Grammatical categories, grammatical meanings and grammatical forms. Grammatical category and meaning. Types and forms
Term grammar used in two meanings.
1) Grammar as a set of means, methods and rules for constructing phrases and sentences;
2) Grammar is the study of these means, methods, rules with the help of which you can create phrases and sentences in a particular language.
Grammar in the first meaning is synonymous with the concept of the grammatical structure of a language.
Grammar consists of several aspects:
1.Morphology - studies the laws of changing words as parts of speech, as well as the categories inherent in a particular part of speech.
2. Syntax (translated from Greek as “military formation”) explores various types of combinations of words, the relationship between words in a phrase and a sentence, and finally the sentence as a whole, various types and types of sentences.
MORPHOLOGY(from the Greek “study of form”) - a branch of linguistics, the main object of which is the words of natural languages and their significant parts - morphemes. The tasks of morphology include defining a word as a special linguistic object and describing its internal structure. Morphology describes not only the formal properties of words and the morphemes that form them, but also those grammatical meanings that are expressed within a word (or “morphological meanings”). According to these two broad objectives, morphology is often divided into two areas: “formal” morphology, or morphemics, and grammatical semantics.
SYNTAX(from the Greek “structure, order”) - a set of grammatical rules of the language related to the construction of phrases and sentences. In a more broad sense, syntax refers to the rules for constructing expressions of any sign systems, and not just verbal language.
Its essence- in the unity of grammatical meaning and the means of its expression.
Signs of grammatical meaning are regularity (the meaning of number in all nouns) and the typified nature of the means of expression, a limited set of means.
The means of expressing this meaning directly depend on the language.
1) in synthetic languages - service morphemes (affixes), reduplication (orang-orang), suppletivism (person-people), internal inflection (foot-fiit) and stress (ruki-ruki).
2) In analytical languages - function words (prepositions, conjunctions, particles, articles), intonation, word order (hi hez a pen, hez hi e pen?)
Grammatical categories differ in their parameters (system of opposition of members, binomial system of the category of number, polynomial system of the category of gender), in relation to reality - real - lexico-grammatical (category of number) and unreal - proper grammatical (category of animacy or gender)
The masculine category also includes a wide variety of different words: nouns bread, pencil, house, mind, adjectives big, strong, joyful, beautiful, verbs did, built, wrote.
In Russian, nouns are characterized by grammatical categories number, gender and case, and the verb - number, tense, aspect, mood, voice, person, gender.
The problem of the category of gender is complicated by the fact that the grammatical category of gender, even in the languages in which it is expressed, very often does not coincide across languages. In Russian the hour is masculine, in German and French it is feminine. There are languages that have a common gender, examples from the Russian language are orphan, quiet, boring, crybaby.
For living beings, ways of differentiation within the grammatical category of gender itself in different languages very diverse:
1. using special endings: guest - guest, husband-wife, or special suffixes: actor - actress, bear - she-bear;
2. using different words (heteronymy): father-mother, brother-sister.
3. using only contextual clarification: whale, squirrel, monkey, magpie, shark, hippopotamus (both males and females).
Number category. Man has long distinguished between one object and many objects, and this distinction could not but find its expression in language. The universality of the category of number lies in the fact that it covers not only nouns and adjectives, but also pronouns and verbs.
If the case system in a particular language is not developed, then the language can do without it, using other methods to express grammatical relations (prepositions, word order, and so on).
By grammatical categories are allocated to the nature of grammatical meanings:
(2) formal categories reflecting the restrictions of word forms associated with compatibility (for example, “concordant” grammatical categories are involved in the design of coordination relations).
There are also categories formative according to which the lexeme can change (for example, the case of a noun; gender, number and case of an adjective; tense and mood of a verb); And classifying, characteristic of the whole lexeme and constant for it (for example, the gender of inanimate nouns, the animate/inanimate nature of most nouns, transitivity/intransitivity and personality/impersonality of most verbs).
The concept of the grammatical meaning of a word. Means of expressing the grammatical meanings of words. The concept of the grammatical form of a word. Basic ways and means of forming grammatical forms of words.
The grammatical meaning of the word- a generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms, syntactic structures and finding its regular expression in grammatical forms.
Ways of expressing grammatical meaning.
1.Flexion. So in the phrase “book of Peter” the connection between words is achieved using the ending a.
2. Function words (prepositions, conjunctions, particles, articles, auxiliary verbs) “went to my brother”
3. Word order acts as a way of expressing grammatical meaning in those languages in which there is no inflection. And the word in the direct and indirect cases retains the same form.
4.Emphasis. For example: Hands, hands, houses, houses. In these examples, the grammatical category of number and case is conveyed by stress.
5. Intonation. Depending on how we say “students are attentive” with the intonation of a statement or “students are attentive?” with the intonation of the question, the sentence, its meaning, its grammatical design also changes.
6.Suppletivism is the combination of words of different roots or different bases into one grammatical pair:
a. when forming degrees of comparison of adjectives: good is better, bad is worse.
b. when forming personal pronouns: I – me.
7. Reduplication (repetitions, doublings) - when a complete or partial doubling of the base occurs, for example:
a. to indicate plural in Indonesian orang (person) - orang-orang (people);
b.to form the superlative degree of an adjective in Chinese: hao (good) - hao-hao (very good, excellent).
