide. Now we will work with the text in the textbook on p. 57 and fill in the table "Internal structure of the Earth" Offers to check the results of filling in the table. Read tabular text. On the study of the uppermost layer of the earth - the earth's crust, we will dwell in more detail. Open fig. 30 on page 58 and fill in the gaps in the diagram "Earth's crust" Offers to check the results of filling the scheme. | Role-playing the story "Candy Earth" Draw conclusions from the story Offer comparison options. Compare. Correlate. They work with the text and fill out the table "Internal structure of the Earth" Check and compare the result. They work with Fig. 30 and fill in the "Earth's crust" chart Check and report the result. | Understanding the meaning and purpose of the text. Understanding that the Earth has a layered structure and big sizes. Determine what the similarities are. Find in the text information on the internal structure of the Earth: core, mantle, earth's crust. Formulate a description of the internal structure of the Earth There are 2 types of the earth's crust: continental and oceanic. Write out layers of rocks. | Communicative UUD (ability to use oral speech, the ability to listen and hear) Cognitive UUD Analyze text. Highlight the required information. Convert information from one form to another. Regulatory UUD (organize your activities with a set goal) Communicative UUD (use written and oral speech) | Showing interest in reading and understanding the text |
| Fizminutka | Guys, now we're going to warm up a bit. Words are hung around the office and when I ask a question you must find the answer. Turn your head, turn your body, you can stand up. | Listen to the question and find the right answer | The ability to find the right answers to the questions posed on the topic of the lesson | ||
| Learning new material | The study of the internal structure of the Earth is carried out by various methods. Geological methods - based on the study of rock outcrops. Look at the slide, how can you study the internal structure of the Earth? With this method, only the near-surface layers of the earth's crust can be studied. In general, the deep internal structure of the Earth is studied mainly by geophysical methods. One of the most important methods is the seismic method Viewing a video clip "Studying the bowels of the Earth" Guys, what is the lithosphere? Find the definition of the word "Lithosphere" in the text on page 60 and write it in your notebook. | Discuss how to study the internal structure of the Earth. Define the word "lithosphere". Write the definition in a notebook. | Understanding how the bowels of the Earth are studied, examples are given, assimilation of the information received. Ability to find a definition for a word in a textbook | Communicative UUD (the ability to use oral speech in responses, the ability to listen and hear) Regulatory UUD (organize your activities with a set goal) Cognitive UUD (extraction of the necessary information,) | Awareness of the integrity of nature Formation of a responsible attitude to learning |
| Anchoring | Offers work with the table for compliance. Offers work with text where you need to fill in the gaps Checks for gaps. Offers work in groups - to make a cluster. The key word is "The structure of the globe." | Work with the table for correspondence. Evaluate work. Work with the text, fill in the gaps. Check test. Evaluate. They are divided into groups, make up a cluster on the topic covered. | Ability to perform learning activities in accordance with the task The ability to perform educational actions in accordance with the task, consolidating the material covered | Communicative UUD (the ability to use oral and written speech in responses, the ability to listen and hear) Regulatory UUD (organize your activities with a set goal) Cognitive UUD (extraction of the necessary information,) | Develop respect for other opinions. Showing interest in a topic |
| Homework | &9, make a mind map for it | Write the assignment in a diary | Cognitive UUD: mood for structuring knowledge, information search | Formation of a responsible attitude to learning |
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| Reflection | Organizes self-assessment and reflection. | They listen and evaluate their activities in the lesson (put a mark on the evaluation sheet) | Regulatory UUD the ability to carry out introspection of their activities and correlate the result with the objectives of the lesson | Emotional and valuable attitude to the lesson |
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The file will be here: /data/edu/files/y1451934151.docx ( routing lesson)
Humanity lives or, more correctly, "rents" the planet. According to the latest scientific data, the “lease” period is about 4 million years, which is the date of the most ancient artifact proving the presence of homo sapiens. The age of the planet itself is 4.54 billion years, which is quite insignificant for outer space. But nevertheless, for all this time, mankind has not been able to study the lithosphere in detail. All modern data in most cases are based on conjectures and theoretical calculations, in turn based on the study of samples mined at maximum depth 12 km and this despite the fact that the radius of the Earth is about 6000 km.
