Pushkin is the creator of the modern Russian literary language. Oral magazine "He made a miracle from the Russian language" (Pushkin as the founder of the Russian literary language)

In fact, it is difficult to attribute the creation of a new literary language to one person. Even if such a person is such a great poet as Pushkin. Other artists also helped to consolidate colloquial speech in literature and use Karamzin's new syllable there.

In particular, it should be noted Krylov and Griboyedov, who worked in the genres of fable and comedy, respectively. In these genres, for the most part, they were "fixers" and creators of a new literary language. The role of Pushkin is phenomenal with his work "on all fronts", that is, in a variety of genres, where he managed to bring something new for his time and form a new language.

In addition to the purely form, that is, the language as such, the content should also be noted. Pushkin's innovation consisted not only in what words he spoke through the lips of his heroes on the pages of his works, but also in what topics he discussed with these words. For his time, Pushkin was something like the mouthpiece of the most progressive part of society, so the content here also had its role.

The main feature of his works is, apparently, in the combination of folk and intellectual. The poet was a graduate of the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum and received an excellent education, he really understood the culture in general and the culture of his time in particular. Also in his youth, he went through the "school" of Arina Rodionovna, who instilled in him a love for Russian culture, folklore and fairy tales.

Thus, it was this author who managed to combine a deep understanding of folk culture with armchair culture. In order to express his thoughts and skillfully cover the world with his own genius as accurately and deeply as possible, he combined these two cultures on the pages of his books. In addition, Pushkin appreciated the development of literature and understood the requirements of his time, he was aware of the mission to introduce the new literary norm of Karamzin.

Returning to the content of his works, one should note the inclusiveness of the topics that the author touches on. Unlike, for example, Byron or other figures that preceded him, Alexander Sergeevich did not choose themes most suitable for his own work. On the contrary, he tried to cover the world completely.

Therefore, on the pages of Pushkin's works, we see village huts and palaces, and ancient countries and contemporary Russia, representatives of common people and the upper class. Of course, in order to write in such a range, it was necessary to master the entire spectrum of the language of that time. It is thanks to this that the author was able to introduce colloquial speech, a lot of words and constructions.

He skillfully mastered the vocabulary and phraseology, which he selected to match the described period and society. Thanks to this, the literary language was saturated with words from different eras. By the way, the creation of the historical color of the era was a distinctive ability of Pushkin, who could reproduce with high precision speech of different people.

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The formation of a national literary language is a long and gradual process. As already mentioned above (see Ch. 9, p. 125), this process, according to the thoughts of V. I. Lenin, is composed of three main historical stages, based on three social prerequisites: a) consolidation of territories with a population speaking the same language (for Russia, this already happened by the 17th century); b) removal of obstacles in the development of the language (in this regard, much was done during the 18th century: the reforms of Peter I; the stylistic system of Lomonosov; the creation of a “new syllable” by Karamzin); c) fixing the language in literature. The latter finally ends in the first decades of the 19th century. in the work of Russian realist writers, among whom should be named I. A. Krylov, A. S. Griboedov and, first of all, A. S. Pushkin.

Pushkin's main historical merit lies in the fact that he completed the consolidation of the Russian vernacular language in literature.

We have the right to ask ourselves the question: why did Pushkin have the high honor to rightly be called the true founder of the modern Russian literary language? And the answer to this question can be given in one sentence: because Pushkin was a brilliant national poet. If the meaning of this phrase is divided and concretized, then five main provisions can be distinguished. Firstly, A. S. Pushkin was the spokesman for the most advanced, revolutionary worldview of his contemporary era. He was rightfully recognized as the "ruler of thoughts" of the first generation of Russian revolutionaries-nobles-Decembrists. Secondly, Pushkin was one of the most cultured and versatile Russian people of the early 19th century. Having been educated in the most progressive educational institution of that time, Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum, he then set himself the goal of “in education to become on a par with the century” and sought to achieve this goal throughout his life. Thirdly, Pushkin created unsurpassed examples of poetry in all kinds and types of verbal art, and he boldly enriched all genres of literature by introducing into them the spoken language of the people. In this respect, Pushkin surpasses both Krylov, who accomplished a similar feat only in the genre of fable, and Griboedov, who consolidated colloquial speech in the genre of comedy. Fourthly, Pushkin embraced with his genius all spheres of the life of the Russian people, all its social strata - from the peasantry to high society, from the village hut to the royal palace. His works reflect all historical eras - from ancient Assyria and Egypt to the contemporary United States of America, from Gostomysl to the days of his own life. The most diverse countries and peoples appear before us in his poetic work. Moreover, Pushkin possessed the extraordinary power of poetic transformation and could write about Spain (“The Stone Guest”), like a Spaniard, about England in the 17th century. ("From Bunyan"), as an English poet of Milton's time. Finally, fifthly, Pushkin became the founder of the realistic artistic direction, which in his work has been predominating since about the mid-20s. And as Pushkin consolidates the realistic method of reflecting reality in his works, the colloquial element in his language also intensifies. Thus, all these five provisions are embraced by the formula: “Pushkin - brilliant poet Russian nation”, which allowed him to complete the process of fixing the Russian national language in literature.

Pushkin, of course, did not immediately become what he was. He studied with his predecessors and implemented in his own language skills all the achievements of the art of the word, which were obtained by poets and writers of the 17th and 18th centuries.

In the language of Pushkin's works, we have the opportunity to observe the traditional elements of the Russian literary language, inherited from past periods of development. We have in mind, first of all, Church Slavonicisms (lexical, grammatical and phonetic); mythologisms: names of ancient deities, appeal to the Muse, words lyre, sing etc.; high-pitched rhetorical devices, etc. During the lyceum period of Pushkin's work, these means of literary expression are used, as it were, by inertia, due to the traditional nature of their use in this genre of poetry. So, for example, in the poem “Recollection in Tsarskoye Selo” (1814), with which Pushkin spoke at the lyceum exam on January 8, 1815 in the presence of Derzhavin, Church Slavonicisms and lexical words abound: “the cover of a gloomy night hung ...”, and grammatical: “...when under the scepter great wife...”, and phonetic (pronunciation e under stress before the next hard consonant without transition to o). Events contemporary to the poet are narrated as about the exploits of ancient heroes: They fly to a formidable feast; they are looking for prey with swords, And the battle is burning; Thunder rumbles on the hills, Arrows whistle in the condensed air with swords, And blood splashes on the shield.

Speaking about the flight of Napoleonic troops from Russia, Pushkin uses the entire arsenal of high style:

Take comfort, mother of the cities of Russia,

Look at the death of the alien.

Buried today on their haughty necks

The vengeful right hand of the creator.

Look: they are running, they do not dare to look around,

Their blood does not stop flowing in rivers of snow;

They run, and in the darkness of the night their smoothness and death meet,

And from the rear drives the Russian sword.

poetic tradition of the eighteenth century. this poem owes, for example, the following lines: “Where are you, beloved son of both happiness and Bellona?” (About Napoleon) or: “In Paris, Ross! Where is the torch of vengeance? || Hang down, Gallia, head, ”etc.

However, we must note in the poem, along with full set stylistic attributes of classicism, and individual speech elements that owe their origin to the era of pre-romanticism and sentimentalism, for example, the mention of skalds, etc.: O inspirational skald of Russia,

The glorified military formidable system,

In the circle of comrades, with a soul inflamed,

Thunder on the golden harp!

The use of this kind of expressive means of language is also dominated by poetic inertia.

Thus, at the beginning of his poetic work, Pushkin did not yet limit the use of traditional speech elements to any stylistic tasks, using them only as a direct tribute to the legacy of the past.

Later, traditional speech elements continue to be preserved in the language of Pushkin's works, but their use is strictly stylistically justified. The use of Church Slavonicisms and archaisms of various kinds in the language of A. S. Pushkin’s works of the mature period of his work can be determined by the following stylistic tasks.

1. Giving a solemn, elevated tone to a work or part of it. So, in the poem “In front of the tomb of the saint ...” (1831), dedicated to the memory of Kutuzov, we read: “... I stand with my head bowed ...”; “This lord sleeps under them, || This idol of the northern squads, || The venerable guardian of the sovereign country,||Suppressor of all her enemies!) This is the rest of the glorious flock||Catherine's eagles”.

In the poem “I erected a monument to myself ...” (1836), everyone knows the following words: “He ascended higher with the head of a rebellious || Pillar of Alexandria"; “And every tongue that is in it shall call me”; “as long as in the sublunar world|| At least one piit will live,” etc. It was in this function that the previous tradition of high style most strongly affected.

2. Creation of the historical color of the era. Here Pushkin can be recognized as an innovator, since the writers of the 18th century. did not own this tool; it was also alien to the works of Karamzin. Pushkin, on the other hand, not only skillfully uses archaisms as a means of historical stylization, but also strictly selects one or another composition of archaizing vocabulary, depending on the era depicted. For example, in “Songs about the prophetic Oleg.” we find words like trizna, lad(servant), magician etc. In the “Family tree of my hero” we read not only the phrase “Velma is a formidable voivode”, completely stylized as an old Russian chronicle narrative, but we also find a reference to an imaginary ancient source: “The Sophia Chronograph says”.

For historical periods closer to his time, Pushkin also selects the appropriate vocabulary and phraseology. Thus, the first line in the tragedy “Boris Godunov” opens with the following words: “We are dressed up together to manage the city ...” Here, to the language of the 16th-17th centuries. ascends and the meaning of the verb dress up! dress up assign, and expression city ​​to know i.e. manage the city. This remark immediately introduces the reader to the situation of the 16th century.

When Pushkin needs to travel back to the epoch of the 18th century, he also finds methods of historical stylization of the language. For example, in The Captain's Daughter, a soldier's song is used: "We live in a fort, || We eat bread and drink water ..." - or lyrical rhymes composed by Grinev:

Destroying the thought of love,

I try to forget the beautiful

And ah, avoiding Masha,

I'm thinking the liberty to get!

But the eyes that captivated me

All the time in front of me

They disturbed my spirit

They destroyed my peace.

You, having recognized my misfortunes,

Have pity, Masha, over me,

In vain me in this fierce part,

And that I am captivated by you.