Grammatical form- this is the connection of grammatical meaning with in a grammatical way his expressions. Yes, in verbs jump, burst, scream there is a suffix - Well-, which indicates a one-time action, and – t– infinitive suffix.
Methods of forming grammatical forms of words. Shaping methods.
The Russian language belongs to the synthetic languages. Therefore, to identify grammatical meanings, he uses mainly synthetic means.
Shaping methods:
1. Affixation = suffix, ending, prefix express grammatical meaning.
2. Change in the sound composition of the root, expressing different grammatical meanings (remove - remove, send - send); alternation (freeze - freeze, bake - bake).
3. Emphasis: at home (= r.p., singular) – at home (noun, plural).
4.Supplementivism - expressing grammatical meaning using the roots of other words: person - people, me - me, bad - worse.
5. Intonation: for example, in conveying various shades of meaning of the imperative mood of a verb.
Less common, but still used analytical forms. Then the lexical and grammatical meanings receive a separate expression (lexical - by the word itself, grammatical - by an auxiliary component: I will write, let it burst...).
Finally, they are used analytical-synthetic forms, in which grammatical meanings are partially reflected by the form of the main word - the carrier of the lexical meaning, and partially by the auxiliary component: with I would go.
Subject of morphology. Stages of development of morphology as a science. The concept of a grammatical word, grammatical meaning, morphological paradigm, word form. (ACTIVELY PRAY TO THE GODS THAT THIS GOES TO ARIA, AND NOT TO US)
Morphology translated from Greek language literally means “the study of form.” This is the section of grammar that studies grammatical properties of the word. Since morphology is inextricably linked with grammatical meanings and categories, it is part of grammar. The term "inflection" is often used as a synonym for the term "morphology".
The famous linguist V.V. Vinogradov called morphology the grammatical study of words.
A word as a grammatical unit is a collection of word forms with a single lexical and categorical grammatical meaning. In the text it appears in a specific word form. Yes, word book has 12 word forms: 6 singular case forms and 6 plural case forms. In the examples They gave me an interesting one book And They gave me interesting books The selected word forms differ in their particular grammatical meanings – singular meanings. and many more numbers, with the word book preserves both the lexical and categorical grammatical meaning of the subject. Token is a representative of a group of specific word forms that have identical lexical meaning. The entire set of word forms included in a given lexeme is called paradigm.
When producing a text or constructing a statement, it is very important to choose the form of the word that is most optimal for expressing a certain meaning. To do this you need to know the rules of inflection different parts speech, features of the functioning of grammatical forms, have an idea of the semantic potential of grammatical categories of different parts of speech.
That is why subject of morphology is teaching about parts of speech(grammatical classes of words),their morphological categories(gender, number, case, aspect, mood, tense, person, voice),system of inflection.
Morphology tasks.
· determine the principles of combining word forms into a lexeme.
· establish which part of the meaning of word forms is grammatical.
· establish the list and nature of grammatical categories,
· correlate them with the characteristics of objective reality reflected in the language,
· establish a set of formal means involved in the creation of grammatical categories. (NRY edited by Beloshapkova, 1981)
Aspects of studying morphology:
· Actually grammatical or system-structural approach (in different academic grammars) -> Full description grammatical structure of the language.
· Contrastive - studying grammar in comparison with other languages.
· Normative approach - the creation of various dictionaries, norms, changes in grammar. Sociolinguistic research. Grammar options in various areas of life.
· Grammar of Russian as a foreign language. It is important to know the accuracy, be able to explain, write for different purposes (teach to speak or write abstracts).
· Functional aspect. Describes how language actually functions. Work on this aspect has been going on for a very long time. Founder Bondarko.
Basic concepts of morphology:
· grammatical (morphological) form,
· grammatical meaning,
· morphological paradigm,
· parts of speech.
Grammatical is a generalized linguistic meaning inherent in a large number of words and necessarily expressed formally: either by individual elements, or using other words in a sentence.
Grammatical features of the word form DOMIKOM
- Based on the question, we can determine that this word form generally names an object.
2. Based on the question, we can determine that this word form names something inanimate
3. The interpretation can be given through a picture, that is, it is an object of a certain type.
4. The modifying suffix indicates that this word form means something small.
5. The word form informs that only one thing is meant.
6. Allows the phrases white house, admiring the house, standing in front of the house and does not allow good house, very little house (belongs to the class of words with the syntactic functions of a noun)
7. The phrase house that I built allows, but does not allow the house that I built
(syntactic inanimateness)
8. Allows collocation white house, and does not allow white house or house that stands on the mountain
(syntactic masculine)
9. Allows collocation yellow house, and does not allow yellow house
(syntactic singular)
10. Allows collocation admiring the house, walk in front of the house, happy with the house, and does not allow I'm standing in the house, lost his house
(subordinate instrumental case)
11. Allows collocation
a wonderful house, but does not allow the wonderful house
(subordinate instrumental)
Grammatical meanings are complementary to lexical ones, but due to their enviable regularity they can be interpreted separately.