What can be inside the planet? After all, we still, for example, have no idea how volcanoes work, but only make feeble attempts to develop passive protection against their eruptions.
Ever since the school geography course, we are told a diagram of the structure of the globe. The topmost layer - the earth's crust, its thickness varies within 100 km, and under it is the mantle - an eternally liquid and hot layer of molten lava, the very one that comes to the surface during volcanic eruptions. According to experts, the earth's crust is constantly in motion and, as it were, slides along the mantle, which is why faults and lava outcrops to the surface can occur. In the very center of the Earth there is a core, although there are still disputes about its presence and structure, someone says that it is solid and consists of pure iron, while others argue the opposite.
According to folk beliefs and biblical stories, down there, there is hell, fiery hell, purgatory - many definitions have been invented for this place. Scientists do not doubt that it is really hot there, but they are also sure of the complete absence of conditions for the existence of living organisms. Does hell really exist?
As you know, God expelled Satan from the heavenly world in underworld where an atmosphere of chaos reigns all the time, sinners are tortured on fire and subjected to other tortures. The devil's helpers also live there - various otherworldly creatures whose names are found in every culture. There are cases when miners, being at great depths, encountered some strange creatures, the presence of which was invariably accompanied by a pungent smell of sulfur. Having met with a man, these aliens instantly disappeared into the darkness of countless underground corridors. The most interesting thing is that at the same moment any light source began to blink sharply or even go out, and on telephone line strong interference was observed, although radio communication underground is not used. Once uninvited guest disappeared, the normal operation of the systems was restored.
There is an opinion that hell really exists and is located just under the earth's crust, by the way, this fact was repeatedly described by science fiction writers of the early 20th century. There is also a very real entrance there, through some network of underground caves. The only question is where?
There are enough places on the planet where there are entire underground complexes that go down steeply, where even the most desperate explorers refuse to go down. Residents living in such an area can often testify that in the caves, especially if you go down a considerable distance, you can hear sounds remotely resembling human screams.
The fact that there really is something under the earth's crust that is clearly inconsistent with the official doctrine of the lithosphere is confirmed and anomalous phenomena in places of faults or joints of tectonic plates. In such areas, there is constantly a malfunction in the operation of radio-electronic equipment, magnetic compasses and mechanical watches stop working, in addition, phenomena that contradict common sense and the laws of physics. The main sign of a fracture is the presence of low-frequency ultrasound, which creates discomfort, anxiety and headaches, up to hallucinations. The buildings built in such places remain empty, as the residents cannot withstand such loads and try to leave the housing, and the process of building any structures is very difficult and is accompanied by a lot of breakdowns.
The famous British writer Arthur Conan Doyle is famous not only for detective stories, but also for fantastic stories. The story "When the Earth Cried" tells about the attempt of a group of scientists to penetrate the thickness of the earth's crust by drilling a deep pit. As you know, the heroes achieved their goal and eventually discovered a layer of a completely new substance, gelatinous and pulsating, inside which elements very similar to blood vessels were clearly visible. After an attempt to insert a probe into the thickness of this layer, everyone who was on the surface heard a terrifying scream issued by the planet itself.
Despite the fantastic nature of this work, the versions that the planets are living organisms also find their supporters. Some scientists suggest that in fact the age of the universe, and indeed the Earth itself, is much older than is commonly believed. And the current biosphere, like the human race, is far from being the first to live here. Proof of this are the most real and closest to us in time, the Atlanteans and dinosaurs. The presence of the former, as well as Atlantis itself, is confirmed by the ancient Greek records that have come down to us, where the authors mention this continent as a real part of the continental structure of the then globe. There is no doubt about the existence of dinosaurs at all, since there are more than enough artifacts in museums and the search continues to this day.
Probably no one doubts the existence of parallel worlds, but this concept should not be confused with the other world. Scientists at Stanford University have calculated that after the big bang, which became the beginning of everything that exists today, the number of universes formed reached 10 to the 1016th power. It is not necessary that the universes can be located, as we are used to it, the option is not ruled out, inside one universe there may be another, and another one may be hiding inside our planet.
