The language of logic. Natural and artificial languages. For or against artificial languages

The language was created by Canadian Sonia Lang and claims to be the simplest of artificial languages. There are only about 120 roots in his lexicon.

Constructed languages- these are languages ​​in which vocabulary, phonetics and grammar have been developed for specific purposes. These are fake languages ​​invented by one person. Today there are more than a thousand of them, and new ones are constantly being created. The reasons for creating an artificial language are: facilitating human communication, giving realism fiction and fictional worlds in cinema, linguistic experiments, language games, the development of the Internet and the creation of languages ​​understandable to all peoples of the planet.

1. Grammelot. The style of language used in the theater of humor and satire. This is a kind of gibberish with onomatopoeic elements along with pantomime and mimicry. Grammelot was popularized by the Italian playwright Dario Fo.
2. Esperanto. The most widely used artificial language in the world. Today it is fluently spoken by more than 100,000 people. It was invented by the Czech ophthalmologist Lazar Zamenhof in 1887. Esperanto has a simple grammar. Its alphabet has 28 letters and is built on the basis of Latin. Most of vocabulary is taken from the Romance and Germanic languages. There are also many international words in Esperanto that are understandable without translation. 250 newspapers and magazines are published in Esperanto, 4 radio stations broadcast, there are articles on Wikipedia.
3. Vendergood. It was developed by teenage prodigy William James Sidis based on Romance languages. Sidis knew about 40 languages ​​and freely translated from one to another. Sidis created vendergood in a book entitled The Book of Vendergood which he wrote at the age of 8. The language is built on Latin and Greek vocabulary and grammar, and it also contains elements of German, French and other Romance languages.
4. Aui. Created by John Weilgarth. It is based on the philosophical concept of the formation of all concepts from a small number of elementary concepts, moreover, an elementary concept of language. Its very name translates as "the language of the cosmos." Each sound in AUI is associated with the concept it denotes. All vocabulary is built by combining basic concepts.
5. Nadsat. Fictional language spoken by teenagers in Anthony Burgess' novel Clockwork orange". In nadsat, part of the vocabulary is English, part is fictional, created by the author on the basis of the Russian language. Most often, Russian equivalents are written in Latin and have some distortion. The grammar system is based on English language. In addition, there are slang from French and German, Malay and Gypsy, Cockney, and words invented by Burgess himself.
6. LitSpeak. Used in online games, chats, sms and other electronic communication channels. The language was created as a cipher that could be read by users who knew the key to it. In litespeak, numbers and symbols replace letters. It also makes deliberate mistakes, there are phonetic variations of words and neologisms.
7. Talossan. An artificial language created in 1980 by the 14-year-old founder of the virtual microstate of Thalos, Robert Ben-Madison. Talossan is built on the basis of the languages ​​of the Romance group.
8. Klingon. Linguist Mark Okrand invented Klingon for Paramount Pictures for the TV series and later the Star Trek movies. It is spoken by aliens. In addition to them, the language was adopted by numerous fans of the series. Currently, there is the Klingon Language Institute in the United States, which publishes periodicals and translations of literary classics in Klingon.
9. Tokipona. The language was created by Canadian Sonia Lang and claims to be the simplest of artificial languages. There are only about 120 roots in his lexicon. Names of animals and plants are missing. But in the unofficial dictionary there are designations for countries, nations, languages ​​that are written with a capital letter. Everything is simplified in tokipon: vocabulary, phonology, grammar and syntax.
10. Na'vi. This fictional language was developed by linguist Paul Frommer for James Cameron Productions for the film Avatar. According to the scenario, the native speakers of the Na'vi language are the inhabitants of the planet Pandora. Today there are more than 1000 words in his dictionary. Work on the Na'vi language continues. By the way, in its grammatical and lexical structure, Na’vi resembles the Papuan and Australian languages.