A specific word in a specific grammatical form is called word form
The set of all possible word forms of one specific word is GRAMMAR WORDBrother, brother, brother, brother, brother, about brother; brothers, brothers, brothers, brothers, brothers, about brothers.
Each grammatical form is included in a certain group of similar means, where it is contrasted with other forms. (singular and plural numbers, for example)
Grammatical form– unity of grammatical meaning and means of expression.
Grammatical meaning– generalized (not individual, unlike lexical), regular, obligatory for each word form, formally expressed and being one of the components of a grammatical category opposed to each other. The word forms of the inflected parts of speech express both the general grammatical meaning and specific morphological meanings. Unchangeable parts of speech are characterized only by a general grammatical (categorical) meaning. For example, adverbs denote a sign of action ( dressed warmly), attribute attribute ( Moscow-style hospitable). They do not have a morphological paradigm.
Morphological paradigm is the totality of all forms of the word being modified. The general paradigm of words of one part of speech consists of particular paradigms. For example, the noun paradigm includes number and case paradigms.
The concept of grammatical category. Types of grammatical categories.
Grammatical forms, according to their grammatical content, are combined into grammatical categories.
Grammatical (morphological) category- a system of opposing series of grammatical forms with homogeneous content. This is precisely the definition of a grammatical category adopted in modern grammar. It indicates the main features of a grammatical category. It's a closed system.
We need to differentiate inflectional And non-inflectional (classifying) categories.
Inflectional:
non-inflectional:
This is necessary in order to be able to form forms correctly. So, for example, the form I'll protect formed from a perfective verb protect, form I protect - from an imperfective verb protect.
Grammatical category – a system of opposing series of grammatical forms with homogeneous grammatical meanings. GK is characterized by the number of opposing rows.G.k. are divided into morphological and syntactic. Among the morphological categories one can name the grammatical categories of aspect, voice, tense, mood, person, gender, number, case; The consistent expression of these categories characterizes entire grammatical classes of words (parts of speech).
For the Russian language, a language with a developed inflectional system, the distinction between inflectional and classifying grammatical categories is fundamental.
Members of inflectional categories can be represented by a series of forms of one word (case, tense).
3. Parts of speech: grounds for their differentiation. L.V. Shcherba and V.V. Vinogradov on the system of parts of speech. Parts of speech in scientific and school grammar. (CE SEMINAR)
4. Characteristics of a noun as a part of speech. Grammatical category of animate/inanimate.
The noun is a kind of core of the parts of speech of the Russian language. The nuclear nature of this group of words is ensured by unique semantic features: the denotation of a noun can be any reality. For example:
· Material objects: house, pen.
· Signs: blue.
·Qualities: kindness.
· Action: the washing up.
· Movement: walking.
· State: sadness.
Attitude: correspondence.
· Quantity: a hundred.
· Abstractions: impressionism.
A noun is a part of speech that expresses the meaning of a grammatical subject (subject matter), performs the syntactic function of subject and object, and has independent morphological categories of gender, number and case. Fully named features are manifested in specific nouns.
Noun- this is a significant part of speech, denoting an object and expressing this meaning in the inflectional grammatical categories of number and case and the non-inflectional categories of gender and animate-inanimate. A noun always answers the question who? What? You need to ask a question about the initial form of the word.
Initial noun form – nominative case form, singular. numbers, and for nouns that do not have a singular form. h. – form named after. plural case numbers (sleigh, day, jeans).
A noun in a sentence can be the subject and object, as well as inconsistent definition: performance by figure skaters, fairy tales by Pushkin.
An important point is the ability of a noun to be defined by an adjective and a participle: Cold winter, past holiday.
Dividing nouns into animate and inanimate mainly depends on what kind of object this noun denotes - living beings or objects inanimate nature, but it is impossible to completely identify the concept of animate-inanimate with the concept of living-inanimate. Yes, from a grammatical point of view birch, aspen, elm– nouns are inanimate, and with scientific point In our opinion, these are living organisms. In grammar, the names of deceased people are dead man, deceased– are considered animate, and only a noun dead body– inanimate. Thus, the meaning of animate-inanimate is the category is purely grammatical.
Animation:
Animate nouns usually name living beings (persons and animals). They have their own specific declension and represent a special category in relation to the category of gender, since the gender of animate nouns can be associated with the gender of the named creatures:
Brother - sister, bull - cow.
For animate nouns, the accusative plural (and in the masculine singular) coincides with the form genitive case.
I see who? (vin.pad.) – students, student, horses.
No one? (genus) – students, student, horses. Waiting for who? Student.
Animate nouns include not only the names of people and animals, but also the names of objects that seem to be alive for some reason. For example: I dress dolls, fly a kite.
Inanimate:
In inanimate nouns, the accusative plural form (and in the masculine singular) coincides with the nominative case form.
I see what? (vin.pad.) – airplanes, plane. Waiting for what? Bus.
What's this? (named after pad.) – airplanes, plane.
Inanimate nouns used figuratively receive the meaning of a person and become animate: the tournament brought together all the table tennis stars.
Nouns in combination with compound numerals ending in two, three, four are used as inanimate: invite twenty-two specialists (colloquial version).