In the surviving descriptions of the planet among the ancient peoples, there is a mention that the Earth is hollow inside and inhabited by inhabitants. AT ancient Greek mythology is mentioned underworld Tartare, very suitable for the description of hell. For example, you can still hear in everyday life the expression - "fall into hell." The cavity of the globe was hypothesized at a later time by such prominent scientists of the renaissance as Franklin, Lichtenberg, and Halley. At the end of the 18th century, the famous explorer Leslie even put forward a proposal to send an expedition in search of this inner world However, things did not go further than proposals.
In 1816, the scientist Kormuls put forward a version that the formation of depressions provoked by shifts in the earth's crust is nothing more than evidence of voids inside the planet. According to the assumptions of the scientist Steinghauser, there is another planet inside, which, like ours, rotates around its own axis, in its orbit.
Soviet scientists also put forward their assumptions regarding the internal structure of the planet, for example, V. Obruchev, was developing a theory about a giant meteorite that collided with the earth and, after a powerful impact, pierced the earth's crust, resulting in a cavity.
There are a lot of opinions about what is actually inside the globe, and what force the mechanism makes the continents move. Based only on conjectures and folk tales, or based on real scientific developments, all of them so far remain only assumptions. It can only be said unequivocally that the Earth requires from each person careful attitude, otherwise mankind will face the unenviable fate of dinosaurs.
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What does it mean to find out the deep structure of the Earth? It is necessary to find out the nature of the change in the main characteristics of the lithosphere substance with depth: changes in the structure, energy saturation and chemical composition. It is the substance that needs to be studied, because the globe is complicated by it, and not just abstract geophysical parameters in the form of seismic wave velocities, differences in magnetic properties, and density. These data are needed to solve various specific practical problems: seismic zoning and others.
To what depth from the surface of the lithosphere can one study the deep structure of the globe? I would like to reach the center of our planet. But the limitations are caused by the fact that it is necessary to study the structure, energy saturation and chemical composition of the substance of the stone shell. Without obtaining a substance for analysis, it is impossible to determine its structure, energy saturation and chemical composition.
Therefore, knowledge deep structure Earth is possible only to the depths from which it will be possible to obtain samples for analysis. This can be done to the depths of the visible part of the lithosphere, or about 15 km. The deepest wells never reached a depth of 13 km. Almost to this depth, the Kola super-deep well was drilled. These are the realities of our time.
Everything that is studied deeper than the intervals of possible sampling of matter by indirect geophysical methods in terms of seismic wave velocity, measurements of electrical conductivity, gravity, magnetic properties - in other words, recording the physical characteristics of matter, must necessarily be certified by samples of matter from the studied depths, i.e. interpreted geologically . If it is impossible to carry out a geological interpretation of the results of geophysical studies, it makes no sense to carry out these works to clarify the deep structure of the globe. It is possible and necessary to study the nature of changes in the velocities of seismic waves from the surface to the center of the planet, density and other features, but this will not be the knowledge of the deep structure of the Earth in terms of matter. According to the results of such measurements, it is impossible to speak about the peridotite mantle, the basalt layer of the earth's crust, as well as about the earth's crust, mantle and core in their material terms.
The deep structure of the lithosphere begins below its surface. The geological map shows geological structure area on the day surface. It is not for nothing that a geological map shows the age of rocks (usually bedrock) that come to the surface. To find out the geological structure volumetric or in depth, geological sections are built.
From the day surface to the lower boundary of the observed part of the lithosphere, the structure of the stony shell of the globe is as follows.
The basic laws of the addition of the visible part of the deep structure of the lithosphere are formulated in Chapter II. Basic geological laws. Their essence is that the structure becomes more and more coarse-grained with depth, the energy saturation decreases, the chemical composition changes: the content of oxides of aluminum, iron, magnesium and calcium decreases with depth and silica increases. During the formation of quartzite, the presence of not only oxides of aluminum, iron, magnesium and calcium, but also oxides of sodium and potassium decreases to zero.
consequences of these laws. Below granite and quartzite, there cannot be rocks with energy saturation greater than that of granite and quartzite. Below granite and quartzite, there cannot be rocks with more iron, magnesium and calcium oxides than granite. Below granite, and even more so quartzite, there may be a substance made of silicon oxide.
The history of views on the deep structure of the Earth
The widespread development of limestone in Greece, which caused the manifestation of karst, led to the formation of numerous underground caves. This allowed the ancient Greeks to talk about the presence of voids and channels in the Earth. Such ideas about the structure of the globe, spread to our entire planet, existed until the beginning of the 19th century, or more than two thousand years.