Artificial language- a sign system created specifically for use in areas where the use of natural language is less effective or impossible. Constructed languages ​​differ in their specialization and purpose, as well as in the degree of similarity with natural languages.

There are the following types of artificial languages:

Programming languages ​​and computer languages ​​- languages ​​for automatic processing of information using a computer.

Information languages ​​are languages ​​used in various information processing systems.

Formalized languages ​​of science - languages ​​intended for symbolic notation scientific facts and theories of mathematics, logic, chemistry and other sciences.

Languages ​​of non-existent peoples created for fiction or entertainment purposes. The most famous are: the Elvish language, invented by J. Tolkien, and the Klingon language, invented by Mark Okrand for the fantasy series "Star Trek" (see Fictional Languages).

International auxiliary languages ​​are languages ​​created from elements of natural languages ​​and offered as aid international communication.

According to the purpose of creation, artificial languages ​​can be divided into the following groups :

Philosophical and logical languages ​​are languages ​​that have a clear logical structure of word formation and syntax: Lojban, Tokipona, Ithkuil, Ilaksh.

Auxiliary languages ​​- designed for practical communication: Esperanto, Interlingua, Slovio, Slavonic.

artificial language natural specialization

Artistic or aesthetic languages ​​- created for creative and aesthetic pleasure: Quenya.

Also, the language is created to set up an experiment, for example, to test the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (that the language spoken by a person limits consciousness, drives it into certain limits).

According to their structure, artificial language projects can be divided into the following groups:

A priori languages ​​- based on logical or empirical classifications of concepts: loglan, lojban, ro, solresol, ifkuil, ilaksh.

A posteriori languages ​​- languages ​​built mainly on the basis of international vocabulary: interlingua, occidental

Mixed languages ​​- words and word formation are partially borrowed from non-artificial languages, partially created on the basis of artificially invented words and word-formation elements: Volapuk, Ido, Esperanto, Neo.

Of the artificial languages, the most famous :

basic english

interlingua

latin-blue-flexione

occidental

Simlian

solresol

Esperanto

The most famous artificial language was Esperanto (L. Zamenhof, 1887) - the only artificial language that has become widespread and has united quite a few supporters around itself. international language. Esperanto is based on international words borrowed from Latin and Greek, and 16 grammar rules with no exceptions. In this language, there is no grammatical gender, it has only two cases - nominative and accusative, and the meanings of the rest are conveyed using prepositions. The alphabet is built on the basis of Latin. All this makes Esperanto so plain language that an unprepared person can learn to speak it fluently enough in a few months of regular practice. It takes at least a few years to learn any of the natural languages ​​at the same level. Esperanto is currently widely used different estimates, from several tens of thousands to several million people. It is believed that for ~ 500-1000 people given language- native, that is, studied from the moment of birth. Esperanto has descendant languages ​​that lack some of the shortcomings of Esperanto. The most famous among these languages ​​are Esperantido and Novial. However, none of them will be as widespread as Esperanto.

For or against artificial languages?

The study of an artificial language has one big drawback - the almost impossibility of its application in life. This is true. In a note entitled "Artificial Languages", published in the Bolshoi Soviet Encyclopedia it is argued that: "The idea of ​​an artificial language common to all mankind is in itself utopian and impracticable. Artificial languages ​​are only imperfect surrogates of living languages; their projects are cosmopolitan in nature and therefore vicious in principle." It was written in the early 50s. But even in the mid-60s, the same skepticism was characteristic of some scientists.

The author of the book "Principles of Language Modeling" P.N. Denisov expressed his disbelief in the possibility of implementing the idea of ​​a universal language in the following way: “As for the possibility of declaring the transition of mankind to a single language created at least according to the type of Esperanto, such a possibility is a utopia. the inseparable connection of language with thought and society and many other purely linguistic circumstances do not allow such a reform to be carried out without disorganizing society.

