Artistic means of expressive speech. Lexico-syntactic means

Nomination important information comes first common property newspaper reports. For this purpose, news texts use various syntactic structures that are rarely found in everyday practice, for example, so-called inverted sentences. Instead of the line-by-line grammatical sentence “According to reliable sources, Libya was attacked by the US air force,” it is given: “Libya was attacked by the US air force.”

but by the US Air Force, reliable sources said"

With the help of grammatical analysis of the use of language in press texts, one can understand general direction messages from a specific journalist and the entire newspaper. The syntax of a sentence reflects the distribution of semantic roles of participants in an event: either by word order, or by various functional correlations of elements (subject, object), or by the use of active or passive forms. In the title “Police Kill Protester,” the word “police” comes first—the place of the subject of the subject—which indicates their active role. In the passive construction “Demonstrator killed by police,” the first place of the active subject is “demonstrator.” This indicates that the “police” have a lesser role here. Finally, the headline “Demonstrator Killed” completely obscures the role of the “police.” At the same time, the title becomes syntactically ambiguous: it can also be understood as a description of an event in which the killer was a demonstrator - this one or another (after all, when quickly scanning the text, the habitual perception of the subject, which comes first as an active subject, can play a role, i.e. perceived as “The demonstrator killed”), or generally associate the demonstrators with murder. An analysis of the syntax of newspaper reports showed that this is precisely the case: journalists try to use such “lowering” syntactic structures and phrases in order to obscure the negative role of the ruling elite.

In the same way, the focus of television news can be expressed by certain video frames filmed with sympathy either for the police or for their “opponents”, that is, for demonstrators, strikers. Research from the University of Glasgow's Mass Communication Research Group has focused on the underlying messages and the use of words such as 'strike' and 'riot'. In particular, a serious analysis of the phenomenon of “demonstration” itself and the various uses of words denoting participants in demonstrations is presented.

News texts do not consist of isolated sentences, therefore, following the development of the technique of rearranging words in sentences, a study of the structures of the sequence of sentences was undertaken to manipulate the perception of texts.

It turned out that the order of sentences affects the overall understanding of the text. So, if in the sequence of sentences they want to focus on the actions of the participants in the demonstration, then, accordingly, the word “demonstrators” is placed in the first place, the place of the subject. This may be followed by a passive sentence such as “They were beaten by the police,” rather than a sentence “The police beat them.” Thus, the biased point of view of the journalist is manifested “in complex” in the use of certain sentence structures and in the order of these sentences.

- rhetorical questions, appeals, exclamations- they increase the reader’s attention without requiring him to respond;

- repetitions– repeated repetition of the same words or expressions;

- antitheses– oppositions;

Poetic phonetics

The use of onomatopoeia, sound recording - sound repetitions that create a unique sound “pattern” of speech.)

- Alliteration– repetition of consonant sounds;

- Assonance– repetition of vowel sounds;

- Anaphora- unity of command;

Composition of a lyrical work

Necessary:

Determine the leading experience, feeling, mood reflected in a poetic work;

Find out the harmony of the compositional structure, its subordination to the expression of a certain thought;

Determine the lyrical situation presented in the poem (the hero’s conflict with himself; the hero’s internal lack of freedom, etc.)

Define life situation, which presumably could have caused this experience;

Identify the main parts of a poetic work: show their connection (define the emotional “drawing”).

Analysis of a dramatic work

Diagram of analysis of a dramatic work

1. general characteristics: history of creation, life basis, plan, literary criticism.

2. Plot, composition:

The main conflict, stages of its development;

Character of the denouement /comic, tragic, dramatic/

Analysis of individual actions, scenes, phenomena.

4. Collecting material about the characters:

The hero's appearance, behavior, speech characteristics; content of speech /about what?/; - manner /how?/; style, vocabulary; self-characteristics, mutual characteristics of heroes, author's remarks; the role of scenery and interior in the development of the image.

5. CONCLUSIONS: Theme, idea, meaning of the title, system of images. Genre of the work, artistic originality.

Dramatic work

The generic specificity, the “borderline” position of drama (between literature and theater) obliges its analysis to be carried out in the course of the development of dramatic action (this is the fundamental difference between the analysis of a dramatic work and an epic or lyrical one). Therefore, the proposed scheme is of a conditional nature; it only takes into account the conglomerate of the main generic categories of drama, the peculiarity of which can manifest itself differently in each individual case precisely in the development of the action (according to the principle of an unwinding spring).

1. General characteristics of dramatic action(character, plan and vector of movement, tempo, rhythm, etc.). “Through” action and “underwater” currents.

2. Type of conflict. The essence of drama and the content of the conflict, the nature of the contradictions (two-dimensionality, external conflict, internal conflict, their interaction), “vertical” and “horizontal” plan of the drama.

3. System of actors, their place and role in the development of dramatic action and conflict resolution. Main and secondary characters. Extra-plot and extra-scene characters.