In 1522, after the completion of El Cano, the first world travel, started by F. Magellan, the spherical shape of our planet was proved.
Observing in 1609 with the help of his second telescope with a magnification of 32 times the Sun, G. Galileo (1564-1641) saw dark spots on it. They were taken as evidence of the cooling of the star, although the prominences, on the contrary, indicate the activity of the Sun, flashes on it. Based on this conclusion, which was not obtained in the study of terrestrial matter, R. Descartes (1596-1650) in the first half of the 17th century. proposed a completely new explanation of the deep structure of the Earth, which has basically survived to this day.
He suggested that the Earth was at first a red-hot star, like the Sun, but of a small size. Therefore, the cooling of the Earth occurred at a faster rate than the Sun. Cooling led to the appearance of dark spots on its surface. With further cooling and interaction of particles of matter, other shells were formed. In the center of the globe, according to R. Descartes, there is a fiery core composed of solar material. It is surrounded by a dense shell of the substance of dark sunspots. Behind it is a shell in which metals are born. Above is a water shell, then an underground cavity (a shell with numerous voids) filled with air. The uppermost surface shell surrounded by air.
The right to citizenship in geology and in natural science in general, R. Descartes' idea in the form of the hypotheses of plutonism and Kant-Laplace received only two hundred years later, since during its formation it did not sharply correspond to religious ideas about the creation of the Earth and was not accepted by scientists.
By the end of the first quarter of the XIX century. in natural science, the idea of the origin of the Earth from a hot gaseous nebula, which is now called the Kant-Laplace hypothesis, was established. The entire interior of the globe was assumed to be molten, covered from above with a solid cooling crust - the earth's crust up to 10 miles (16 km) thick. The earth's crust was divided into two parts, lying one on top of the other. Its lower half originated from solidified molten material preserved in the inner part of the planet. It was called the fiery crust or plutonic. It is composed of plutonic rocks: granites, syenites, porphyries, gneisses, marbles, micaceous schists, etc. The destruction of its material on the day surface and the removal of the resulting fragments into the seas led to the formation of layers of clays, sandstones and limestones that formed the outer water or neptunian crust.
Meanwhile, half a century ago, Neptunists explained the same observed section of the stone shell of the globe from clays and sands on the surface to granite at depth in a different way, opposite to plutonists.
In 1775, A.G. Werner (1750-1817) in place of geology - a science that consisted in bold hypotheses of the origin of the Earth, proposed new science- geognosy, the main purpose of which was to understand the composition, structure and location of the mineral strata that make up the visible part of the stone shell of the globe. However, he could not deviate from the generally accepted sequence of thinking: first the origin of the Earth, then its structure. This can be seen from the order in which the tasks of geognosy, indicated by A.G. Werner.
Initially, it is necessary to find out what the Earth has to do with other celestial bodies, and what it is in the Universe. Such a comparison will make it possible to draw a conclusion about what happened to our planet during its existence with the clarification of the reasons for the transformations that took place with it.
Find out the influence of organic (ore) bodies on the solid part of the globe.
Find out the influence of atmospheric bodies on the solid part of the globe.
Consider the forming (creating) and destroying forces acting on the globe, i.e. water and fire, and the results of the actions of these forces.
Explore the most important natural changes that took place in different times with the globe, especially in chronological order, that is, which of them were earlier and which later.
In conclusion, it is necessary to consider in detail the rocks that make up the solid part of the globe. They should be studied in the order in which they “follow their origin”, which will allow them to be divided according to the method of formation into various types.
From the standpoint of induction, the tasks of natural science research should be listed in reverse: first, study the composition and structure of the lithosphere matter, then the processes that led to the formation of rocks. It is generally impossible to separate rocks by origin, because they do not contain signs of origin. The program for studying the Earth's stony shell, proposed by A.G. Werner, is still in progress.
Considering in nature the sequence of stratification of rocks that make up the solid part of the globe, the Neptunists assigned the main place in it to argillaceous shale, which gradually turns down the section into micaceous schist, consisting of quartz and mica. The oldest micaceous schist (lying below the simple schist) already contains an admixture of feldspar. Through it, he passes into gneiss, and that into granite of a full-crystalline structure. All these rocks were attributed to the chemical origin by the precipitation of crystals from the water.