It is not for nothing that Shvabrin, after reading these verses, finds that they are "worthy of ... Vasily Kirilych Tredyakovsky and are very reminiscent of ... his love couplets." Thanks to the introduction of methods of historical stylization of language, Pushkin managed to significantly enrich the realistic method of depicting the historical past.

3. Expression of satire and irony. Pushkin turns obsolete words and expressions into a well-aimed weapon that smashes the political enemies of the poet, for example, in an epigram on Archimandrite Photius: “Send us, Lord, sinful, || Fewer such shepherds, || Semi-good, semi-saints. ”-or in gr. Orlov-Chesmenskaya: “Pious wife || Dedicated to God in soul, || And in sinful flesh || Archimandrite Photius.

In these verses, in the poem "Gavriiliada" and in other works, Church Slavonicisms act in a stylistic function diametrically opposed to their traditional use - to serve as a means of combating the official ideology.

It is the tendency of Pushkin's style to mix Church Slavonicisms, Russian literary and colloquial everyday words that constitutes the most significant aspect of the poet's linguistic innovation. This process of assimilation of Church Slavonicisms to modern Russian word usage caused the greatest number of protests from critics of Pushkin's work, zealots of linguistic purism. So, when the 5th song “Eugene Onegin” appeared in print with its well-known poetic depiction of the Russian winter. “Winter!.. Peasant, triumphant, || On the firewood it renews the path...”, in a critical article of the magazine “Atenei” it was noticed: “For the first time, I think, the firewood is in an enviable neighborhood with the triumph”.

In "Eugene Onegin" one can observe many other examples of the stylistic transformation of Church Slavonicisms.

So, in the same song V we find: “Here is a yard boy running, || Putting a bug in a sled, || Having transformed himself into a horse ”(cf. title church holiday"Transfiguration"). In song VII we read: “The boys dispersed the dogs, || Taking the young lady under his protection...” (cf. “Protection of the Most Holy Theotokos”); “The old woman is very fond of || Reasonable and good advice ...”, etc.

Thus, Pushkin, having positively assessed the traditional fund of book vocabulary and phraseology, retains it as part of the modern Russian literary language, giving this category of words and expressions strictly defined stylistic functions and partially assimilating them to ordinary word usage.

The second component of the language fiction, also inherited from previous eras of language development, mainly from the period of the 18th century. and Karamzin period, is vocabulary and phraseology borrowed from the languages ​​of the peoples of Europe or arising under the influence of these languages. These are the “Western Europeanisms” of the literary language.

By “Western Europeanisms”, or by “Europeanisms”, in Pushkin’s works, we will mean both certain words of Western European languages ​​that are left without translation, and expressions such as periphrases that go back to Karamzin’s “new syllable”.

The principles of lexical and phraseological use of "Europeanisms" in Pushkin's individual style were changeable and not without external contradictions. Although Pushkin renounces the method of direct copying of European phraseology, characteristic of the style of the Karamzinists, he recognized French as a model for Russian in the sphere of abstract concepts. Thus, approving “gallicisms of concepts, speculative gallicisms, because they are already Europeanisms,” Pushkin wrote to Vyazemsky: “You did a good job that you clearly stood up for gallicisms. Someday it must be said aloud that Russian metaphysical language is still in a wild state among us. God grant it someday be formed like a French (clear, exact language prose-t. e. the language of thoughts)”.

On the one hand, Pushkin spoke out against the cluttering of the Russian language with foreign words, urging them to avoid, if possible, even special terms. He wrote to I. V. Kireevsky on January 4, 1832: “Avoid scientific terms and try to translate them, that is, paraphrase: this will be both pleasant for ignoramuses and useful for our infant language.”

On the other hand, in Pushkin's works there are many individual words or whole expressions and phrases that are left without translation and depicted in a foreign script in French, English, German, Italian and Latin. However, all these non-transliterated words and expressions have an irreplaceable semantic and stylistic function, which justifies their use by Pushkin.

For example, in the VIII song of "Eugene Onegin" Pushkin shows the image of Tatyana, who married a noble general, and he needs to characterize the life, life and concepts of the Russian high society environment. And we find in stanza XIV following characteristic Tatyana: It seemed like a sure shot of Du comme il faut (Shishkov, sorry: I don’t know how to translate).

In stanzas XV and XVI we read the continuation of the characterization: No one could call her beautiful, but from head to toe No one could find in her What autocratic fashion In a high London circle Calls vulgar (I can not ... I love it very much word, But I can not translate; It is still new with us, And it is unlikely that he will be honored).

The concepts expressed by the French comme il faut or the English vulgar best describe the views and attitudes of the aristocratic society of the early 19th century. Therefore, they were considered by Pushkin as untranslatable into

Russian language.

In an effort to bring the Russian literary language closer to the then Western European ones, mainly in the general structure of expressing thoughts, in the nature of the connection between concepts, Pushkin opposes those forms of phrase formation that could be considered as direct syntactic gallicisms or as tracing papers copying mannered French paraphrases.

So, in the original text of the 1st chapter of “Eugene Onegin”, Pushkin wrote: Ah, for a long time I could not forget Two legs ... Sad, cold, And now sometimes in a dream They confuse my heart.

Immediately in the margins, the poet noted: “Unforgivable gallicism!”, And then corrected the phrase, eliminating independence from the subject to a separate turnover: ... Sad, cold, I remember them all, and in a dream They disturb my heart.

With regard to direct paraphrases, we observe a similar evolution in Pushkin's style. From the beginning of the 1920s, conditional periphrastic expressions of the French-Karamzin type, which were still not uncommon in his early poems, were eliminated from Pushkin’s writings, such as: Heaven has hidden the eternal inhabitant (i.e., the sun) (“Cologne”, 1814).

Pushkin calls for the rejection of frozen and pretentious expressions, for their replacement with simple designations of objects and ideas. He ironically builds the following stylistic parallels, contrasting long and languid paraphrases with simple and short designations: “But what about our writers, who, considering it base to explain just the most ordinary things, think to enliven children's prose with additions and languid metaphors? These people will never say friendship, without adding: this sacred feeling, whose noble flame, etc. I should have said: early in the morning - and they write: as soon as the first rays of the rising sun illuminated the eastern edges of the azure sky - oh, how new and fresh it all is, is it better just because it is longer.

I am reading the report of some theater lover: this young pet of Thalia and Melpomene, the generously gifted Apol ... my God, put it on: this young good actress - and go on - be sure that no one will notice your expressions, no one will say thanks.

The contemptible Zoil, whose indefatigable envy pours out its soporific poison on the laurels of the Russian Parnassus, whose tedious stupidity can only be compared with indefatigable anger ... is it not shorter - Mr. publisher of such and such a magazine ... ”

However, Pushkin does not completely abandon Karamzin's paraphrases in language. He often revives them, resurrecting them with the help of a kind of lexical and grammatical transformation their inner image, erased from frequent use in speech. So, in song VII of “Eugene Onegin” we read: “With a clear smile, nature || Meets the morning of the year through sleep.” Thanks to Pushkin's transformations, inclusion in a fresh poetic context, an obliterated template morning of the year - spring becomes bright and impressive. Wed similar use of the expression whirlwind of life in the fifth song of the same novel: “Monotonous and insane, || Like a whirlwind of young life, || A noisy whirlwind is spinning the waltz” (stanza XXI).

However, the development of “Europeanisms” in Pushkin’s language was most facilitated by his bold stylistic innovation, which involved words and expressions from various lexical layers of book speech and vernacular into a poetic context.

In the poems of the Lyceum and beyond, until the end of the 10s, we still find a very small number of such words and phrases that would contradict Karamzin's stylistic norms. From the vocabulary of non-literary vernacular or peasant dialects, Pushkin used only a few words, for example, grip in the poem "Cossack" (1814), kid in the poem "Town" (1814), expressions go away grief or so and so smear in the message "To Natalia" (1813), rumple(“To my Aristarchus”, 1815), bosom friend(“Mansurov”, 1819) and some others. However, already in the poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila" there is a bias towards vernacular more than was allowed by the norms of the secular Karamzin style for works of this genre.

The verses of the poem are undoubtedly stylized as a fabulous common people, as folklore antiquity. This is manifested both in the speeches of the characters and in the author's narration: See, for example, the words of Ruslan: “Be quiet, empty head! || I’m going, I’m going, I’m not whistling, || And when I hit, I won’t let go!” or “Now you are ours: aha, trembling!”. In the speech of Chernomor: “Not that you are joking with me - I will strangle you all with a beard!” In the Head's speech: “Step back, I'm not kidding. ||I'll just swallow it impudently”; “Listen, get out...”; “I also foolishly stretched out; ||I'm lying without hearing anything,||Daring: I'll deceive him! etc. These are the words Pushkin talks about Lyudmila (princess, daughter of the Kyiv Grand Duke Vladimir!): “The princess jumped out of bed - || Trembling raised her fist, || And in fear she squealed so || That she stunned all the araps.

It is not surprising that in the journal Vestnik Evropy, a critic of the Karamzin trend accused Pushkin of an unliterary language and unacceptable democracy: “A rude joke, not approved by the taste of enlightenment, disgusting ... If I somehow infiltrated the Moscow Noble Assembly (I suppose the impossible is possible) a guest with a beard, in an Armenian coat, in bast shoes, and would shout in a loud voice: “Great, guys!” - would you really admire such a prankster? So, the appearance of a very moderate in its linguistic democratism of the poem shocked literary retrogrades. But Pushkin was not embarrassed by the hostile reviews of critics and boldly paved the way for the further democratization of the literary language. In 1823, cherishing the common people of The Brothers-Robbers, the poet suggested to A. A. Bestuzhev to print an excerpt from the poem in the almanac “Polar Star”, published by the Decembrists, “if domestic sounds: a tavern, a whip, a prison - do not frighten the gentle ears of readers” .