The author of the book "Sounds and Signs" A.M. Kondratov believes that all existing native languages ​​can never be replaced by "any artificially invented "general" language". He still admits the idea of ​​an auxiliary language: "We can only talk about an intermediary language, which is used only when talking with foreigners - and only"

Such statements seem to stem from the fact that none of the individual projects for a universal, or worldwide international, language has become a living language. But what turned out to be impossible in some historical conditions for individual idealists and groups of the same idealists cut off from the proletariat, from the masses of the people, may turn out to be quite possible in other historical conditions for scientific collectives and the masses of the people who have mastered the scientific theory of language creation - with support of revolutionary parties and governments. The ability of a person to multilingualism - this phenomenon of linguistic compatibility - and the absolute primacy of the synchrony of the language (for the consciousness of those who use it), which determines the absence of the influence of the origin of the language on its functioning, open before all the peoples and peoples of the Earth the way in which the problem of their linguistic community. This will give a real opportunity to the most perfect project of the language of the new humanity and its new civilization turn on all continents and islands the globe alive, controlled developing language. And there is no doubt that it will not only be alive, but also the most tenacious of languages. The needs that brought them to life are manifold. It is also important that in these languages ​​the ambiguity of terms, which is characteristic of natural languages ​​and unacceptable in science, has been overcome. Artificial languages ​​allow expressing certain concepts in an extremely concise form, perform the functions of a kind of scientific shorthand, economical presentation and expression of voluminous mental material. Finally, artificial languages ​​are one of the means of internationalizing science, since artificial languages ​​are unified, international.

The use of one of the national languages ​​as an intermediary language has always given the advantage of the nation for which it was native. This circumstance gave rise to numerous attempts to create an international artificial language, which, on the one hand, would be "nobody's", and, therefore, would not give advantages to any nation, and on the other hand, would belong to all mankind.

The first known attempt to create an artificial language was made in the 2nd century AD. Greek physician Galen. In total, in the history of mankind, about a thousand projects of an international artificial language have been created. However, very few of them have received at least some practical application.

The first artificial language that really became a means of communication between people was created in 1879 in Germany by J.M. Schleyer, Volapuk. Due to the extreme complexity and detail of its grammar, vopaluk was not widely used in the world, and around the middle of the 20th century it finally fell into disuse.

A much happier fate awaited L.L., invented in 1887. Zamenhof the Esperanto language. Creating his own language, L.L. Zamenhof strove to make it as simple and easy to learn as possible. He succeeded. Esperanto orthography is built on the principle of "one sound - one letter". Nominal inflection is limited to four, and verbal - to seven forms. Declension of names and conjugation of verbs is unified, in contrast to natural national languages, where, as a rule, we meet with several types of declension and conjugation. Mastering the Esperanto language usually takes no more than a few months.

Esperanto has a rich original and translated literature, numerous newspapers and magazines are published (about 40 periodicals), broadcast in some countries. Esperanto, along with French, is official language International Postal Association.

Interlingua (1903), Occidental (1922), Ido (1907), Novial (1928), Omo (1926) and some others are also among the artificial languages ​​that have received some practical use. However, they have not received wide distribution. Of all the artificial languages ​​that exist today, only Esperanto has a real chance of becoming in time the main means of international communication.

All artificial languages ​​are divided into a posteriori and a priori. A posteriori are called such artificial languages, which are composed "on the model and from the material of natural languages". Examples of a posteriori languages ​​are Esperanto, Latin-blue-flexione, novial, idiom-neutral. A priori are called such artificial languages, the vocabulary and grammar of which are in no way connected with the vocabulary and grammar of natural languages, but are built on the basis of the principles developed by the creator of the language. Solresol and rho are examples of a posteriori languages.

Along with attempts to create an international artificial language, more than once attempts were made to create international system letters, with which it was possible to create texts readable in any language. Such writing systems are called pasigraphy.