At the top, shale gradually turns into gray waki shale - argillite, which is the oldest known rock of mechanical precipitation of products of destruction of chemical rocks. There is no doubt about the water origin of sands and clays. This can be observed directly in nature.
A general conclusion was made that all the observed rocks are of water origin. Hence the hypothesis of Neptunism. It has been reliably established that the upper part of the deposits known on Earth: clays, sands, sandstones, limestones, originated from water. These sedimentary rocks gradually become the oldest known formations, with often observed interbedding of phyllites with shale and gneiss. There is no boundary between two such strata.
The well-known Neptunist D. de Voisin wrote that he never had to walk more than a few miles on an outcrop of granite, so as not to meet it in one place or another in its transition to gneiss or micaceous schist. In almost all mountain ranges, continued D. De Voisin, one can see how this slate, in turn, turns into clayey (roofing) slate, in which later coal beds with plant imprints are found. The shale then begins to interbed with rock layers containing the remains of marine organisms. One can see the desire not to contradict the biblical motives, according to which God created the plants on the third day, and the marine animals later, on the fifth day.
Granites were accepted as the oldest, or primary Neptunists. The Scottish naturalist J. Hutton (1726-1797), studying the beautifully exposed sections of Scotland, doubted the sedimentary (water) origin of granite. At first he had theoretical reasoning. The observed disorderly arrangement of quartz, feldspar, and mica composing granite could not have occurred if this rock had been formed by the crystallization of salts from sea water, as the Neptunists claimed. The solubility in water of the main minerals of granite is different, therefore, in nature, in this case, monomineral layers of quartz, feldspar and mica should be observed. The crystal structure of granite from randomly arranged minerals indicates their crystallization from molten material. Therefore, there must be veins of granite in the overlying layers.
To test his theoretical constructions, J. Hutton went to the Grampian Mountains to investigate "the line of connection of granites and layered masses lying above them." At Glen Tilte in 1785 he saw veins branching from a large body of red granite, passing through black micaceous schist and limestone. Confirmation of theoretical assumptions about the molten original nature of granite aroused in J. Hutton joy so enthusiastic that the guides who were with him, according to his biographer, thought that he had discovered a silver or gold mine.
The ideas of the Neptunists about the watery origin of granite were dealt an irreparable blow. The molten nature of granite paved the way for the next hypothesis of geology - plutonism. Theoretical basis he was served by the Kant-Laplace hypothesis of the formation of the Earth from a hot ball of fire. As the globe cooled, it was covered on top with a hard cooling crust—a crust about 10 miles (16 km) thick. The inner part below was assumed to be molten. This was how the deep structure of the Earth was seen in the first half of the 19th century.
As can be seen, the views of the Neptunists and Plutonists on the deep structure and origin of the rocks that make up the globe were opposite. Such a construction of explanations in science is not permissible, it violates one of the main features of science - acceptability. Back in 1913, N. Bohr formulated the correspondence principle, according to which any newer (general) hypothesis must include the old hypothesis. The old hypothesis is obtained from the new one for certain values of the parameters that determine it, i.e., it is a special case of the new (general) hypothesis. If this is not observed, as can be seen from the example of the lack of continuity of Plutonic ideas from Neptunian ones, then the new hypothesis, in our case - Plutonism, has no right to exist. By the way, the natural scientific model of geology, which considers lava as a water-silicate solution, and recrystallization - the transition of substances into a solution, reaching saturation, to some extent has in common with the ideas of the Neptunists.
It should be noted that there should be no hypotheses in the natural sciences at all. I. Newton spoke about this. Talking about hypotheses in natural science is a reflection of mathematical, basically deductive thinking: axiomatic constructions or empirical knowledge, then observations to search for illustrative material to confirm them. This is necessary to clarify the origin of what is being studied, which is perceived as the researcher sees it. Basically, these are religious aspirations.
The purpose of natural science is the opposite: to discover the laws of the structure and functioning of natural phenomena and objects, to derive consequences from them. This is achieved only by inductive thinking: from the signs of objects and phenomena to concepts, the comparison of which leads to the law. Laws have no exceptions, and therefore do not allow opinions or hypotheses. Cognition is carried out by creating models of the real world, not observed by people directly with the senses. Real world is the absolute truth. The model will never fully correspond to real phenomena or objects of nature, so the question of their origin is not raised. You can't figure out the genesis of what you haven't fully figured out.