The sphere of folk vernacular in Pushkin's works has been significantly expanding since the mid-1920s, since his stay in Mikhailovsky. We know that, living in the wilderness, Pushkin communicated hourly with the serfs, listened to their songs, fairy tales, and conversations. Dressed in a red Russian shirt, he appeared at fairs and rural bazaars, jostling among the crowd and participating in popular amusements. During these years, his nanny Arina Rodionovna became his main interlocutor, according to whose words he writes down wonderful tales. In Pushkin's statements, starting from that time, we find calls for a bold convergence of the language of literary works with the colloquial speech of the common people. According to Pushkin, “strange vernacular” is feature"mature literature". “But,” he remarks with sad irony, “the charm of naked simplicity is incomprehensible to us.” “Read folktales, young writers, in order to see the properties of the Russian language,” Pushkin addressed his fellow writers in 1828. “The spoken language of the common people (who do not read foreign books and, thank God, do not express their own thoughts in French) is also worthy of the deepest research. Alfieri studied Italian at the Florentine bazaar: it is not bad for us sometimes to listen to Moscow mallows. They speak an amazingly clear and correct language,” Pushkin wrote in 1830 in his “Refutation of the Critics.”

We see vivid examples of Pushkin’s appeal to the colloquial speech of the people in all genres of his poetic works of a mature time: in “Eugene Onegin” (especially starting from the 4th chapter), and in “Count Nulin”, and in “Poltava”, and in "The Bronze Horseman". And also in many lyrical poems and ballads.

However, introducing folk speech into the language of his works, Pushkin usually took from it only what was generally understandable, avoiding regional words and expressions, not descending to the naturalistic fixation of dialect speaking. The originality of Pushkin's stylistic innovation in relation to vernacular does not lie in the very fact of its use. Folk speech was found in the works of Pushkin’s predecessors, poets and writers of the 18th century, relatively distant in time, however, firstly, these authors limited the use of vernacular only to works of “low calm”, and secondly, they reproduced folk speech without exposing it to stylistic processing.

Let us cite as an example a dialogue between two workers from V. I. Lukin’s comedy “Schepetilnik” (1766): “Miron-worker (holding a telescope in his hand): Vasyuk, look. We play such pipes; and here in them, one eye squinting, they look not at all. Yes, it would be nice, bro, from a distance, otherwise, having collided with nose, they will sink into each other. They seem to me to have no shame at all. Yes, it looked like me too. No, kid, I'm afraid to spoil the dust.

Vasily the worker: Throw it away, Mirokha! And as you spoil, you won’t get enough for a failure. But I swear, you can get into it, and if it wasn’t chenna, I would buy it for myself, and when I got home, twisting my hat, I went with it. Our deuli would have become brothers with me at all gatherings, and I, brother, sitting in the front corner, would be chufar over everyone.

In the quoted passage, the peasants speak in an accentuated dialectal speech, and the author, probably deliberately exaggerating, puts into their remarks phonetic, syntactic and lexical dialectisms that go back to various dialects.

Compare with this the speech of the blacksmith Arkhip from the story “Dubrovsky”: ““Why are you laughing, imps,” the blacksmith said angrily to them, “you are not afraid of God - God’s creature is dying, and you are foolishly rejoicing,” and, putting the ladder on the roof on fire, he went after the cat.” There is not a single regional feature here, and yet we clearly feel that it is the peasant who can speak like this. Pushkin achieves the fullness of his artistic impression both thanks to the careful selection of vocabulary and thanks to the natural structure of the sentence in the cited speech of Arkhip.

Selecting from the peasant speech only that which can be considered as truly national, Pushkin, however, was able to find original features in the popular word usage that characterize its genuineness and originality.

Let us turn to the poem “The Drowned Man” (1828). In it we find the following lines: “The children are sleeping, the hostess is napping, The husband is lying on the floor.” In this context, the word hostess has the meaning that is inherent in it in folk dialects: wife, eldest woman in a peasant family. Further in the verses: “Already in the morning the weather is angry, || At night the storm comes...” - the word weather also used in the dialectal meaning bad weather, storm.

Let us also note a relatively rare case of the use of a characteristic “local” word in the 2nd chapter of “The Captain’s Daughter”: “The inn, or, in the local language, umet, was on the sidelines, in the steppe, far from any village, and looked very much like a robber’s wharf. ". Word be able to heard by Pushkin in the dialects of the Orenburg province and, in the best possible way, gives the narrative a colorful shade of authenticity.

Thus, carefully selecting words and expressions from folk speech practice, Pushkin not only and not only introduces them into the linguistic fabric of all his works, regardless of genre and stylistic orientation, but also makes the colloquial speech of the common people the true basis of the national Russian literary language.

With particular clarity, the democratization of the Russian literary language, carried out by Pushkin, manifested itself in his prose. The stylistic requirements that Pushkin made to the style of prose works are well known: “Accuracy and brevity are the first virtues of prose. It requires thoughts and thoughts - without them, brilliant expressions are of no use.

And these demands have been steadily translated into reality. The style of Pushkin's prose is devoid of any verbal embellishments that would distract from the main content of thought; Pushkin's prose is rightly compared not with a work of painting, but with a drawing with a pen, sometimes even with a drawing, so everything is clear and clear in it.

These qualities of prose are achieved mainly by means of syntactic structures. Pushkin preferred simple, often even uncommon sentences to the ponderous and cumbersome periods so common in the prose of his predecessors. This feature of the style can be traced when comparing the syntax of Pushkin's prose with the direct sources used by him when creating his works. So, the source of the "History of Peter the Great", on which Pushkin worked in last years life, served as the book of I. I. Golikov “Acts of Peter the Great”.

We read from Golikov: “They threatened him with force, but Mr. Shipov answered that he knew how to defend himself.” Reviewing the book. Pushkin conveyed this phrase as follows: “Shipov persisted. He was threatened. He remained firm." From a complex syntactic whole, Pushkin creates three short, simple sentences.

Further in the same book we find: “The dishonor to his flag and the denial of the pleasure demanded for it were so sensitive to the monarch that they forced him, so to speak, against his will to declare all those who surrendered in the fortress prisoners of war.” Pushkin instead only: “Peter did not keep his word. The Vyborg garrison was declared a prisoner of war. Having studied the methods of taking notes by Pushkin of Golikov's book, P. S. Popov makes the following conclusion from the comparisons he made: large quantity auxiliary parts, we get short phrases, and in most cases the sentence consists of two. elements".

Similar observations are made by comparing the description of the snowstorm in the 2nd chapter of The Captain's Daughter with one of its possible ones. sources. Such, obviously, could be the story “Buran”, published in 1834 by S. T. Aksakov in the almanac “Dennitsa”. In the story, a native of the Orenburg province S. T. Aksakov? with great phenological accuracy depicts a formidable phenomenon of nature: “Everything has merged, everything has mixed up: earth, air,. the sky turned into an abyss of boiling snowy dust, which blinded the eyes, occupied the breath, roared, whistled, howled, groaned, beat, ruffled, twirled from all sides, from above and below, twisted around like a snake, and choked everything that it came across. (p. 409).. In Pushkin: “I looked out of the wagon: everything was darkness and whirlwind. The wind howled with such fierce expressiveness that it seemed animated; the snow covered me and Savelich; the horses walked at a pace - and soon they stopped. Instead of 11 verbs showing the action of Aksakov's whirlwind, Pushkin uses only one - howled, but gives it such a figurative definition that makes all other verbs redundant. Let's compare the pictures depicting the cessation of the storm. Aksakov: “The violent wind subsided, the snows subsided. The steppes presented the appearance of a stormy sea, suddenly frozen over...” (p. 410-411). Pushkin: “... The storm subsided. The sun was shining. The snow lay in a dazzling shroud on the boundless steppe. If the description of the snowstorm given by Pushkin is inferior to Aksakov's in phenological accuracy (during a snowstorm, snow does not fall in flakes), then, undoubtedly, it gains clarity and expressiveness due to the omission of details that are not essential for the artistic conception.

Let us point out one more important feature of Pushkin's prose, noticed by researchers. This is the predominance of the verb element in his works. According to estimates, in Pushkin’s “Queen of Spades” there are 40% of verbs with 44% of nouns and 16% of epithets, while in “ Dead souls” Gogol - 50% of nouns, 31% of verbs and 19% of epithets.

The predominance of the "verbal element" was also noted in the analysis of Pushkin's poetic works. According to the observations of B. V. Tomashevsky, among the epithets of the “Gavriiliada”, either participles or verbal adjectives have an advantage.

Thus, the style of Pushkin's works, compared with the language and style of his immediate predecessors, can be regarded as a huge step forward in literary development.

What general conclusions can be drawn from considering the question of the significance of Pushkin in the history of the Russian literary language?

Pushkin forever erased the conditional boundaries between the classical three styles in the Russian literary language. In his language, "for the first time, the basic elements of Russian speech came into balance." Destroying this outdated stylistic system, Pushkin created and established a variety of styles within a single national literary language. Thanks to this, each writer in the Russian literary language got the opportunity to develop and endlessly vary his individual creative style, while remaining within the limits of a single literary norm.

This great historical service of Pushkin to the Russian language was already correctly assessed by his contemporaries. So, during the life of the great Russian poet, in 1834, N.V. Gogol, wrote: “With the name of Pushkin, the thought of a Russian national poet immediately dawns ... He, as if in a lexicon, contained all the wealth, strength and flexibility our language. He is more than all, he further pushed the boundaries for him and more showed all his space.

Even more clearly the significance of Pushkin as the founder of the modern Russian literary language was realized by the writers of the subsequent era. So, I. S. Turgenev said in his speech at the opening of the monument to Pushkin in 1880: “... There is no doubt that he [Pushkin] created our poetic, our literary language and that we and our descendants can only follow the path laid by his genius." These words have not lost their power even today, a hundred years after they were spoken: today the Russian literary language continues to develop in line with Pushkin's progressive traditions.

INTRODUCTION

A.S. Pushkin is the ancestor, creator, founder of the modern Russian literary language. I.S. Turgenev, in his famous speech about Pushkin, delivered on the day of the opening of the monument to the great poet in Moscow in 1880, said that "he created our poetic, our literary language and that we and our descendants can only follow the path paved by his genius" ( 8, 302).

V.A. Hoffman wrote in his article "Pushkin's Language": "Pushkin is not only the creator of our modern literary language, but also the creator of our general stylistic principles" (4, 65).

Such statements, of course, cannot be taken literally: Pushkin, undoubtedly, was not the sole creator of the Russian national language, since the language is formed and created by the people. But it was A.S. Pushkin gave the most perfect samples of the literary language of the first half of XIX century, his works for the first time most fully reflected the norms of the Russian language, which are also characteristic of Pushkin's time, and remain alive, valid for our time.