As an example of pasigraphy, we can cite the picture letter "picto" created by the Dutchman K. Jansen. Here are some signs of this letter: ⌂ “home”, Λ “to go”, ∞ “to speak”, “to love”, I “I, me, me”, II “you, you, you”, III “he, him, him ”, .□ “front, front”, □. “behind”, |- the verb “to be” in the present tense, .|- the verb “to be” in the past tense, |-. the verb “to be” in the future tense, |+ the verb “to have” in the personal form, Ō “city”.

In addition to such simple drawing systems, numerous digital pasigraphy systems were also created, in which each word was encoded by a certain set of numbers. Neither pictorial nor digital pasigraphy was widely used, remaining only a curious experiment in the history of linguistics.

A.Yu. Musorin. Fundamentals of the science of language - Novosibirsk, 2004

“Artificial language - 1. Any auxiliary language, as opposed to natural, or proper language. 2. sign system, intended for use in those areas of communication where the functioning of a natural living language is less effective or impossible" [Nelyubin 2001, p. 60].

“Natural language - 1. Language in the proper sense, human language as a natural tool of thought and a means of communication, in contrast to its artificially created substitutes. 2. Human language that arose naturally and used in public practice” [Nelyubin 2001, p. 45]. “A substitute is the same as a substitute” [Nelyubin 2001, p. 182].

The first attempts to invent artificial languages ​​were made in the second half of the 17th century. The main directions in the creation of artificial languages ​​in the 17th-19th centuries were logical and empirical.

The logical direction was based on rationalistic philosophy, which criticized natural language for its inconsistency. According to the English philosophers J. Dalgarno and J. Wilkins (Wilkins - 1614-1672), there is a direct correspondence between the concept and the word, so it is possible to create a language in which the concepts and the words they denote would line up logically. According to Wilkins' theory, the division into parts of speech is not necessary for the language. Wilkins (Wilkins) proposed words as names, and verbs (i.e., words denoting properties and actions) could be formed from names using regular word-building means.

The empirical direction focused on natural language. Representatives of this trend proposed to improve any existing natural language. So, F. Labbe proposed the Latin language as the basis, I. Schipfer - French, Yuri Kryzhanich (1617-1674) - the pan-Slavic language.

But they looked at the created languages ​​as curiosities, did not see them as practical application. The most practical was the language created by the priest (German pastor) Johann Schleyer in 1879 and called "volapuk" - volapuk - a distorted form English words. Language was a means of communication for several dozen people. The language did not last long. According to researchers, the reasons for the fall of the language were the isolation of the language system, the position of Schleyer himself, who did not allow anything to be changed in the language, and discord between distributors.

One of the most famous artificial languages ​​is Esperanto (Esperanto - "hoping"), created in 1887 by the Warsaw doctor Ludwig Zamenhof. To create the language, L. Zamenhof used Polish, Greek, Latin, and Hebrew. Esperanto has no nationality. Seven million people use this language for practical purposes. More than 100 magazines, about 7,000 books, textbooks are published in Esperanto.

Esperanto uses elements of English and German. Elements Latin, Slavic languages occupy a small place in the structure.

L. Zamenhof considered the creation of an international easy language communication. Esperanto is characterized by the absence of homonymy, the unity of writing and pronunciation, phonetic writing, the unity of the root, regardless of position. Since the stress is always the first syllable, and the words are mostly disyllabic, speech is monotonous. There are affixes in the language, but their number is small, so the language has little emotionality, it is not expressive, the semantics of the phrase is transmitted approximately.

In spite of negative qualities, the language has existed for more than a hundred years, published a large number of Literature on it, circles and societies of Esperantists have been created in many countries, congresses of Esperantists are held, but it has not become international. Esperanto is not a living language, it is monotonous, it is not expressive, it is not able to reflect all the situations in which a person finds himself.

In 1907, Louis de Beaufront created the IDO language on the basis of Esperanto, which is more logical and consistent. But this language did not become international.