Therefore, there is nothing surprising in the fact that the actual (please remember that it is not interpretive) material of such sciences as physics and seismology did not confirm the geological consequences of the Kant-Laplace hypothesis based on deduction.
First of all, physicists questioned the possibility of the formation of a solid earth's crust over a molten deep shell. According to S.D. Poisson (1781-1840), the solidification of the initially molten Earth should have begun from its center. Based on its enormous size, the Earth could not immediately be covered uniformly with a cooling crust, which in any case had to be crushed by the bubbling primary melt into separate blocks. The solid blocks that appeared during the cooling of the surface of the globe, being heavier than the melt, were obliged to sink down. At depth, they melted, lowering the temperature of the inner part of the planet. Gradually, subsequent solid blocks reached the center of the Earth, and from there the process of complete solidification spread to the earth's surface. The earth's crust theoretically could not have arisen! This is initially a false, unscientific term, which, however, is used in geology even now, making it unscientific. Therefore, in the natural-scientific model of geology, the term "earth's crust" is not used, except in historical terms.
The data of physicists on the influence of the attraction of the Moon on it testified to the completely solid fulfillment of the globe. It turned out that the tides arising under the influence of the Moon are manifested not only in the hydrosphere, causing periodic fluctuations in sea level, but also in the solid part of the planet. Insignificant fluctuations of the earth's surface from such tides indicated a greater elasticity of the matter of the globe, which would have been impossible in the liquid state of its bowels.
Born in the second half of the 19th century. seismology has shown that longitudinal (compression and tension) and transverse (shear) waves propagate from earthquake sources to depths of three thousand kilometers. Transverse deformations with discontinuity of the medium are possible only in solids. In liquids and gases, they are extinguished (from modern positions due to the high energy saturation of gases, in which atoms are constantly moving at speeds of hundreds of meters per second, and in liquids, in which molecules also do not stand still). It turned out that there was no molten shell inside the globe, and there was no reason to talk about the earth's crust, the molten core. But they acted against it.
They accepted that the Earth was first melted and then cooled down. Of course, there were no grounds for such a conclusion, and according to modern data (the absence of pre-life time, the presence of the remains of filamentous algae in the most ancient rocks aged 4 billion years, cell from cell, living from living), it is generally false. Therefore, all the consequences on the deep structure of our planet from this false idea contradict the laws of physics and chemistry, being unscientific.
It was believed that even at the molten stage, the terrestrial matter was divided by density. Down to the center of the planet, heavy metals descended, forming an iron-nickel core. Naturally, light elements (silicon - silicium and aluminum - Si + Al) floated up, from which the granitic earth's crust - sial arose. An intermediate position is occupied by sima (Si + Mg), which is a basaltic subcrustal substance from which basaltic magma is smelted for volcanic eruptions. Such terms, which are still used today: iron-nickel core, sima and sial, were proposed at the beginning of the 20th century. Austrian geologist E. Suess (1831-1914). They also used data on meteorites.
Why is the word “term” used and not “concepts”? The application of the concept implies the existence of the necessary and sufficient signs objects that characterize the properties of these objects. Give at least one sign or property of the iron-nickel core, sima or sial according to their real composition. They are not here. Why? Because in nature there is no iron-nickel core, sima and siali. Indeed, already at their appearance, the terms “sima” and “sial” contradicted the foundations of chemistry. Since sima (basalt) was placed below siali (granite), they meant that magnesium is heavier than aluminum (silicon they have in common). But the density of magnesium is 1.7 g / cm 3, while for aluminum it is 2.7 g / cm 3. Serial number of magnesium in Periodic system chemical elements DI. Mendeleev 12, atomic mass 24.312, aluminum 13 and 26.9815, respectively, silicon - 14 and 28.086. The heaviest of them is silicon. It is 70% in granite, and only 50% in the underlying basalt. Sheer nonsense.
Granites were called sial because they contain a lot of aluminum, and in sima (basalt) it, therefore, is less. In fact, it's the other way around! In granite, alumina is 14.30%, and in basalt it is more than two percent more - 16.48%.