N.V. Gogol in his article “A Few Words about Pushkin” wrote: “With the name of Pushkin, the thought of a Russian national poet immediately dawns ... He, as if in a lexicon, contained all the richness, strength and flexibility of our language. He is more than all, he further than all pushed his boundaries and more showed all his space. Pushkin is an extraordinary phenomenon, and perhaps the only manifestation of the Russian spirit: this is the Russian man in his development, in which he, perhaps, will appear in two hundred years ”(3, 50).

So, Pushkin completed the long evolution of the literary language, using all the achievements of Russian writers of the 18th - early 19th centuries in the field of Russian literary language and style, improving everything that Lomonosov, Karamzin, Krylov, Griboyedov had done before him.

^ 1. Language and style of A.S. Pushkin

Two periods should be distinguished in Pushkin's work. The first period - lyceum years and the first half of the 20s. - is characterized by a close connection with the traditional poetic manner of writing, the search for new forms of expression. The second period, starting from the mid-1920s, was marked by the flourishing of the realistic method, full disclosure all the features of the language and style of Pushkin the realist, innovator, reformer of the Russian literary language.

Many researchers of Pushkin's work believe that in early works Pushkin mixes old and new principles for the selection of linguistic elements, while the traditional stylistic devices of speech are still very strong. Here are the lines from the poem "Town" (1815):

^ As a brave inhabitant of the sky,

He will rise to the sun

Above mortals will be

And the glory will burst out loud:

"Immortal forever piit!"

But we note that along with the texts created within the framework of the poetry of the 18th century, in the early work of the poet there are also unsophisticated realistic everyday descriptions. For example:

^ Here is your good poet

Lives well;

Does not go to fashionable light;

On the street of carriages

He doesn't hear the annoying knock...

Along with traditional poetic phrases such as ^ Golden-winged Psyche; confidant of bonds; in the waves foggy years; the singer's companion is cute, etc. In the early Pushkin we find original phrases: simple-hearted sage; Vanyusha Lafontaine; at a kind old woman I drink fragrant tea, etc.

In the early works of Pushkin, Slavicisms, words that came to Russian literature from ancient mythology, words and expressions of live colloquial speech, foreign vocabulary are used freely, without any special stylistic tasks. We can especially trace this in the poem “To a Poet Friend”, in which the following vocabulary should be highlighted: path, laurels, Pegasus, Parnassus, Apollo, gold coins, nettles, bury, peasants, simpletons, etc.

In the early period of creativity, following N.M. Karamzin and I.A. Krylov A.S. Pushkin uses words and forms on mother tongue in works stylized as folklore. The first work, where the means of folk speech are used freely and boldly in the speech of the characters and in the speech of the author, was the poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila". The speech of the heroes of "Ruslan and Lyudmila" caused indignation among many critics of Pushkin's time. So, A.F. Voeikov wrote: “Did the Russian heroes say that? And does Ruslan, speaking about the grass of oblivion and the eternal darkness of time, look like Ruslan, who, a minute later, exclaims with an angry importance: “Be quiet, empty head!” or “I’m going, I’m going, I’m not whistling, / And when I hit, I won’t let go!” (5, 294)

Defenders of the "decent" Karamzin style of writing were outraged by the use of words of living folk speech not only in the monologues and dialogues of Pushkin's heroes, but also in the author's text. Moreover, the author in the work often puts "high" and "low" vocabulary side by side. For example, "And meanwhile I was dying, / Shutting my eyes in horror."

In the early 20s. Pushkin pays tribute to romanticism, but even in his romantic works, a fusion of traditional poetic language with elements of lively colloquial speech is noticeable (“Prisoner of the Caucasus”, “Robber Brothers”, “Gypsies”).

In intimate lyrical works of the 20s. Pushkin uses the means of the literary language. It is impossible to go beyond the limits of the literary language here. The poems are dominated by neutral vocabulary, colored with poeticisms, the number of which may decrease or increase, but from now on, Pushkin’s book vocabulary is never style-forming in poems of this genre, which makes it possible to contrast the language and style of his early and mature love poems. For example, in the poems "The flying ridge of clouds is thinning ...", "The rainy day has gone out ..." there are a lot of poetic vocabulary, poetic phrases: silvered, withered plains, in heavenly heights, shone, drag, young maiden with a luxurious veil, to the shores, lips, Persian and etc., however, the vocabulary that came into the Russian language from ancient mythology, there are no obsolete Slavicisms here (5, 295).

But in works of other themes, other genres, Pushkin goes beyond the limits of the literary language, boldly involving words and expressions of living folk speech in poetry and prose.

^ 2. Folk speech in the works of A.S. Pushkin

By the second half of the 20s. most of the statements of A.S. Pushkin on the rights of folk speech in literary works.

Pushkin carefully studies the living speech of the people, the language and style of oral folk art. “The study of old songs, fairy tales, etc. necessary for a perfect knowledge of the properties of the Russian language. Our critics needlessly despise them,” we read in one of Pushkin’s notes (5, 296).

The heightened interest of the poet in the expressive means of folk speech is in close connection with the growth of the methods of the realistic method in Pushkin's work.

Since the mid 20s. live folk speech with its realistic clarity and expressiveness becomes the basis of many of Pushkin's literary works. Pushkin selects the most vivid, viable elements from folk speech, using these elements in works of various subjects, in various contexts, with different purposes, pre-processing the means of the vernacular.

What does Pushkin select from folk speech and in what works does he use elements of live speech?

Dialectisms, professionalisms, special vocabulary and phraseology are almost completely not used in Pushkin's poetry, even in works stylized as folklore, and in scenes from urban life. According to V.V. Vinogradov, “Pushkin introduced into literature only what was generally understood and could receive nationwide recognition” (1, 257).

1. The poet makes extensive use of everyday vocabulary of folk speech to describe the typical features of Russian life in the village and the city: cabbage soup, stove, broom, tub, pots, tongs, pancakes, firewood, barn, sheepskin coat, sleigh, etc.

2. In works stylized as folklore, Pushkin uses the words, forms and artistic and visual means of oral folk art. Here you can find:

Vocabulary with emotionally expressive suffixes: ^ And the bushes under it bend; Two oak trees grew side by side; And from there he brought himself a wife, etc.

The use of postpositive particles: Live on my basement; And send Balda without retribution, etc.

Infinitive with the suffix -ti: wallow, wrestle, tumble, etc.

Repetition of prepositions: As along the Volka River, along the wide one; And he looks at his mother, at the Volga; Walk along the sea, along the blue, etc.

In the works created in the spirit of folk literature, there are many words and phrases typical of Russian folklore: sister-in-law, daughter-in-law, godfather, matchmaker, drinking and walking, beautiful girl, in a clean meadow, etc.

3. Colloquial and vernacular words and expressions Pushkin uses to create a speech characteristic of the hero of a certain social position- a soldier, a peasant, a coachman, i.e. “common people, with all the variety of their expressive forms, first of all gets access to a literary dialogue or a tale attributed to a common man” (2, 442). For example, in the nurse's speech in the novel "Eugene Onegin":

^ And now everything is dark for me, Tanya:

What I knew, I forgot. Yes,

The bad line has arrived!

It hurt…

Vernacular penetrates deeply into the author's speech in the case when the lyrical hero gives way to the narrator or deliberately simply, going beyond the limits of the literary language, talks, jokes, talks with readers, with the addressees of his messages (5, 302).

^ I myself am a serviceman: me home:

It's time to retire.

Expressively reduced, abusive, rude, familiar vocabulary Pushkin usually uses in epigrams, in polemical lines, in statements about his opponents. So, in the epigram "On Kachenovsky":

^ A slanderer without talent,

He searches for sticks by instinct,

A day's food

Monthly lies.

So, in the works of Pushkin, a large place is occupied by colloquial means of expression used in texts of various contents with various stylistic purposes. Pushkin gave the right to citizenship to many vernacular words, a number of vernacular and vernacular words were introduced by him into the literary language and are still included in the vocabulary of the Russian literary language, forming part of the neutral or colloquial lexicon (5, 303).

^ 3. Slavicisms in the poetry of A.S. Pushkin

In the works of Pushkin, throughout his entire creative life, there are also Slavicisms that help the poet create historical, as well as biblical, antique or oriental flavor.

From lyceum poetry to the works of the 30s. Slavicisms serve the poet to create an elevated, solemn, pathetic style:

^ When the noisy day falls silent for a mortal,

And on the mute hailstones ...

Slavicisms also help in recreating the style of ancient poetry:

The young man weeping bitterly, the jealous maiden scolded,

He was leaned on her shoulder, the young man suddenly dozed off ...

From the 20s. Pushkin widely uses biblical images, biblical syntactic constructions, words and phrases of biblical mythology. So, the poem “The fire of desire burns in the blood ...” was written under the influence of the biblical “Song of Songs”:

^ The fire of desire burns in the blood,

Your soul is wounded

Kiss me: your kisses

Myrrh and wine are sweeter to me.

Slavicisms are also used by Pushkin to create an oriental style (there are many of them in such works as Anchar, Imitation of the Koran, etc.).

In the speech of monks and priests, Slavicisms serve to create a professional characterization of the hero: ^ Shall I regale you with something, honest elders?

Slavicisms and Russian archaic vocabulary serve Pushkin to create historical flavor. For example, in the monologue of Boris Godunov:

^ You, Father Patriarch, all of you, boyars,

My soul is naked before you...

Thus, Slavicisms throughout Pushkin's entire creative activity are an integral part of the poet's lyrics.

CONCLUSION

In the work of A.S. Pushkin, the process of democratization of the Russian literary language found the most complete reflection, since in his works there was a harmonious fusion of all the viable elements of the Russian literary language with elements of living folk speech. Words, forms of words, set phrases, selected by the writer from folk speech, found their place in all his works, in all their types and genres, and this is the main difference between Pushkin and his predecessors.

A.S. Pushkin developed a certain point of view on the correlation between the elements of the literary language and the elements of living folk speech in the texts of fiction. He sought to eliminate the gap between the literary language and living speech, which was characteristic of the literature of the previous period, to eliminate archaic elements from the texts of fiction that had gone out of use in living speech (5, 289).