Conclusion: To correctly determine the animate/inanimate nature of a noun, the word must be considered in the context of a sentence.
| Animate and inanimate nouns |
|
| Animated | Inanimate |
| names of living things | names of inanimate objects |
| plant names | |
| names of gods | names of planets based on gods |
| titles mythical creatures | |
| names of figures in games | |
| names of toys, mechanisms, images of people | |
| dead man, deceased | dead body |
| names of microorganisms |
|
| image, character |
|
5. Lexico-grammatical categories of nouns. Grammatical category of number of nouns.
Nouns are combined into lexical and grammatical categories according to their meaning and manifestation of grammatical categories (number and case).
There are such lexical-grammatical categories nouns, both proper and common nouns, animate and inanimate, concrete and abstract, material, collective.
Lexico-grammatical categories– semantic subtypes of nouns, which, due to the peculiarities of meaning, interact differently with its morphological categories.
Gender is specific for animate/inanimate substantives and immutable nouns.
Animation and inanimateness are also associated with the category of case.
Morphological category of number of nouns is a system of unit forms. and many more number of nouns, expressing the opposition of a single object to a dissected set of objects. This is an inflectional category that covers all modifiable nouns.
The inflectional nature of categories is clearly observed when considering specific nouns as a core group. Abstract, real and collective nouns express the meaning of quantity formally and are actually devoid of semantic opposition in the category of number.
Please note: lexically non-identical number forms: choice, elections. Wed:
· snow / snow
· sky / heavens
· pain/pains
Lexico-grammatical groups of words that have only a singular number.
1. Collective (crows, nobility, poor, professors, proletariat)
2. Material (milk, copper, wig from horsehair)
3. Vegetables, grains, I years, etc. (raspberries, gooseberries, oats, hay?)
4. “The singular function of the singular number, devoid of direct relation to number and counting, appears especially clearly in words with abstract meanings of property-quality, action-state, emotion, feeling, mood, physical phenomenon or natural phenomenon, ideological direction, flow in general in designations abstract concepts" (militarization, whiteness, boredom, secrecy).
5. Proper names.
6. The use of singular forms is observed in the case when one object refers to several persons or objects and is inherent in each of them separately (they walked with their noses covered) (People walked with a scarf tied around their noses and mouths. Tolstoy)
Lexico-semantic groups of nouns pluraliatantum
1. Paired items;
2. Composite objects (firewood, sledges, sleds);
3. Mass, substance, material in its entirety (yeast, firewood, grub);
4. Sets of monetary amounts (extortions, taxes, finances);
5. Waste or residues from some process: bran, sawdust, scraps;
6. Places and localities (places, heads, settlements, as well as proper names Bronnitsy);
7. Period of time (days, twilight, holidays);
8. Complex action, a condition consisting of many acts (childbirth, chores, beatings, pranks);
9. Games (hide and seek, bloopers, catch-up);
10. Rituals and holidays (baptisms, name days, bridesmaids);
11. Single words denoting a state (living in the dark, being able, being in trouble);
12. Single words denoting emotions (they take envy, to celebrate).
All nouns are in singular form. h. have a category of genus, i.e. belong to one of 3 genera: masculine, feminine and neuter.
Nouns ending in -a, -ya in the form im. p.un. numbers usually refer to the feminine gender (road, land, country, grandmother). The exception is words like uncle, slob, time.
If the initial form has the ending –о, -е, then the noun belongs to the neuter gender (sea, good). Exception: domishko, domische (nouns with words of subjective evaluation, formed from nouns of the m. gender).
A small group of words belong to the so-called common gender. These include nouns that do not have a singular form. numbers (pluraliatantum sleigh, gate, ink) are not distributed by gender.
Family couple
Family couple is a paired opposition of the nouns m. and f. genders that have the same lexical meaning, but differ in the meaning of biological sex.
There are pairs:
1. suppletive birth pairs (man - woman, grandmother - grandfather, sheep - ram);
2. derivational(student - student, goose - goose, lion - lioness);
3. inflectional– having a common basis and differing endings (husband - wife, godfather - godfather, Alexander - Alexandra).
If the words included in the generic pair are names of animals, then the type of animal can be designated either by the word m of the genus (hares, lions, donkeys) or by the word w. kind (cats, sheep, goats).
Nouns general kind
In addition to the 3 main genders (masculine, feminine, neuter), there are also nouns general kind, in meaning they correlate with persons of both male and female gender, in the context they realize the meaning of only one kind (our / our Sasha, terrible / terrible bore, Belykh knew / knew). In colloquial speech you can hear: the deputy received visitors; master of sports set a new record; The turner did a good job.
In stylized speech for the speech characteristics of characters, when addressing a woman by profession, it is recommended to use neutral forms: comrade conductor, comrade cashier.
Descriptive expressions are used to indicate male correspondence to the words ballerina, typist ballet dancer, typewriter. In professional use a couple arose nurse - nurse.
Generic variants
Many nouns are used in the SRL in both the m and f forms. kind.
· - aviary - aviary (more commonly 1 form);
· - giraffe – giraffe (1st form is more common);
· - clip – clip (literary form is 1);
· - reprise – reprise (the 2nd form is most often used).
“parts of speech”, in accordance with tradition, began to be used in relation to all selected word classes, in including to auxiliary, and to modal, and to interjections. 4.