At the beginning of the XX century. sima, placed under the earth's crust (sial), began to be called an amorphous basalt layer. It was isolated as a source of energy and substance for volcanoes. It was believed that basalt magma arises from the basalt layer with a decrease in pressure from a crack during an earthquake. However, at the same time, the American geologist N.L. Bowen (1887-1956) showed that a fracture cannot reduce the pressure of the overlying strata, since it does not reduce the mass of the layers. The melt, it turns out, cannot be obtained from an energy-saturated basalt layer at a depth.
The second objection of N.L. Bowen against the participation of the basalt layer in the production of the main (basalt) magma was that with partial melting of the substance of the basalt layer, the chemical composition of the resulting melt would not be basaltic, but more acidic, for example, andesitic, with a high content of silicon oxides and alkali metals and smaller - refractory oxides of magnesium, iron and calcium. Basalt could only be obtained by instantaneous complete melting of the basalt layer, which is impossible. Therefore, N.L. Bowen, since basalt magma is formed at depth, then below the basalt layer there should be a layer with a higher content of oxides of magnesium, iron and calcium than in basalt. This requirement is met by peridotite, an ultrabasic rock. Below the basalt layer (it is not clear for the left one, because it was isolated to obtain basalt magma, but it is impossible to obtain it from it), which is no longer needed to obtain basalt melt and therefore included in the composition of the earth's crust (basalt magma rises from under the crust), a peridotite layer was identified that makes up the upper part of the mantle.
Why did crystalline peridotite melt? After all, there is less potential energy in it than in the overlying amorphous basalt layer. In 1914, the American geologist J. Burrell singled out the asthenosphere below the upper mantle - a zone of highly heated semi-molten material, i.e., a semi-finished melt. It provided energy for the emerging basaltic magma. It turned out that peridotite, as a source of matter and energy for magma, is crystalline in structure and at the same time semi-molten! Absurd!
The separation of the asthenosphere testified to a return to the idea of the primary nature of molten matter in the bowels of the globe, which was professed by geologists at the beginning of the 19th century.
Such was the formation of the currently generally accepted deep structure of the solid part of the Earth from the earth's crust (granite and basalt layers), the mantle, the upper part of which to the asthenosphere is peridotite and the core. The earth's crust + upper mantle began to be called the lithosphere, that is, the stone shell, because the plastic asthenosphere lies below. However, signs of the lithosphere were not reported, because they do not exist, just as there is no earth's crust and mantle in the material (geological) respect. If they are distinguished by the speed of seismic waves, then these are geophysical concepts in this case. They have nothing to do with geology.
The globe in natural science is usually divided into the atmosphere - a gas shell, the hydrosphere - a water shell, the biosphere - a shell of life and the lithosphere - a stone shell. It is in this understanding that the concept of lithosphere is used in the natural-science model of geology as a synonym for a stone shell.
But the absurd situations with the generally accepted deep structure of the globe did not end there. At the beginning of the second half of the XX century. geologists, comparing the chemical compositions of peridotite and basalt (which prevented this from being done earlier when it was proposed to obtain basalt from peridotite), saw that it was impossible to obtain basalt from peridotite. There is too little aluminum, sodium, potassium, barium, uranium, thorium and many other chemical elements in peridotite to form basaltic magma with its partial melting. In peridotite, there are only 4.72% Al 2 O 3, 0.73% Na 2 O, 0.38% K 2 O, and in basalt there are almost four times more of them: 16.48%, 2.78% and 1, 24%. The contents of uranium and thorium in basalt are two orders of magnitude higher than those in peridotite.
Based on the ideas about the melting of basaltic magma under the crust, the Australian geologist A.E. Ringwood came to the conclusion that peridotite is not a source of basaltic magma, but is the remnant of its melting from the underlying layer, which has a primitive primary composition. The substance of this hypothetical, unseen layer is composed of pyroxenes and olivine, and is therefore called pyrolite.
In a word, the deeper we go down, the fewer questions will arise. This is not so, the absurdity is increasing more and more. For example, with the release of pyrolite, a violation of a physical law occurred: in a gravitational field, a heavy substance cannot lie above a lighter one. The section of the upper mantle is taken as follows: a peridotite layer and, below it, a pyrolitic one. Peridotite is a heavy remnant of pyrolite, supposedly abandoned by lighter basalt. In this case, the peridotite would simply fall into the pyrolite, and there would be no peridotite layer of the upper mantle.