Pushkin's activities finally resolved the question of the relationship between the popular spoken language and the literary language. There were no longer any significant partitions between them, the illusions about the possibility of building a literary language according to some special laws alien to the live colloquial speech of the people were finally destroyed. The idea of ​​two types of language, literary and colloquial, to a certain extent isolated from each other, is finally replaced by the recognition of their close relationship, their inevitable mutual influence. Instead of the idea of ​​two types of language, the idea of ​​two forms of manifestation of a single Russian national language - literary and colloquial, is finally being strengthened, each of which has its own particular features, but not fundamental differences (7, 333).

^ LIST OF USED LITERATURE:

Vinogradov V.V. Essays on the history of the Russian literary language of the 17th - 19th centuries. - M., 1938.

Vinogradov V.V. Pushkin's language. - M., 1935.

Gogol N.V. Full composition of writings. T. 8. - M.–L., 1947 - 1952.

Hoffman V.Ya. Pushkin's language. // Style and language of Pushkin. - M., 1937.

Kovalevskaya E.G. History of the Russian literary language. - M., 1978.

Pushkin A.S. Full composition of writings. In 10 volumes. Vol. I, II, III. - M.-L., 1949.

Sorokin Yu.S. The value of Pushkin in the development of the Russian literary language. // History of Russian literature. T. VI. - mm - L., 1953.

Turgenev I.S. Collected works in 10 volumes. T. 10. - M., 1962.

Introduction

The Russian language in the broadest sense of the word is the totality of all words, grammatical forms, pronunciation features of all Russian people, i.e. all who speak Russian as their native language.

Among the varieties of the Russian language, the Russian literary language clearly stands out. It is rightly considered the highest form of the national language.

The literary language is a standardized language. In linguistics, the rules for the use of words, grammatical forms, pronunciation and spelling rules that are in force in a given period of development of the literary language are called the norm. The norm is approved and supported by the speech practice of cultured people, in particular, writers who draw the treasures of speech from the language of the people.

From written monuments we can trace the development of our language over a thousand years. During this time, there have been many changes from the seven types of declension (and even with many variants), three have been formed, instead of three numbers (singular, dual and plural), we now know only two, different case endings coincided with each other or replaced each other, in the plural masculine, neuter, and feminine nouns almost ceased to differ in number. And so on ad infinitum. Hundreds and hundreds of substitutions, substitutions, various changes, sometimes not noted in the monuments. In the speech of one person and in the speech of many people, accidental and intentional, prolonged and momentary, amusing and instructive. This irrepressible sea roars somewhere behind our back, it left with our ancestors. This sea is their speech. But instead of everything that stood and strengthened, we received a new system of language, a system in which modern thinking was gradually laid aside. A simple example in the language of an ancient person is three genders (masculine, neuter and feminine), three numbers (singular, plural and dual), nine cases, three simple tenses. The modern language, on the other hand, chooses a more rigorous and convenient binary opposition. The system of cases and tenses is also simplified. Each time, the language turns its edges in the way that this particular era requires. From the endless practice of speech, a renewed language is born.

Russian writers who worked in the period from Lomonosov to Pushkin specialized in one or predominantly in one style and corresponding genre. M.V. Lomonosov and G.R. Derzhavin became famous for their odes, N.I. Novikov and A.N. Radishchev - journalism, P.A. Sumarokov - satire, D.I. Fonvizin - satirical dramaturgy, I.A. Krylov - fables, N.M. Karamzin - stories, V.A. Zhukovsky - ballads, A.S. Griboyedov - with his famous comedy "Woe from Wit", K.F. Ryleev - thoughts, A.A. Bestuzhev-Marlinsky - romantic prose, Pushkin's contemporaries poets A.A. Delvig, V.K. Kuchelbecker, E.A. Baratynsky, P.A. Vyazemsky, V.F. Odoevsky, F.I. Tyutchev - fruitfully worked in the field of lyric poetry. And only Pushkin brilliantly showed himself in all the then known literary genres. He created the stylistic diversity of Russian artistic literary speech.

Pushkin completed the long evolution of the literary language, using all the achievements of Russian writers of the 18th - early 19th centuries in the field of Russian literary language and style, improving everything that Lomonosov, Karamzin, Krylov, that is, the remarkable language reformers of the 18th century, did before him.

The modern Russian language is associated with the name of A.S. Pushkin. It is he who we consider the creator of the Russian literary language, it is his work that became the basis for the current state of the literary language, which we use to this day. It was Pushkin's language that laid the foundation for the modern distinction between Old Slavonicisms and Russisms in the Russian language. Pushkin sees words with signs of Old Slavism in Russian and can use them in a high style of speech. For example, in the program poem "Prophet" there are 101 significant words. Of these, 17 pronouns in various forms (among them absolute Russianism is the word "I", but it should be noted that "az" for the language of the 19th century would already be completely anachronistic), among the rest of the words we find at least 30 with signs of Old Slavonicisms. Among them are unvoiced "voice" and "dragged", words with prefixes "voz" "called out" and "rise", the form "see", Old Slavonic in terms of the grammatical structure of the formation "wise" and "reptile" (the latter is the Old Slavonic form of the genitive case plural), words belonging to the vocabulary of Old Slavonic origin - "prophet" and "seraphim". But, unlike Lomonosov's odes, Pushkin's poem is basically Russian, built on the principles of Russian syntax, with Russian, and not Old Slavonic, construction of phrases. The abundance of Old Slavonicisms is only a stylistic device, and not strict adherence to the high calm prescribed by Lomonosov in the 18th century. For Pushkin, there is no problem of literary and non-literary vocabulary. Any vocabulary - archaic and borrowed, dialectal, slang, colloquial and even abusive (obscene) - acts as literary if its use in speech obeys the principle of "proportionality" and "conformity" (* 1), that is, it corresponds to the general properties of literacy, type of communication, genre, nationality, realism of the image, motivation, content and individualization of images, first of all, the correspondence of the internal and outside world literary hero. Thus, for Pushkin there is no literary and non-literary vocabulary, but there is literary and non-literary speech. Literary can be called speech that satisfies the requirement of proportionality and conformity: non-literary is speech that does not satisfy this requirement. If even now such a formulation of the question is capable of embarrassing the orthodox augur of science, then it was all the more unusual for that time with its zealots and lovers of "truly Russian literature." Nevertheless, Pushkin's most astute contemporaries and civic descendants accepted A New Look poet on the literary character of the Russian word. So, S.P. Shevyrev wrote: "Pushkin did not neglect a single Russian word and was often able, taking the most common word from the lips of the mob, to correct it in his verse in such a way that it lost its rudeness"

Before Pushkin, Russian literature suffered from verbosity with poor thought; in Pushkin we see brevity with rich content. Brevity alone does not create rich artistic thinking. Such a peculiar construction of minimized speech was necessary so that it evoked a rich artistic presupposition (intended content; imagination, called subtext). A special artistic effect was achieved by A.S. Pushkin due to the interconnection of new methods of aesthetic thinking, a special arrangement of literary structures and peculiar methods of using language.

A.S. Pushkin was the creator of the realistic artistic method in Russian literature. The consequence of the application of this method was the individualization of artistic types and structures in his own work. "The main principle of Pushkin's work since the end of the 20s has become the principle of the correspondence of the speech style to the depicted world of historical reality, the depicted environment, the depicted character" . The poet took into account the originality of the genre, the type of communication (poetry, prose, monologue, dialogue), the content, the described situation. The final result was the individualization of the image. At one time, F.E. Korsh wrote: “The common people seemed to Pushkin not an indifferent mass, but the old hussar thinks and speaks differently from him than the vagabond Varlaam, who pretends to be a monk, a monk is not like a peasant, a peasant differs from a Cossack, a Cossack from a courtyard, for example, Savelich; little moreover: a sober man does not look like a drunk (in a joke: "Svat Ivan, how we will drink"). In the "Mermaid" itself, the miller and his daughter are different people in their views and even in language.

The peculiarity of aesthetic perception and artistic individualization were expressed by various methods of linguistic designation. Among them, the leading place was occupied by the contrast of styles, which in Pushkin did not give the impression of irrelevance, since the oppositional elements were associated with different aspects of the content. For example: "For a moment the conversations were silent, The lips are chewing." USTA - high style. CHEW - low. Mouths - the mouths of the nobility, representatives of high society. This is an external, social characteristic. To chew means to eat. But this applies in the literal sense not to people, but to horses. This is an internal, psychological characteristic of the actors. Another example: "....... and being baptized, The crowd buzzes, sitting down at the table." People are baptized (external characteristic). buzzing bugs ( internal characteristic these people).

The peculiarity of fiction, in contrast to written monuments of other genres, lies in the fact that it sets out its content in several senses. Realistic literature forms different meanings quite consciously, creating contrasts between the denotative subject and symbolic content of a work of art. Pushkin created the entire basic symbolic artistic fund of modern Russian literature. It was from Pushkin that the THUNDER became a symbol of freedom, the SEA - a symbol of the free, enticing elements, the STAR - a symbol of the cherished guiding thread, life purpose person. In the poem "Winter Morning" the symbol is the word SHORE. It means "the last refuge of man." Pushkin's achievement is the use of semantic and sound correlation to create additional content. Similar content corresponds to his monotonous sound design, the difference in content in Pushkin corresponds to sound contrasts (rhymes, rhythm, sound combinations). The sound similarity of the expressions "charming friend" - "dear friend" - "sweet coast for me" creates an additional symbolic meaning of the poem "Winter Morning", turning it from a denotative description of the beauties of Russian winter into a love confession. The language design techniques listed here are just a few examples. They do not exhaust the whole variety of stylistic devices used by Pushkin, which create semantic ambiguity and linguistic ambiguity of his creations.