A grammar cat is a system of rows of grammatical forms opposed to each other with homogeneous meanings.
A grammatical catalog is a two-sided unit of a morphological system of a language that has PV (semantics) and PS (external texts, with the help of which semantics is developed). From the point of view of semantics, a grammatical category is a set of homogeneous grammatical meanings (the general semantics of the categorical case named after a noun includes private meanings of 6 cases, in turn, private grammatical meanings can be divisions into elementary grammatical values. From the point of view of PVgrammatical cat is a set of grammatical forms that serve for the expression of particular grammatical meanings (the meaning of the unit of a name is adj. expressed in forms long- down-long, etc. with the name adj. we select several forms, their set is singular, and the plural is expressed by the forms long-long-long, etc. .). Particular grammatical meanings, expressed by grammatical forms, form oppositions, which constitute the essence of grammatical cat (singular opposite plural). Forms that have several particulars. grammatical meanings are included in the opposition for various reasons. The grammatical meanings are marked by the number of opposed members (can be two-membered, 3-termed or more). In the case there are 15 opposits. .inflectional members of which can be represented by forms of the same word (tense, mood, person of the verb.) non-inflectional (classifying) are those whose members cannot be represented by members of the same word (gender, soul-neod, noun). the belonging of certain grammatical categories (n., type and voice of the verb) to an inflectional or non-inflective type is the object of debate. Difference between grammatical categories and lexical-grammatical categories. Lexical-grammatical categories are such subclasses within a defined language of speech that have a common semantic feature that affects the ability of words to express certain categorical morphological meanings (n., noun. collect., concrete., abstract., substances., and adj. quality and relative, main personal and impersonal). TYPES OF CORRELATION OF PS AND PV: 1) one or another form of the word expresses the content of the defined grammatical cat; 2) a certain form of the word, being a form of the defined grammatical cat., does not express specific content of this category, i.e. there is a PV, but there is no PS; 3) the word form contains the meaning of that or another grammatical cat, but there is no special form for its expression in the word.
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Grammatical category is a system of opposing series of grammatical forms with homogeneous meanings. In this system, the defining feature is the categorizing feature, for example. a generalized meaning of time, person, voice, etc., combining a system of meanings of individual tenses, persons, voices, etc. and a system of corresponding forms.
A necessary sign of gram. category is the unity of meaning and its expression in the system of grammatical forms as two-way linguistic units. Gram. categories are divided into morphological and syntactic. Among the morphological categories, there are, for example, the categories of aspect, voice, tense, mood, person, gender, number, case. The number of opposed members within such categories may be different: for example, the category of gender is presented in Russian. language system of three series of forms expressing the grammatical meanings of male and female. and Wed kind, but category. numbers - a system of two rows of forms - units. and many more h.
Case category. In the Russian language, the category of case is represented by 6 cases - nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental and prepositional. Considering the meaning of each individual case as a special grammatical category, we see that it is complex in nature and consists of a number of smaller meanings. For example, one of such connotations can be objectivity, since the category of case is characteristic of nouns denoting objects and phenomena. Another connotation can be the belonging of a noun to a certain grammatical gender, etc. Professor E. I. Shendels calls these connotations semes. The concept of seme is understood as the minimal, further indivisible element of grammatical meaning. In the Russian language, the category of case is characterized by the presence of the following semes: objectivity, gender, number, animateness/inanimateness.
Number category. In both English and Russian there is a grammatical category of number. This category expresses quantitative relationships that exist in reality, reflected in the minds of the carriers of this language and having morphological expression in the corresponding forms of language.
Category of the genus. In the Russian language, the category of grammatical gender is widespread. Every noun, whether animate or inanimate, as part of its semes that determine its grammatical essence, necessarily has a seme of gender - masculine, feminine or neuter. The category of gender for nouns in the Russian language is formal in nature, except for nouns denoting people and animals.
The category of grammatical gender - masculine, feminine, neuter - was once inherent in nouns of the Old English period. However historical development the morphological structure of the English language led to the fact that the category of grammatical gender, devoid of morphological means of expression, ceased to exist. But at the same time, as a consequence of the Old English language system, in modern English ships, yachts and other vessels are classified as feminine. Moreover, in spoken English, informal style, animals also acquire the category of genus. Inconsistencies in grammatical gender lead to the need for translation transformations.
Category of certainty - uncertainty. The content of the category of certainty - uncertainty indicates whether the object denoted by the noun is thought of as belonging to a given class of objects (indefinite article), or as a known object, distinguished from a class of objects similar to it (definite article).
In contrast to English, in Russian the category of certainty - uncertainty does not have a morphological expression and is expressed lexically. To express definiteness, the following are used: particle - that, demonstrative pronouns this, this, this, these or that, that, those, that. In their function they correspond to the definite article. To express uncertainty, the pronouns some, some, some, some are used; numeral one. When transferring to English language they are replaced by the indefinite article a or an. But you need to keep in mind that replacements of this kind are not regular, but depend on the context.