In the early 60s of the 20th century, the LINCOS language (“linguistics of space”) was created. The creator of the language is the Dutch mathematician G. Freudenthal, who received for the monograph “LINKOS. Building a language for space communications” Nobel Prize. G. Freudenthal, with the help of light and sound signals going in a certain sequence, tries to state the laws of mathematics, biology, physics, morality, and ethics. Linkos is the first attempt to create a cosmic language for the exchange of information in extraterrestrial communication.

The phenomenon of an artificial language is the subject of debatable disagreements among linguists, sociolinguists, sociologists, ethnographers and many representatives of other branches of knowledge related to language.

So, M.I. Isaev opposes the term "artificial language". He writes in one of his works: “Artificial language” is a wrong term, or rather: Planned language.” M.I. Isaev writes: “Planned language (“artificial language”) - created for communication in international arena. The term "planned language" was proposed by E. Wüster (1955). As for the name "artificial language", it is not acceptable, because suggests opposition to "natural language", which is actually not uncommon. At the same time, the last term ("natural language") is inadequate, because Language is a social phenomenon, not a biological one. It is not difficult to notice the desire of M.I. Isaev emphasize social character language as a means of communication. But the situation with international languages, which has evolved over the centuries, indicates that there is still no “planned language” in the understanding of M.I. Isaeva: languages ​​designed to communicate in the international arena are not created, as the author points out, but are selected from existing national languages.

The problem of an artificial language exists at the present time, it is becoming more and more relevant with the expansion of the zones of influence of the Internet.

1. Dictionary types. The role of the dictionary in the work of a translator.

2. The problem of the origin of the language. Hypotheses. Stages of development. The role of dialects in the formation of the language.

Existing types dictionaries are very diverse. This diversity is explained, first of all, by the complexity and multidimensionality of the very object of the lexicographic description, i.e. language. In addition, the numerous needs of society in obtaining a wide variety of information about the language also complicate and expand the repertoire of dictionaries.

Exist:

· transferable

· sensible

The most important type of monolingual linguistic dictionary is an explanatory dictionary containing words with an explanation of their meanings, grammatical and stylistic characteristics. The first explanatory dictionary proper was the six-volume "Dictionary of the Russian Academy", published in 1789-1794. and containing 43,257 words taken from modern secular and spiritual books.

critical role in the history of lexicography Soviet era played the four-volume "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" edited by D. N. Ushakov, published in 1934-1940. In the dictionary, numbering 85,289 words, many issues of normalizing the Russian language, streamlining word usage, shaping, and pronunciation were resolved. Dictionary built on vocabulary works of art, journalism, scientific literature.

· dialect and regional dictionaries

The first dialect (regional) dictionaries of the Russian language began to be published in the middle of the 19th century. These were the "Experience of the Regional Great Russian Dictionary", containing 18011 words (1852) and "Supplement to the Experience of the Regional Great Russian Dictionary", containing 22895 words (1858). AT late XIX- early XX century. A number of dictionaries of individual adverbs and dialects were published. AT Soviet time published "Don Dictionary" by A. V. Mirtov (1929), "Short Yaroslavl Regional Dictionary ..." G. G. Melnichenko (1961), "Pskov Regional Dictionary with Historical Data" (1967) and others. a lot of work on compiling a multi-volume Dictionary of Russian Folk Dialects, which includes about 150 thousand folk words unknown in

modern literary language (from 1965 to 1987, 23 issues were published - before Osset)

· slang dictionaries

· historical

The main historical dictionary of the Russian language was the three-volume "Materials for a dictionary of the Old Russian language according to written monuments" by I. I. Sreznevsky (1890-1912), containing many words and about 120 thousand excerpts from the monuments of Russian writing of the XI-XIV centuries. (the last reprint edition was published in 1989). Currently, the Dictionary of the Russian Language of the XI-XVII centuries is being published. In 1988, issue 14 was released (before Person). Since 1984, the Dictionary of the Russian Language of the 18th Century began to be published. edited by Yu. S. Sorokin. To date, 5 issues have been prepared (1984, 1985, 1987, 1988 and 1989).