Gogol in the article “A few words about Pushkin” wrote: “With the name of Pushkin, the thought of a Russian national poet immediately dawns ... In him, as if in a lexicon, all the richness, strength and flexibility of our language was contained. He is more than all, he is further than all Pushkin pushed the boundaries for him and more showed all his space. Pushkin is an extraordinary phenomenon, and, perhaps, the only manifestation of the Russian spirit: this is the Russian man in his development, in which he, perhaps, will appear in two hundred years. In Pushkin's work, the process of democratization of the Russian literary language found the most complete reflection, since in his works there was a harmonious fusion of all the viable elements of the Russian literary language with elements of living folk speech. Words, word forms, syntactic constructions, set phrases, selected by the writer from folk speech, found their place in all his works, in all their types and genres, and this is the main difference between Pushkin and his predecessors. Pushkin developed a certain point of view on the correlation between the elements of the literary language and the elements of living folk speech in the texts of fiction. He sought to eliminate the gap between the literary language and living speech, which was characteristic of the literature of the previous period (and which was inherent in the theory of "three calms" of Lomonosov), to eliminate archaic elements from the texts of fiction that had fallen out of use in living speech.

Pushkin's activities finally resolved the question of the relationship between the popular spoken language and the literary language. There were no longer any significant partitions between them, the illusions about the possibility of building a literary language according to some special laws alien to the live colloquial speech of the people were finally destroyed. The idea of ​​two types of language, literary and colloquial, to a certain extent isolated from each other, is finally replaced by the recognition of their close relationship, their inevitable mutual influence. Instead of the idea of ​​two types of language, the idea of ​​two forms of manifestation of a single Russian national language - literary and colloquial, is finally being strengthened, each of which has its own particular features, but not fundamental differences.

In 1825, 86 fables by I.A. were published in Paris. Krylov translated into French and Italian. An introductory article to the translations was written by Pierre Lemonte, a member of the French Academy. Pushkin responded to this edition with the article "On the preface of Mr. Lemonte to the translation of the fables of I.A. Krylov", published in the journal "Moscow Telegraph" (1825, No. 47). Finding that the preface of the French academician "is indeed very remarkable, although not entirely satisfactory," Pushkin expressed his own views on the history of Russian literature and, above all, on the history of the Russian language as its material. In the article, Pushkin writes in detail about the beneficial role of the ancient Greek language in the history of the Russian literary language. However, in the reign of Peter 1, Pushkin believes, the Russian language began to "noticeably distort from the necessary introduction of Dutch, German and French words. This fashion extended its influence to writers, who at that time were patronized by sovereigns and nobles.

Since the time of Pushkin, the Russian language as a material of literature has been studied by many scientists, such branches of philology as the history of the Russian literary language and the science of the language of fiction have been formed, but Pushkin's views and his assessments have not lost their significance. This can be seen from the standpoint modern science features of education and the main stages in the development of the Russian literary language. One of these stages is the period of the first half of the 19th century, that is, the so-called "golden age of Russian poetry."

This period in the history of the Russian literary language is associated with the activities of Pushkin. It is in his work that unified national norms of the literary language are developed and consolidated as a result of the unification into one inseparable whole of all stylistic and socio-historical layers of the language on a broad folk basis. It is with Pushkin that the era of the modern Russian language begins. Pushkin's language is a most complex phenomenon. “Using the flexibility and power of the Russian language,” wrote Academician V. V. Vinogradov, “Pushkin, with extraordinary completeness, ingenious originality and ideological depth, reproduced with the help of his means the most diverse individual styles of Russian modern and previous literature, and also, when necessary, , literature of the West and East. Pushkin's language absorbed all the valuable stylistic achievements of the previous national Russian culture of the artistic word. Pushkin wrote in different styles of Russian folk poetry (fairy tales, songs, sayings). In the spirit and style of Serbian songs, his "Songs of the Western Slavs" were written "".

In 1828, in one of the draft versions of the article "On the Poetic Syllabus", Pushkin's requirement for a literary text was clearly formulated: embellishments of poetry, we do not yet understand. Not only have we not yet thought of bringing the poetic style closer to noble simplicity, but we are also trying to add pomposity to prose.

By dilapidated jewelry, Pushkin means "high style" with its old Slavonicisms.

Slavisms in Pushkin's works perform the same functions as in the works of Lomonosov, Karamzin, as well as other poets and writers of the 18th - early 19th centuries, that is, behind Slavisms in Pushkin's works, stylistic functions are finally assigned to Slavisms that have been preserved - behind them in the language literature so far. However, Pushkin's stylistic use of Slavisms is incomparably wider than that of his predecessors. If for writers of the 18th century Slavism is a means of creating a high style, then for Pushkin it is the creation of historical color, and poetic texts, and a pathetic style, and the recreation of biblical, antique, oriental color, and parody, and the creation of a comic effect, and use in in order to create a speech portrait of the characters. Starting from lyceum poems to the works of the 1930s, Slavonicisms serve Pushkin to create an elevated, solemn, pathetic style ("Liberty", "Village", "Dagger", "Napoleon", "The motionless guard dozed on the royal threshold ... "," Andrei Chenier "," Remembrance "," To the slanderers of Russia "," Borodino anniversary "," Monument "). Considering this stylistic function Slavicisms, two sides of it can be distinguished:

Slavicisms could be used to express revolutionary pathos, civic pathos. Here Pushkin continued the traditions of Radishchev and the Decembrist writers. This use of Slavicisms is especially characteristic of Pushkin's political lyrics.

On the other hand, Slavicisms were also used by Pushkin in their "traditional" function for the Russian literary language: to give the text a touch of solemnity, "elevation", a special emotional uplift. Such use of Slavicisms can be observed, for example, in such poems as "The Prophet", "Anchar". "I erected a monument to myself not made by hands", in a poem " Bronze Horseman"and many other poetic works. However, the traditional nature of such use of "Slavicisms" by Pushkin is relative. In more or less lengthy poetic texts, and especially in poems, "sublime" contexts freely alternate and intertwine with "everyday" contexts, characterized by the use of colloquial and vernacular language tools. It should be noted that the use of "Slavicisms" associated with pathos, emotional elation of expression is limited to Pushkin's poetic language. In his artistic prose, it does not occur at all, but. in critical journalistic prose, although the emotional expressiveness of "Slavisms" often comes through, as we have seen, it is quite noticeable, but nevertheless it is strongly muffled, largely "neutralized" and, in any case, cannot be equal to the emotional expressiveness of "Slavisms". in the language of poetry.

The second major stylistic function of Slavicisms in the poet's work is the creation of historical and local color.

Firstly, it is a recreation of the style of ancient poetry (which is more typical of Pushkin's early poems ("Licinius", "To My Aristarchus," Anacreon's Coffin", "Message to Lida", "The Triumph of Bacchus", "To Ovid"), but also in In the late works of the poet, Slavicisms perform this stylistic function: "To the translation of the Iliad", "To the Boy", "Gnedich", "From Atheneus", "From Anacreon", "To the recovery of Lucullus").

Secondly, Slavicisms are used by Pushkin for a more reliable transmission of biblical images. He widely uses biblical images, syntactic constructions, words and phrases of biblical mythology.

The narrative, elevated tone of many of Pushkin's poems is created due to the syntactic constructions characteristic of the Bible: a complex whole consists of a series of sentences, each of which is attached to the previous one with the help of an amplifying conjunction I.

And I heard the shudder of the sky,

And the heavenly angels flight,

And the reptile of the sea underwater course,

And the valley of the vine vegetation,

And he clung to my lips

And tore out my sinful tongue,

And idle-talking, and crafty,

And the sting of the wise snake

In my frozen mouth

He invested with a bloody right hand ...

Thirdly, Slavonicisms are used by Pushkin to create an oriental style ("Imitation of the Koran", "Anchar").

Fourth - to create a historical flavor. ("Poltava", "Boris Godunov", "The Song of the Prophetic Oleg").

Old Slavonicisms are also used by A.S. Pushkin to create the speech characteristics of the characters. For example, in Pushkin's drama "Boris Godunov" in dialogues with the hostess, Mikhail, Grigory, the black Varlaam is no different from his interlocutors: [Hostess:] Shall I regale you with something, honest elders? [Varlaam:] What God sends, hostess. Is there any wine? Or: [Varlaam:] Whether it’s Lithuania, Russia, what a whistle, what a harp: it’s all the same to us, there would be wine ... but here it is! ”In a conversation with bailiffs, Varlaam is different: with a special vocabulary, phraseological units he tries to remind the sentinels of his dignity: Bad, son, bad! now Christians have become stingy; they love money, they hide money. Little is given to God. A great sin has come upon the tongues of the earth.

Often, Slavicisms are used by Pushkin as a means of parodying the style of literary opponents, as well as to achieve comic and satirical effects. Most often, this use of Slavicisms is found in Pushkin's "article", critical and journalistic prose. For example: “Several Moscow writers ... bored with the sounds of a ringing cymbal, decided to form a society ... Mr. Trandafyr opened the meeting with an excellent speech, in which he touchingly depicted helpless state of our literature, the bewilderment of our writers, laboring in darkness, not illuminated by the lamp of criticism" ("The Society of Moscow Writers"); "Accepting a magazine rod, intending to preach true criticism, you would act very meritoriously, M. G., if in front of your flock The subscribers expressed their thoughts about the position of a critic and a journalist and brought sincere repentance for weaknesses that are inseparable from the nature of a person in general and a journalist in particular. At least you can set a good example for your brethren..." ("Letter to the publisher"); "But the censor should not be intimidated either... so as not to let people through the rope "(" Journey from Moscow to St. Petersburg "), etc.

Often the ironic and comic use of Slavicisms is also found in Pushkin's artistic prose. For example, in "The Stationmaster": "Here he began to rewrite my travelogue, and I began to examine the pictures that adorned his humble but neat abode. They depicted the story of the prodigal son ... Next, a squandered young man, in rags and a three-cornered hat, shepherds pigs and shares a meal with them ... the prodigal son is on his knees; in the perspective, the cook kills a well-fed calf, and the elder brother questions the servants about the reason for such joy. No stranger to the comic and satirical use of "Slavicisms" and Pushkin's poetic language, especially the language of humorous and satirical poems and poems ("Gavriliada") and epigrams. An example is the epigram "On Photius"

Slavicisms throughout the entire creative activity of Pushkin are an integral part of the poet's lyrics. If in early works Slavonicisms were used more often than other words to create a poetic image, then in mature works, as in modern poetry, an artistic image could be created at the expense of special poetic words, Russian and Old Slavonic in origin, and at the expense of neutral, common, colloquial vocabulary . In both cases we are dealing with Pushkin's poems, which have no equal in Russian poetry. Big specific gravity have Slavicisms in the poems "The daylight went out ...", "Black shawl", "Greek woman", "To the sea", "Rainy day went out ...", "Under the blue sky ...", "Talisman".