Quality category. The main means of expressing the category of degree of quality are adjectives. In terms of their typological characteristics, adjectives in both languages differ significantly from each other. According to their composition, adjectives in Russian are divided into 3 categories:
1) qualitative adjectives, denoting the attribute of an object directly: large - small, thick - thin, cold - warm, etc.;
2) relative adjectives, denoting a characteristic of an object through its relationship to another object or action. Relative adjectives in Russian are derived from the stems of nouns: stone - stone, truth - truthful, winter - winter;
3) possessive adjectives, denoting that an object belongs to a person or animal: father’s, sister’s, etc.
Category of type and time. These two grammatical categories in different languages have far from the same development and a very diverse morphological composition. The category of type is usually defined as a lexical and grammatical category that conveys the characteristics of the course of an action or process designated by a verb - repetition, duration, multiplicity, instantaneity of an action, or effectiveness, completeness, or extremeness, i.e. the relation of an action to its internal limit . The listed characteristics of the course of an action or process are obtained in various languages the most diverse morphological or morphological-syntactic expression. Thus, when translating, the translator resorts to various types of grammatical transformations. In the Russian language, two types are distinguished: imperfect (write, speak, etc.), expressing an action in its course, and perfect (do, write, etc.), expressing an action limited by the limit of completion in any the moment of its implementation or communicating the result of a given action or process. The system of types in the Russian language, according to V.D. Arakin, has its own hallmark– the presence of correlative pairs of verbs that form correlative series of forms that permeate the entire system of verbal forms with the identity of their lexical meaning.
specially organized and expressed sets of linguistic meanings (“grammemes”) that have a privileged status in the language system; Each language has its own grammatical categories, but many meanings essential to human experience are included in the grammatical categories very large number languages (such as, for example, the values of the number of objects, duration of action, time of action relative to the moment of speech, subject and object of action, desirability, etc.).
To be considered a grammatical category, a set of meanings must have at least two properties, namely categoricality and commitment. The first property (also known under the names of mutual exclusivity, paradigmaticity, homogeneity, functionality, etc.) allows us to select from the entire set of linguistic meanings those that are combined into categories; the second identifies among linguistic categories those that are grammatical for a given language. A category can only be a set of values whose elements exclude each other, i.e. cannot simultaneously characterize the same object (this property can be formulated in another way: each object at a certain moment can be assigned only one value from this set). Thus, the property of categoricality, or mutual exclusivity in the normal case, is possessed by the values of physical age (a person cannot be both an old man and a child), gender, size, and many others. In contrast, meanings such as color are not categories: the same object may well be colored in different colors at the same time.
Not all linguistic categories, however, can be considered grammatical. To do this, it is necessary that the category satisfies the second property, i.e. the property of obligatory nature (in modern linguistics this statement has received wide recognition, mainly after the works of R. Jacobson, but similar ideas have been expressed before). A category is obligatory (for a certain class of words) if every word from this class expresses any meaning of this category. Thus, in the Russian language, for example, the category of verb tense is obligatory: every personal form of the verb in the text expresses one of the meanings of this category (either past, present, or future tense), and there is no such personal form of the verb about which it was possible would say that she has “no time”, i.e. not characterized by tense grammatically.
The existence of obligatory categories in a language means that the speaker, when planning to use a word in speech, is forced to express with this word one of the meanings of a certain category (i.e., characterize this word according to this category). Thus, when choosing the personal form of a verb, a Russian speaker is obliged to characterize it by aspect, tense, mood, voice, person/number (or, in the past tense, gender) of the subject, since all these are grammatical categories of the Russian verb. The speaker is obliged to indicate the appropriate meanings of grammatical categories, even if this is not part of his own communicative intention, for example, he may not have specifically intended to indicate the time of action. Of course, the speaker can still avoid indicating tense but then he will no longer have to use a verb, but, for example, a noun, which in Russian does not have a mandatory tense category. Wed. a couple of types You came ~ your arrival, where grammatical tense is expressed only in the first case; If desired, this can be done in the second case (cf. your past/future arrival etc.), but it is important that if the speaker wants to evade expressing time with a noun, he can freely do this without violating the grammatical requirements of the language, whereas in the case of the verb form this is impossible.
The grammatical categories of each language can be likened to a kind of questionnaire for the description of objects and situations in a given language: the speaker cannot successfully complete this description without answering (whether he wants to or not) the questions of such a “grammatical questionnaire”. As R. Jacobson aptly notes, “the main difference between languages is not what can or cannot be expressed, but what should or should not be communicated by speakers.” This implies the importance of the role that grammar plays in creating the so-called “naive picture of the world”, i.e. that way of reflecting reality, which constitutes the specificity of each language (and the culture behind it), since it is in the system of grammatical categories that the collective experience of the speakers of a given language is primarily reflected.
The number of grammatical categories varies in different languages; There are languages with a very developed “grammatical profile”; in other languages the set of grammatical categories is very limited (languages completely devoid of grammatical meanings are still not attested, although their existence, generally speaking, does not contradict linguistic theory).