· neologisms

· etymological

In 1961, "Short etymological dictionary of the Russian language" by N. M. Shansky, V. V. Ivanov and T. V. Shanskaya, edited by S. G. Barkhudarov, containing an etymological interpretation of commonly used words of the modern Russian literary language (3rd edition, supplemented - in 1975 ).

· popular expressions and many others

In 1890, S.V. Maksimov's collection "Winged Words" was published. The collection was reprinted in 1899 and 1955.

In 1955, the collection "Winged words. Literary quotations. Figurative expressions" by N. S. Ashukina and M. G. Ashukina was published (4th edition - in 1988). The book includes a large number of literary quotations and figurative expressions arranged in alphabetical order.

THE ROLE OF THE DICTIONARY IN THE WORK OF THE TRANSLATOR.

No matter how qualified a translator is, he cannot do without dictionaries. A dictionary is necessary for both a student taking the first steps in the field of translation and a professional translator.

Translation requires the most different words ares and reference books. Without this, it is difficult to achieve high-quality translations quickly.

Dictionaries are used not only when they do not know the meaning or translation of a unit of foreign language, but also for selection the best option from a number already known to the translator.

But dictionaries also have disadvantages:

1) Another disadvantage of bilingual dictionaries is that, as a rule, they do not include words that have entered the language relatively recently, as well as units widely used in the media, journalism and fiction of our days.

Often a translator needs to reveal certain shades of the meaning of a word, and in this case it is important that these shades are presented in the dictionary. That is why different dictionaries have different value for the translator.

2) It is even more difficult for a translator when translating the contextual meanings of words, which, as a rule, do not correspond to in a bilingual dictionary at all due to their low frequency.

An experienced translator in such cases can choose a contextual correspondence to a unit of a foreign language, starting from normative values words given in the dictionary, but this is usually extremely difficult.

3) On the other hand, the words of the TL, more or less successfully translating individual meanings foreign words, may have their own additional values and shades that the corresponding foreign words do not have. And here there is a risk of transferring these meanings and shades to a foreign word.

Of particular note is the danger of using outdated bilingual dictionaries.

An outdated dictionary is the translator's enemy!

1) Another advantage of using explanatory dictionaries is their great informativeness, reliability of information and the availability of information of an encyclopedic nature.

2) Advantage encyclopedic dictionaries- they are highly informative, more quotes and illustrations.

Modern encyclopedic dictionaries are published quickly and in an ever greater thematic variety, which is exactly what a modern translator needs.

The main purpose of encyclopedic dictionaries is to give a comprehensive reference about a word, concept, phenomenon.

3) Variety of dictionaries.

Problems of the origin of language.

1. The concept of the national language. Forms of existence of the national language.

2. Homonymy as a linguistic phenomenon. Homonym types

The national language is called the whole set of means necessary for communication by representatives of certain nations.

National language - the phenomenon is heterogeneous, exists in its various forms. Scientists distinguish 4 forms (options) of the existence of the national language, one literary and three non-literary:

1. Literary language

2. Territorial dialects

3. Urban vernacular

4. Jargon

Language is a complex phenomenon that exists in several forms. These include: dialects, vernacular, jargon and literary language.

Dialects - local dialects of Russia, limited territorially. They exist only in oral speech, they serve for everyday communication.

vernacular - the speech of people that does not correspond to the literary norms of the Russian language (ridiculitis, kolidor, without a coat, driver).

Jargon - the speech of social and professional groups of people united by a commonality of occupations, interests, etc. Jargon is characterized by the presence of specific vocabulary and phraseology. Sometimes the word slang is used as a synonym for the word jargon. Argo - the speech of the lower classes of society, the criminal world, beggars, thieves and swindlers.