In lyrical works "Night", "It's all over", "Burned letter", "A.P. Kern", "Confession", "On the hills of Georgia...", "What's in my name?...", "I loved you ..." the poetic image is created due to the commonly used Russian vocabulary, which not only does not deprive the work of the power of emotional impact on the reader, but makes the reader forget that he is facing a work of art, and not a real, sincere lyrical outpouring of a person . Before Pushkin, Russian literature did not know such poetic works.

Thus, Pushkin's choice of Church Slavonic or Russian expression is based on fundamentally different principles than those of his predecessors. For both "archaists" (supporters of the "old style") and "innovators" (supporters of the "new style"), evenness of style within the text is important; accordingly, the rejection of Gallicisms or Slavicisms is determined by the desire for stylistic consistency. Pushkin rejects the requirement of the unity of style and, on the contrary, follows the path of combining stylistically heterogeneous elements. For Lomonosov, the choice of form (Church Slavonic or Russian) is determined by the semantic structure of the genre, i.e. Ultimately, Slavicisms are correlated with high content, and Russianisms with low content, this dependence is mediated (through genres). Pushkin begins as a Karamzinist, in his work one can clearly trace the Karamzinist "Gallo-Russian" substratum, and this circumstance determines the nature of the convergence of the "Slavic" and "Russian" linguistic elements in his work. Later, however, Pushkin came forward as an opponent of the identification of the literary and spoken language - his position in this respect is close to the position of the "archaists".

In 1827, in "Excerpts from letters, thoughts and remarks," Pushkin defined the essence of the main criterion with which a writer should approach the creation of a literary text: "True taste does not consist in the unconscious rejection of such and such a word, such and such a turn, but in a sense of proportion and conformity." In 1830, in Refutation of Critics, responding to reproaches of being "common people", Pushkin states: "... I will never sacrifice sincerity and accuracy of expression of provincial stiffness and fear of appearing common people, a Slavophile, etc." Justifying theoretically and developing practically this position, Pushkin at the same time understood that the literary language cannot be only a simple copy of the spoken language, that the literary language cannot and should not avoid everything that it has accumulated in the process of centuries of development, because this enriches the literary language, expands its stylistic possibilities, enhances artistic expressiveness. In "Letter to the Publisher" (1836), he formulates this idea with the utmost clarity and conciseness: "The richer the language in expressions and turns, the better for a skilled writer. for centuries. To write only in the spoken language means not to know the language."

In the article "Journey from Moscow to St. Petersburg" (an option for the chapter "Lomonosov"), Pushkin theoretically generalizes and clearly formulates his understanding of the relationship between Russian and Old Church Slavonic: "Has it been a long time since we began to write in a language that is generally understood? Are we convinced that the Slavic language is not a language Russian and that we cannot confuse them capriciously, that if many words, many phrases can be happily borrowed from church books, then it does not follow from this that we can write yes kiss me with a kiss instead of kiss me. Pushkin distinguishes between the "Slavonic" and Russian languages, denies the "Slavonic" language as the basis of the Russian literary language, and at the same time opens up the possibility of using Slavonicisms for certain stylistic purposes. Pushkin clearly does not share the theory of three styles (as, by the way, the Karamzinists and Shishkovists do not share it) and, on the contrary, struggles with the stylistic differentiation of genres. He generally does not strive for the unity of style within the work, and this allows him to freely use Church Slavonic and Russian stylistic means. The problem of compatibility of heterogeneous linguistic elements belonging to different genetic layers (Church Slavonic and Russian) is removed from him, becoming part not of a linguistic, but of a purely literary problem of polyphony. literary work. Thus, linguistic and literary problems are organically combined: literary problems receive a linguistic solution, and linguistic means turn out to be a poetic device.

Pushkin introduces both bookish and colloquial means of expression into the literary language - in contrast to the Karamzinists, who struggle with bookish elements, or from the Shishkovists, who struggle with colloquial elements. However, Pushkin does not connect the diversity of linguistic means with the hierarchy of genres; accordingly, the use of Slavonicisms or Russianisms is not due to his high or low subject of speech. The stylistic characteristic of a word is determined not by its origin or content, but by the tradition of literary use. In general, literary usage plays a significant role in Pushkin. Pushkin feels himself within the framework of certain literary traditions, on which he relies; his language setting is therefore not utopian, but realistic. At the same time, the task for him is not to offer one or another program for the formation of a literary language, but to find practical ways coexistence of different literary traditions, making the most of the resources that are given by the previous literary development.

The synthesis of two trends - Karamzinist and Shishkovist, carried out by Pushkin, is reflected in his very creative path; This path is exceptionally significant and, at the same time, extremely important for the subsequent fate of the Russian literary language. As mentioned above, Pushkin begins as a convinced Karamzinist, but then in many respects retreats from his original positions, drawing closer to the "archaists" to some extent, and this closer approach has the character of a conscious attitude. So, in the "Letter to the Publisher" Pushkin says: "Can the written language be completely similar to the spoken language? No, just as the spoken language can never be completely similar to the written one. Not only pronouns, but also participles in general and a lot of words that are usually necessary are avoided in conversation. We do not say: a carriage galloping over a bridge, a servant sweeping a room, we say: one that gallops, one that sweeps, etc.) It does not follow from this that the sacrament should be eliminated in Russian. expressions and turns, the better for a skilled writer. All of the above determines a special stylistic connotation of both Slavicisms and Gallicisms in Pushkin's work: if Slavicisms are considered by him as a stylistic possibility, as a conscious poetic device, then Gallicisms are perceived as more or less neutral elements of speech. In other words, if Gallicisms constitute, in principle, a neutral background, then Slavicisms - insofar as they are recognized as such - carry an aesthetic load. This ratio determines the subsequent development of the Russian literary language.

Conclusion

Pushkin language Russian Slavism

Pushkin far exceeds the perception of modern Russian people. In terms of understanding the artistic imagery and sound design of his poems, Pushkin is still beyond the reach of modern poets. Literary and linguistic sciences have not yet developed such a scientific apparatus with which to evaluate Pushkin's genius. Russian people, Russian culture will for a long time come closer to Pushkin, in the distant future they will perhaps explain and surpass him. But admiration for a man who outstripped the contemporary art world and determined its development for many centuries to come will remain forever.

The unique originality of Pushkin's language, which finds its concrete embodiment in a literary text based on a sense of proportion and conformity, noble simplicity, sincerity and accuracy of expression, these are Pushkin's main principles that determine his views on the development of the Russian literary language in the tasks of the writer in literary and linguistic creativity. These principles fully corresponded to both the objective laws of the development of the Russian literary language and the main provisions of the new literary trend developed by Pushkin - critical realism.

Over the time of Pushkin, the Russian language is included as an equal in the family of the most developed literary languages ​​of the world. "Pushkin made a miracle out of the Russian language," wrote Belinsky. According to Acad. Vinogradov, national - Russian poetic language, finds its highest embodiment in the language of Pushkin. The Russian language is becoming the language of fiction, culture and civilization of world significance.

Bibliographic list:

• 1. Abramovich S.L. Pushkin in 1836. - L., 1989. - 311s.
• 2. Alekseev M.P. Pushkin: a comparative historical study. - M., Knowledge, 1991.
• 3. Bocharov S.G. About artistic worlds. - M., 1985.
• 4. Bulgakov S.N. Pushkin in Russian philosophical criticism. - M., 1990.
• 5. Grossman L.P. Pushkin. - M., 1958. - 526s.
• 6. Philology 15/99. Scientific and educational journal of KubGU., p. 41. - Krasnodar., 1999.
• 7. Ivanov V.A. Pushkin and his time. - M., 1977. - 445s.
• 8. Lezhnev Pushkin's Prose. Styling experience. - M., 1966. - 263s.
• 9. Myasoedova N.E. From a historical and literary commentary on Pushkin's lyrics. // Russian literature. 1995. No. 4. pp. 27 - 91.
• 10. Nepomniachtchi V.S. Poetry and fate. Above the pages of Pushkin's spiritual biography. - M., 1987.
• 11. Toybin N.M. Pushkin and philosophical and historical thought in Russia at the turn of the 1820s and 1830s. - Voronezh, 1980. - 123p.
• 12. Vinogradov V.V. About the language of fiction. M., 1959. S. 582.

How often do we, Russian speakers, think about such an important moment as the history of the emergence of the Russian language? After all, how many secrets are hidden in it, how many interesting things you can find out if you dig deeper. How did the Russian language develop? After all, our speech is not only everyday conversations, it is a rich history.

The history of the development of the Russian language: briefly about the main

Where did our mother tongue come from? There are several theories. Some scientists consider (for example, the linguist N. Gusev) the Sanskrit of the Russian language. However, Sanskrit was used by Indian scholars and priests. Such was the Latin for the inhabitants of ancient Europe - "something very clever and incomprehensible." But how did the speech that was used by the Indian scholars suddenly end up on our side? Is it really with the Indians that the formation of the Russian language began?

Legend of the Seven White Teachers

Each scientist understands the stages of the history of the Russian language differently: this is the origin, development, alienation of the bookish language from the folk language, the development of syntax and punctuation, etc. All of them can differ in order (it is still unknown when exactly the bookish language separated from the folk language) or interpretation. But, according to the following legend, seven white teachers can be considered the "fathers" of the Russian language.

In India, there is a legend that is even studied in Indian universities. In ancient times, seven white teachers came from the cold North (the Himalayas region). It was they who gave people Sanskrit and laid the foundation for Brahmanism, from which Buddhism was later born. Many believe that this North was one of the regions of Russia, so modern Hindus often go there on pilgrimage.

A legend today

It turns out that many Sanskrit words completely coincide with - such is the theory of the famous ethnographer Natalia Guseva, who wrote more than 150 scientific works on the history and religion of India. Most of them, by the way, have been refuted by other scientists.

This theory was not taken out of thin air by her. Her appearance was most interesting case. Once Natalia accompanied a respected scientist from India, who decided to arrange a tourist trip along the northern rivers of Russia. Communicating with the inhabitants of local villages, the Hindu suddenly burst into tears and refused the services of an interpreter, saying that he was happy to hear his native Sanskrit. Then Guseva decided to devote her life to studying the mysterious phenomenon, and at the same time to establish how the Russian language developed.