Along with the two main properties indicated above, grammatical categories, as a rule, are characterized by a number of additional properties. The area of applicability of a grammatical category (i.e., the set of those words for which the category is obligatory) must be large enough and have natural boundaries (as a rule, these are large semantic-grammatical classes of words such as nouns or verbs or their subclasses such as transitive verbs, animate nouns, etc.). On the other hand, the number of meanings of a grammatical category (grammes) is usually small, and they are expressed using a small number of regular indicators. These three additional properties make it possible, in particular, to distinguish between grammatical and so-called lexical obligatoriness (the latter is always tied to a small group of words, and the corresponding meanings do not have regular indicators). Thus, in Russian, the choice of the meaning “child of the same parents” is necessarily accompanied by an indication of the child’s gender (accordingly, Brother or sister), however, we cannot talk about the grammatical category “gender of a relative” for the reasons listed above: the obligatory indication of gender in the Russian language is characteristic of only a small group of nouns (terms of kinship), and at the same time there are no special indicators of male or female gender as part of these I have no words. Lexical obligatoryness is a very common phenomenon, but it characterizes individual groups of vocabulary of a given language and is not systemic in nature.
The meaning of grammemes of grammatical categories is a very complex object; entities called grammatical meanings (for example, “plural”, “dative case”, “past tense”, etc.), as a rule, are much more complex lexical meanings. One should not equate the name of a gramme with its meaning (as authors of grammatical descriptions often do, voluntarily or unwittingly): behind a name like “plural” there actually stands a certain set of contextual meanings, expressed by a set of formal indicators, and each indicator can have any of given values, and any value can be assigned to any of these indicators. Thus, in Russian, number is expressed differently depending on the type of declension of the noun and other factors (cf. fingers,Houses,apples,stu-ya etc.), and plural forms regardless of what indicator is present in them can express not only a simple set of objects, but also a class of objects as a whole ( ostriches are dying out), different varieties or varieties of objects ( precious metals ,cheeses), a large number of ( sands), uncertainty ( isn't it free seats ? ""at least one place"), etc. This situation is typical for most grammes, which are thus general case are only a kind of labels denoting a rather complex correspondence between the formal and substantive elements of the language.
The contextual meanings of grammes may include an appeal to both the properties of the surrounding world and the syntactic properties of other words. Meanings of the first type are called semantic (or semantically filled, nominative, etc.); meanings of the second type are called syntactic (or relational), which reflects their main property to serve the expression of syntactic connections between words in the text, and not a direct description of reality (cf., for example, gender grammes in Russian nouns like sofa And ottoman, reflecting only the difference in their matching models: a big sofa And large ottoman). Syntactic meanings are present to one degree or another in almost every grammatical category (for example, in Russian, the syntactic uses of number include the appearance of the singular in constructions with numerals like three Houses , twenty one house or in distributive constructions like advisers put on nose glasses). There are also grammatical categories in which syntactic meanings predominate or are even the only ones. Such categories are called syntactic; The most important of them include the gender and case of nouns, and in some cases also the voice and mood of verbs. Languages that lack syntactic grammatical categories are called insulating(these are primarily Austroasiatic, Thai and Sino-Tibetan languages South-East Asia, Mande and Kwa languages West Africa and etc.).
Most often, grammemes are expressed using morphological means - affixes (which include prefixes, suffixes, infixes, circumfixes and transfixes), as well as alternations and reduplications. The morphological expression of grammes is characteristic of agglutinative and fusional languages (in the latter, non-affixal morphological technique also plays a significant role). Most striking examples fusion languages are Sanskrit, ancient Greek, Lithuanian, many Indian languages North America and etc.; There are widespread languages that have equal features of agglutinativity and fusion (such as, for example, many Uralic, Mongolian, Semitic languages, Bantu languages, etc.). At the same time, there is also a non-morphological way of expressing grammatical meanings, in which these latter are conveyed by independent word forms (“function words”) or syntactic constructions. Languages with a predominance of non-morphological techniques for expressing grammatical meanings are called analytical (such, in particular, are the Polynesian languages).
If a grammatical category is structured in such a way that all its grammes are capable of being alternately attached to the stem of the same word, then such a category is called inflectional, and combinations of its grammes with the stem of a word are called grammatical forms of this word. The totality of all grammatical forms of one word forms its paradigm, and a word, understood as the totality of all its forms, is called a lexeme. Typical examples of inflectional categories are the case of a noun, tense and mood of a verb, etc.: thus, in the normal case, the stem of each noun is combined with indicators of all cases of a given language, the stem of each verb is combined with indicators of all moods, etc. (non-systematic violations of this principle lead to the emergence of so-called defective paradigms, cf. the absence of a genitive plural form in the word cod or 1st person unit forms. verb numbers win In russian language).
Not all grammatical categories, however, form paradigms of grammatical forms: a situation is also possible when only one gramme can be expressed at the base of a word. Such grammatical categories contrast not different forms of the same word, but different words (i.e., different lexemes) and are called word-classifying. A typical example The word-classifying category is the gender of nouns: for example, in the Russian language, each noun belongs to one of three genders, but Russian nouns do not have the ability to form “gender paradigms” (i.e., freely change the meaning of gender). On the contrary, in Russian adjectives the category of gender, as is easy to see, is inflectional (cf. paradigms like white ~ white ~ white etc.).
The main syntactic grammatical categories are gender and case (for a name) and voice (for a verb): gender is associated with the morphological expression of agreement, and case is associated with the morphological expression of control. In addition, both case and voice provide a distinction between the semantic and syntactic arguments of the verb, i.e. syntactic entities such as subject and objects, and semantic entities such as agent, patient, instrument, place, reason, and many others. etc. Syntactic (concordant) categories also include person/number and gender of the verb.