Literary language - the highest form of the national language, processed by the masters of the word. It has two forms - oral and written. Oral speech is subject to orthoepic and intonational forms, it is influenced by the direct presence of the addressee, it is created spontaneously. Written speech is graphically fixed, obeys spelling and punctuation norms, the absence of the addressee does not affect, it allows processing, editing.

In the lexical system of the Russian language there are words that sound the same, but have absolutely different meanings. Such words are called lexical homonyms, and the sound and grammatical coincidence of different language units that are not semantically related to each other is called mononymy (gr. Homos - the same + onyma - name).

For example, the key is a "spring" (cold key) and the key is "a metal rod of a special shape for unlocking and locking the lock" (steel key); onion - "plant" ( green onion) and a bow - a "weapon for throwing arrows" (tight bow). Unlike polysemantic words lexical homonyms do not have a subject-semantic connection, i.e. they do not have common semantic features by which one could judge the polysemanticism of one word.

The following types of homonyms are distinguished:

Full and lexical homonyms . These are words in the form of which different meanings randomly coincided.

Full homonyms - these are words that have different meanings, but coincide in sound in all grammatical forms and in spelling. H: key (source of water; to a guess; a device for opening doors).

Partial homonyms - these are words that have different meanings, but coincide in spelling or sound or in one or two grammatical forms. H: onion

Homophones (phonetic homonyms ) - words identical in sound composition (pronunciation), but different in letter composition (spelling) words: code and cat, mushroom and flu, fort and Ford, people and fierce, illuminate and consecrate;

Homographs (graphic, alphabetic homonyms) - identical in letter composition, but different in pronunciation of the word: soar - soar, horns - horns, shelves - shelves, atlas - atlas;

Homoforms (matching grammatical forms different words or one word): summer time - it's time to go; hunting (for wolves) and hunting (desire); window glass - glass on the floor (noun and verb); frozen meat - chocolate ice cream (adj. and n.); enjoy spring - return in spring (noun and adverb); seal up a leak - flow across the floor (noun and verb).

Basic Tutorials:

1. Alefirenko N.F. Modern problems of the science of language. - Uch. allowance. – M.: Flinta-Nauka, 2005. – 412 p.

2. Budagov R.A. Introduction to the science of language. M., 1958.

3. Vendina T.I. Introduction to linguistics. M., 2001.

4. Girutsky A.A.. Introduction to linguistics. Minsk, 2000.

5. Grechko V.A.. Theory of linguistics. – M.: graduate School, 2003. - 375 p.

6. Golovin B.N.. Introduction to linguistics. M., 1977.

7. Kodukhov V.I. Introduction to linguistics. M., 1979.

8. Maslov Y.S.. Introduction to linguistics. M., 1975.

9. Nelyubin L.L. Essays on introduction to linguistics. - Textbook. - M., 2005. - 215 p.

10. Reformatsky A.A. Introduction to linguistics. M.: Aspect Press, 1999. - 536 p.

11. Rozhdestvensky Yu.V. Introduction to General Philology. M., 1979.

12. Sorokina E.BUT. Fundamentals of linguistics. M., 2013.

13. Shaikevich A.Ya. Introduction to linguistics. M., 1995.

Additional benefits:

1. Barannikova L.I. Basic information about the language. M., 1982.

2. Baudouin de Courtenay I.A. Selected works on general linguistics. T. 1-2. - M.: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1963. - 390 s

3. Ganeev B.T. Language: Tutorial, 2nd ed., revised, add. - Ufa: publishing house of BSPU, 2001. - 272 p.

4. Genidze N.K. Fundamentals of modern linguistics. Proc. settlement - St. Petersburg: Publishing House of the St. Petersburg State. University of Economics and Finance, 2003. - 201 p.

5. Grinev-Grinevich S.V., Sorokina E.A., Skopyuk T.G. Fundamentals of anthropolinguistics. Tutorial. - M.: Publishing Center "Academy", 2008. - 128 p.