Translucence of the globe by seismic waves arising from earthquakes confirmed the division of the stone part of our planet into shells with different speeds of seismic waves. The upper shell was identified by the earth's crust, the middle - by the mantle. central part determined by the kernel.
The thickness of the earth's crust on the continents turned out to be from 40 to 70 km, and in the oceans only 6-8 km. The lower boundary of the earth's crust and the upper boundary of the mantle is taken to be the region of an abrupt increase in the velocity of longitudinal seismic waves from 7.5 to 8.2 km/s. This area was named the Mohorovičić section (Moho, M), in honor of the Yugoslav seismologist A. Mohorovichić (1857-1936), who discovered such a sharp increase in wave speed in 1909 (then there was no Yugoslavia yet). According to the speed of passage of seismic waves, the earth's crust is divided into two layers: the lower one, with velocities of 7-7.5 km/s, and the upper one, in which the velocities are in the range of 6-6.5 km/s.
When they began to find out in which particular rocks seismic waves have such values, it turned out that in basalt their speed is 7-7.5 km / s, and in granite - 6-6.5 km / s. The previously stated division of the earth's crust into the lower basalt and upper granite layers was confirmed (Fig. 9). Seismic wave propagation velocity of 8.2 km/s was determined in peridotite.
But basalt cannot be at depths of 10-70 km. It recrystallizes there into amphibolite, the speed of seismic waves in which is greater than in basalt, and then into granite at a lower speed. Nor can peridotite be found under granite. So the confirmation by seismology (geophysics) of the structure of the solid part of our planet from the earth's crust with granite and basalt layers on the continents, basalt in the oceans and peridotite upper mantle is apparent.
Rice. nine.
Let us consider where, according to the features of the chemical composition, structure and energy saturation in the lithosphere, bodies of amorphous basalt and finely crystalline peridotite can occur? To do this, we first give once again the chemical composition of the substance of the layered shell that makes up the surface of the stone shell, and granite, the deepest, together with quartzite, from a directly observed rock.
It can be seen that as the rocks sink, accompanied by recrystallization, their chemical composition changes: the content of aluminum, iron, magnesium, and calcium oxides decreases, and the content of silicon, sodium, and potassium oxides increases.
Now I am reporting information on the chemical composition of basalt and peridotite.
Basalt with an amorphous structure and high energy saturation can be found where amorphous rocks are common in the lithosphere, i.e. on its surface. Indeed, basalt arises and exists only on the surface of the stone shell. And according to the peculiarities of the chemical composition, basalt should lie above granite and a layered shell, because it has more oxides of aluminum, iron, magnesium and calcium and less oxides of silicon and potassium.
Bodies of peridotite as a fine-crystalline rock can be found in the lithosphere only among bodies of fine-crystalline rocks, the most common of which are crystalline schists. So it really is, and nowhere in the world are bodies of peridotites found in granites. Chemical composition peridotite is specific due to the very high content of magnesium and calcium oxides, indicating that this rock is formed when the rising basalt solution is released from excess oxides of these metals.
The very first verification of the generally accepted deep structure of the lithosphere on the continents by drilling the Kola ultra-deep well didn't confirm it. The well was laid for scientific purposes to open a basalt layer at a depth of 7 km, which, according to geophysical data, is closest to the day surface in this area. The speed of seismic waves there in the rocks was determined to be 7-7.5 km/s. In the overlying rocks, it was 6-6.5 km / s - a granite layer.
In fact, the section drilled by the borehole turned out to be opposite to the design one: sandstones and tuffs with bodies of dolerites (cryptocrystalline basalts) are widespread up to a depth of 6842 m, and below - gneisses, granite-gneisses, and less often - amphibolites.
The most important thing about the results of drilling the Kola super-deep well is that they not only refute the generally accepted opinion about the structure of the upper part of the lithosphere, but that before they were obtained it was impossible to speak at all about the material structure of these depths of the globe. At the same time, the results of drilling the Kola superdeep well fully confirmed the section of the visible part of the lithosphere from loose and cemented detrital and clay, and then crystalline rocks, known to people from the middle of the XVIII century. (I. Leman, J. Arduino, A.G. Werner and others) and ignored by modern geology. It is this section of the lithosphere that underlies the construction of a natural-science model of geology.