Most of the grammatical categories found in the languages of the world belong to semantic categories. The specific semantic categories of nouns are number and determination (or, in the “European” version, definiteness/indeterminacy). The categories of number, determination and case closely interact and are often expressed by a single grammatical indicator (inflection); inflectional case-numeral paradigms are also characteristic of the Russian language. The category of number is usually represented by two grammemes (singular and plural), but in a number of languages there is also a dual number, initially associated, apparently, with the designation of paired objects (such as lips, eyes, shores and so on.); the dual number was in ancient Greek, Sanskrit, ancient Russian, classical Arabic; it is also attested in modern languages: Slovenian, Koryak, Selkup, Khanty, etc. Even more rare is a special grammatical expression for a set of three objects (triple number) or a small number of objects (paucal number): such grammes are found, for example, in the languages of New Guinea.
The system of semantic grammatical categories of the verb is very diverse and varies greatly in different languages. With some degree of convention, verbal categories can be divided into three large semantic zones: aspectual, temporal and modal. Aspectual (or aspectual) meanings include all those that describe the features of the unfolding of a situation in time (duration, limitation, repetition) or highlight certain temporal phases of the situation (for example, the initial stage or result); in this sense, the well-known characteristic of aspect as the “internal tense” of the verb is true. On the contrary, the grammatical category, traditionally called “time” in linguistics, only indicates the relative chronology of a given situation, i.e. whether it takes place before, simultaneously or after some other situation (“reference point”). The starting point can be arbitrary (and in this case we have the category of relative time, or taxis), but it can also be fixed; a fixed point of reference, coinciding with the moment of utterance of the utterance (“the moment of speech”), gives the category of absolute time with three main grammes: past, present and future tense. An additional indication of the degree of remoteness of the situation from the moment of speech (indication of “temporal distance”) can increase the number of grammes in the category of time; developed systems for marking temporal distance are especially characteristic of Bantu languages ( Tropical Africa). Aspect and tense are often expressed jointly in verbal word forms (hence the traditional grammatical nomenclature, in which any aspectual verb form could be called “tense”). The most typical combinations are the continuous aspect and the past tense (commonly called “imperfect”), as well as the limited aspect and past tense (commonly called “aorist”).
The verb system can be characterized a large number aspectual grammemes: thus, to the basic opposition of a long (durative, imperfective) and limited (perfective, point) aspect, at least a habitual (and/or multiple) aspect and an effective aspect are often added (as, for example, in many Turkic languages) . window open , Russian dial He having drunk ). A difference similar to the habitual aspect in Russian can be expressed lexically, cf. boy coming to school And boy walks to school. A special type of the resultative aspect is the perfect, which is very widespread in the languages of the world (for example, the perfect is found in English, Spanish, Greek, Finnish, Bulgarian, Persian and many other languages). On the contrary, “poor” aspectual systems (such as East or West Slavic) are characterized by the opposition of only two aspectual grammes (called perfect vs. imperfect, perfect vs. imperfect, complete vs. incomplete, etc.), but each These grammes have a very wide range of contextual meanings. Thus, in the Russian language, an imperfective grammeme can express duration, repetition, habituality, and even the perfect (cf. Maksim read « War and Peace"); the choice of one interpretation or another depends on the context, the lexical semantics of the verb and other factors. In languages with “rich” aspectual systems (such as Turkic, Polynesian or Bantu), all these meanings can differ morphologically.
The zone of verbal modality (giving the grammatical category of mood) has the most complex and branched structure. Modal meanings include, firstly, those that indicate the degree of reality of the situation (unreal situations do not take place in reality, but are possible, probable, desired, conditional, etc.), and secondly, those that express the speaker’s assessment of the situation being described (for example, the degree of reliability of the situation, the degree of desirability of the situation for the speaker, etc.). It is easy to see that evaluative and unreal meanings are often closely related to each other: thus, desired situations always have a positive assessment by the speaker, unreal situations often have a lower degree of reliability, etc. It is therefore no coincidence that the use, for example, of the conditional mood to express doubt or incomplete certainty, which is characteristic of many languages of the world.
A special place among mood grammes is occupied by the imperative, which combines the expression of the speaker’s desire with the expression of an impulse directed at the addressee. Imperative is one of the most common grammes in natural languages(perhaps this meaning is universal). Mood grammes also have a large share of syntactic uses (for example, in many languages the predicate subordinate clause must take the form of one of the unreal moods; the same applies to expressing questions or denials).
Adjacent to the mood is the grammatical category of evidentiality, which expresses the source of information about the situation being described. In many languages of the world, such an indication is mandatory: this means that the speaker must indicate whether he observed a given event with his own eyes, heard about it from someone, judges it on the basis of indirect signs or logical reasoning, etc.; the most complex evidential systems are characteristic of Tibetan languages and a number of American Indian languages, somewhat simpler evidential systems are found in the languages of the Balkan area (Bulgarian, Albanian, Turkish), as well as in many languages of the Caucasus, Siberia and the Far East.
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