6. Budagov R.A. Literary languages and language styles. M., 1967.

7. Ivanova I.N., Shustrova L.V. Fundamentals of linguistics. M., 1995.

8. Kamchatnov A.M., Nikolina N.A. Introduction to linguistics. M., 2000.

9. Krongauz M.A.. Semantics. - M.: Publishing Center "Academy", 2005. - 352 p.

10. Kondratov A.M. Sounds and signs. M., 1978.

11. Kondratov A.M.. The land of people is the land of languages. M., 1974.

12. Kondratov A.M.. Letter book. M., 1975.

13. Leontiev A.A. What is language. M., 1976.

14. Lakoff J., Johnson M. Metaphors we live by. - M.: Editorial URSS, 2004. - 256 p.

15. Mechkovskaya N.B.. Social linguistics: A manual for students of liberal arts universities and students of lyceums. 2nd ed., rev. M.: Aspect-Press, 1996. - 207 p.

16. Norman B.Yu. Fundamentals of linguistics. Minsk, 1996.

17. Odintsov V.V.. linguistic paradoxes. M., 1976.

18. Panov M.V. And yet she is good ... M., 1978.

19. Sakharny L.V. How our language works. M., 1978.

20. Languages ​​as an image of the world. - M .: LLC "Izd-vo AST"; St. Petersburg: Terra Fantastica, 2003. - 568 p.

For or against artificial languages?

The study of an artificial language has one big drawback - the almost impossibility of its application in life. This is true. An article entitled "Artificial Languages" published in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia states that: "The idea of ​​an artificial language common to all mankind is in itself utopian and impracticable. Artificial languages ​​are only imperfect surrogates of living languages; their projects are cosmopolitan in nature and therefore vicious in principle." It was written in the early 50s. But even in the mid-60s, the same skepticism was characteristic of some scientists.

The author of the book "Principles of Language Modeling" P.N. Denisov expressed his disbelief in the possibility of implementing the idea of ​​a universal language in the following way: “As for the possibility of declaring the transition of mankind to a single language created at least according to the type of Esperanto, such a possibility is a utopia. the inseparable connection of language with thought and society and many other purely linguistic circumstances do not allow such a reform to be carried out without disorganizing society.

The author of the book "Sounds and Signs" A.M. Kondratov believes that all existing native languages ​​can never be replaced by "any artificially invented "general" language". He still admits the idea of ​​an auxiliary language: "We can only talk about an intermediary language, which is used only when talking with foreigners - and only"

Such statements seem to stem from the fact that none of the individual projects for a universal, or worldwide international, language has become a living language. But what turned out to be impossible in some historical conditions for individual idealists and groups of the same idealists cut off from the proletariat, from the masses of the people, may turn out to be quite possible in other historical conditions for scientific collectives and the masses of the people who have mastered the scientific theory of language creation - with support of revolutionary parties and governments. The ability of a person to multilingualism - this phenomenon of linguistic compatibility - and the absolute primacy of the synchrony of the language (for the consciousness of those who use it), which determines the absence of the influence of the origin of the language on its functioning, open before all the peoples and peoples of the Earth the way in which the problem of their linguistic community. This will give a real opportunity to the most perfect project of the language of the new mankind and its new civilization to turn on all the continents and islands of the globe into a living, controlled developing language. And there is no doubt that it will not only be alive, but also the most tenacious of languages. The needs that brought them to life are manifold. It is also important that in these languages ​​the ambiguity of terms, which is characteristic of natural languages ​​and unacceptable in science, has been overcome. Artificial languages ​​allow expressing certain concepts in an extremely concise form, perform the functions of a kind of scientific shorthand, economical presentation and expression of voluminous mental material. Finally, artificial languages ​​are one of the means of internationalizing science, since artificial languages ​​are unified, international.