Indeed, it is truly amazing! According to this story, beyond the Himalayas live representatives negroid race speaking a language so similar to our own. Mystic, and only. Nevertheless, the hypothesis that our dialect originated from Indian Sanskrit is in place. Here it is - the history of the Russian language briefly.

Dragunkin's theory

And here is another scientist who decided that this story of the emergence of the Russian language is true. The famous philologist Alexander Dragunkin argued that a truly great language comes from a simpler one, in which there are fewer derivational forms, and the words are shorter. Allegedly, Sanskrit is much simpler than Russian. And the Sanskrit writing is nothing more than Slavic runes slightly modified by the Hindus. But after all, this theory is just where is the origin of language?

scientific version

And here is the version that most scientists approve and accept. She claims that 40,000 years ago (the time of the appearance of the first man) people had a need to express their thoughts in the process of collective activity. This is how the language was born. But in those days the population was extremely small, and all people spoke the same language. After thousands of years there was a migration of peoples. The DNA of people has changed, the tribes have isolated themselves from each other and began to speak differently.

Languages ​​differed from each other in form, in word formation. Each group of people developed their native language, supplemented it with new words, and gave it shape. Later, there was a need for a science that would deal with describing new achievements or things that a person came to.

As a result of this evolution, so-called "matrices" arose in people's heads. The well-known linguist Georgy Gachev studied these matrices in detail, having studied more than 30 matrices - language pictures of the world. According to his theory, the Germans are very attached to their home, and this served as the image of a typical German speaker. And the Russian language and mentality came from the concept or image of the road, the way. This matrix lies in our subconscious.

The birth and formation of the Russian language

About 3 thousand years BC, among the Indo-European languages, the Proto-Slavic dialect stood out, which a thousand years later became the Proto-Slavic language. In the VI-VII centuries. n. e. it was divided into several groups: eastern, western and southern. Our language is usually attributed to the eastern group.

And the beginning of the path of the Old Russian language is called the formation of Kievan Rus (IX century). At the same time, Cyril and Methodius invent the first Slavic alphabet.

It developed rapidly, and in terms of popularity it has already caught up with Greek and Latin. It was the Old Slavonic language (the predecessor of modern Russian) that managed to unite all the Slavs, it was in it that the most important documents and literary monuments were written and published. For example, "The Tale of Igor's Campaign".

Normalization of writing

Then came the era of feudalism, and the Polish-Lithuanian conquests in the 13th-14th centuries led to the fact that the language was divided into three groups of dialects: Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian, as well as some intermediate dialects.

In the 16th century, in Muscovite Russia, they decided to normalize the writing of the Russian language (then it was called "prosta mova" and was influenced by Belarusian and Ukrainian) - to introduce the predominance of the composing connection in sentences and frequent use unions "yes", "and", "a". The dual number was lost, and the declension of nouns became very similar to the modern one. And the characteristic features of Moscow speech became the basis of the literary language. For example, "akanye", the consonant "g", the endings "ovo" and "evo", demonstrative pronouns (yourself, you, etc.). The beginning of book printing finally approved the literary Russian language.

Peter's era

It greatly influenced speech. After all, it was at this time that the Russian language was freed from the "guardianship" of the church, and in 1708 the alphabet was reformed so that it became closer to the European model.

In the second half of the 18th century, Lomonosov laid down new norms for the Russian language, combining everything that had come before: colloquial speech, folk poetry, and even command language. After him, the language was transformed by Derzhavin, Radishchev, Fonvizin. It was they who increased the number of synonyms in the Russian language in order to properly reveal its richness.

A huge contribution to the development of our speech was made by Pushkin, who rejected all restrictions on style and combined Russian words with some European ones to create a full and colorful picture of the Russian language. He was supported by Lermontov and Gogol.

Development trends

How did the Russian language develop in the future? From the middle of the 19th to the beginning of the 20th centuries, the Russian language received several development trends:

1. Development of literary norms.
2. Rapprochement of the literary language and colloquial speech.
3. Expansion of the language through dialectisms and jargon.
4. The development of the genre "realism" in literature, philosophical problems.

A little later, socialism changed the word formation of the Russian language, and in the 20th century, the media standardized oral speech.

It turns out that our modern Russian language, with all its lexical and grammatical rules, originated from a mixture of various East Slavic dialects that were common throughout Russia, and the Church Slavonic language. After all the metamorphoses, it has become one of the most popular languages ​​in the world.

More about writing

Even Tatishchev himself (the author of the book “Russian History”) was firmly convinced that Cyril and Methodius did not invent writing. It existed long before they were born. The Slavs not only knew how to write: they had many types of writing. For example, traits-cuts, runes or a drop cap. And the scientist brothers took this very initial letter as a basis and simply finalized it. Perhaps they threw out about a dozen letters to make it easier to translate the Bible. Yes, Cyril and Methodius, but its basis was a letter. This is how writing appeared in Russia.

External threats

Unfortunately, our language has repeatedly been exposed to external danger. And then the future of the whole country was in question. For example, at the turn of the 19th century, all the "cream of society" spoke exclusively in French, dressed in the appropriate style, and even the menu consisted only of French cuisine. The nobles gradually began to forget their native language, ceased to associate themselves with the Russian people, acquiring a new philosophy and traditions.

As a result of this introduction of French speech, Russia could lose not only its language, but also its culture. Fortunately, the situation was saved by the geniuses of the 19th century: Pushkin, Turgenev, Karamzin, Dostoevsky. It was they who, being true patriots, did not allow the Russian language to perish. It was they who showed how beautiful he is.

Modernity

The history of the Russian language is polysyllabic and has not been fully studied. Don't briefly describe it. It will take years to study. The Russian language and the history of the people are truly amazing things. And how can you call yourself a patriot without knowing your native speech, folklore, poetry and literature?

Unfortunately, today's youth has lost interest in books, and especially in classical literature. This trend is also observed in older people. Television, the Internet, nightclubs and restaurants, glossy magazines and blogs - all this has replaced our "paper friends". Many people have even ceased to have their own opinion, expressing themselves in the usual clichés imposed by society and the media. Despite the fact that the classics were and remain in school curriculum, few people read them even in a summary, which "eats" all the beauty and originality of the works of Russian writers.

But how rich is the history and culture of the Russian language! For example, literature is able to provide answers to many questions better than any forums on the Internet. Russian literature expresses all the power of the wisdom of the people, makes you feel love for our homeland and better understand it. Each person must understand that the native language, native culture and people are inseparable, they are one whole. And what does a modern Russian citizen understand and think about? About the need to leave the country as soon as possible?

Main danger

And of course, foreign words are the main threat to our language. As mentioned above, such a problem was relevant in the 18th century, but, unfortunately, it has remained unresolved to this day and is slowly acquiring the features of a national catastrophe.

Not only is society too fond of various slang words, obscene language, and made-up expressions, it also constantly uses foreign borrowings in its speech, forgetting that there are much more beautiful synonyms in the Russian language. Such words are: “stylist”, “manager”, “PR”, “summit”, “creative”, “user”, “blog”, “Internet” and many others. If it came only from certain groups of society, then the problem could be fought. But, unfortunately, foreign words are actively used by teachers, journalists, scientists and even officials. These people carry the word to people, which means they introduce an addiction. And it happens that a foreign word settles so firmly in the Russian language that it begins to seem as if it is native.

What's the matter?

So what is it called? Ignorance? Fashion for everything foreign? Or a campaign directed against Russia? Perhaps all at once. And this problem must be solved as soon as possible, otherwise it will be too late. For example, more often use the word “manager” instead of “manager”, “business lunch” instead of “business lunch”, etc. After all, the extinction of a people begins precisely with the extinction of the language.

About dictionaries

Now you know how the Russian language developed. However, that's not all. The history of Russian language dictionaries deserves special mention. Modern dictionaries evolved from ancient handwritten and later printed books. At first they were very small and intended for a narrow circle of people.

The most ancient Russian dictionary is considered to be a short supplement to the Novgorod Pilot Book (1282). It included 174 words from different dialects: Greek, Church Slavonic, Hebrew, and even biblical proper names.

After 400 years, much larger dictionaries began to appear. They already had a systematization and even an alphabet. The then dictionaries were mostly educational or encyclopedic in nature, so they were inaccessible to ordinary peasants.

First printed dictionary

The first printed dictionary appeared in 1596. It was another supplement to the grammar textbook by Priest Lavrentiy Zizania. It contained over a thousand words, which were sorted alphabetically. The dictionary was explanatory and explained the origin of many Old Slavonic and was published in Belarusian, Russian and Ukrainian languages.

Further development of dictionaries

The 18th century was a century of great discoveries. They did not bypass explanatory dictionaries either. Great scientists (Tatishchev, Lomonosov) unexpectedly showed an increased interest in the origin of many words. Trediakovsky began to write notes. In the end, a number of dictionaries were created, but the largest was the "Church Dictionary" and its appendix. More than 20,000 words have been interpreted in the Church Dictionary. Such a book laid the foundation for the normative dictionary of the Russian language, and Lomonosov, along with other researchers, began its creation.

Most Significant Dictionary

The history of the development of the Russian language remembers such a significant date for all of us - the creation of " explanatory dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language" by V. I. Dahl (1866). This four-volume book has received dozens of reprints and is still relevant today. 200,000 words and more than 30,000 sayings and phraseological units can be safely considered a real treasure.

Our days

Unfortunately, the world community is not interested in the history of the emergence of the Russian language. His current situation can be compared with one case that once happened to the extraordinarily talented scientist Dmitri Mendeleev. After all, Mendeleev was never able to become an honorary academician of the Imperial St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (the current RAS). There was a grandiose scandal, and still: such a scientist cannot be admitted to the academy! But Russian empire and her world were unshakable: they declared that the Russians since the times of Lomonosov and Tatishchev were in the minority, and one good Russian scientist, Lomonosov, was enough.

This history of the modern Russian language makes us think: what if someday English (or any other) will supplant such a unique Russian? Pay attention to how many foreign words are present in our jargon! Yes, the mixing of languages ​​and friendly exchange is great, but the amazing history of our speech should not be allowed to disappear from the planet. Take care of your native language!