4. System of motives and motivational development of the plot and microplots of the drama. Text and subtext.

5. Compositional and structural level. The main stages in the development of dramatic action (exposition, plot, development of action, climax, denouement). Installation principle.

6. Features of poetics(the semantic key of the title, the role of the theater poster, stage chronotype, symbolism, stage psychologism, the problem of the ending). Signs of theatricality: costume, mask, play and post-situational analysis, role-playing situations, etc.

7. Genre originality(drama, tragedy or comedy?). The origins of the genre, its reminiscences and innovative solutions by the author.

9. Contexts of Drama(historical and cultural, creative, actually dramatic).

10. The problem of interpretation and stage history(required for universities, optional for schools, gymnasiums and lyceums).

Poetic syntax- a combination of words in a sentence, syntactic method formation of artistic speech. It is intended to convey the author's intonation, the artist's intensification of certain feelings and thoughts.

A rhetorical question is a poetic turn in which the emotional significance of the statement is emphasized by the interrogative form, although an answer to this question is not required.

A rhetorical exclamation is intended to enhance a certain mood.

Rhetorical appeal– not designed for direct response. Inversion- violation of the usual, natural for of this language, word order.

Syntactic parallelism is the identical or similar construction of adjacent fragments of a literary text.

Antithesis is a technique of opposition. Actively used in verbal art. Ellipsis is the omission of words, the meaning of which is easily restored from the context. Amplification is a method of stylistic strengthening of any emotional manifestation, the technique of “piling up” feelings: a) non-union – the technique of omitting conjunctions between members of a sentence or sentences. b) multi-union - a technique opposite to non-union. The repetition of one conjunction is used, with the help of which parts of the sentence are connected. c) pleonasm - a technique of verbosity that creates the impression of an excessive accumulation of one sign. d) gradation - a method of gradually increasing meaning.

Anacoluthon– acceptance of violation syntactic norm. Serves to create the speech of characters in order to convey excitement or satirically portray them as illiterate people.

Often used in literary arts repeat. There are: simple, anaphora (repetition of a word at the beginning of a phrase or verse), epiphora (repetition of a word at the end of a verse or phrase), anadiplosis (repetition of one or more words at the end of the previous verse and at the beginning of the next), prosapodosis (repetition of a word at the beginning and end of the line), refrain (a verse repeated after each stanza or a certain combination of them).

Poetic phonetics is the sound organization of artistic speech. Sound consistency manifests itself primarily in the combination of certain sounds. In verbal art, the techniques of assonance - repetition of vowel sounds and alliteration - repetition of consonant sounds are widely used. With the help of sound consistency, poets and writers enhance pathos - the “tonality” of the artistic content of a work. The field of phonics includes paronymy, or paronomasia - a play on words that sound similar. Artists make extensive use of onomatopoeia. Thus, poetic phonetics plays a certain role in the organization of the artistic whole. The position of phonics in poetry is especially significant.

Syntax of artistic speech

If vocabulary reflects people’s knowledge about objects and forms concepts (any word is always, in some sense, an understanding of the object), then syntax reflects the relationship between objects and concepts. Let's say the sentence “the bird is flying” reflects the relationship between “bird” (this is the scope of vocabulary, we must know what a bird is) and “fly” (this is also vocabulary, we understand what “fly” means). The task of syntax is to establish connections between these concepts. Syntax models the world in the same way as vocabulary. Systems of relations established by language in different cultures may differ significantly from each other. There are, for example, languages ​​that practically (in our sense) do not reflect time relations. The phrase “he went fishing yesterday” is fundamentally untranslatable into these languages, since the vocabulary does not record the concept of “yesterday and today”, and grammar and syntax do not allow expressing the relationship of time. Any encounter with a different syntactic model causes difficulties. That is why, for example, Russian schoolchildren and students studying English language, experience difficulties with the tense system, especially with by Perfect. It can be difficult for a Russian student to understand why, say, the Present Perfect for an Englishman seems hereby time, because in the Russian model it seems to be past.

IN fiction the syntactic model has the same fate as the vocabulary: artistic speech relies on the established norm, but at the same time shakes and deforms this norm, establishing some new connections. For example, tautological constructions that are erroneous from the point of view of “normal syntax” may turn out to be more understandable and correct in a poem than logically flawless ones. Let us recall the famous poem by M. Kuzmin:

We were four sisters, we were four sisters,

we all loved four, but we all had different

"because":

one loved, because that's how her father and mother

They told me

the other loved because her lover was rich,

the third loved him because he was famous

Artist,

and I loved because I loved.

From the point of view of the “norm,” almost everything is violated here: we see repetitions, violation of word order (inversion), tautology. But from the point of view of poetry, everything here is absolutely correct, and the tautological connection “I loved because I fell in love” is clearer and more natural than all the previous “logical” ones.

Each writer has his own syntactic pattern, his own system of preferences, the most organic to his artistic world. Some prefer transparent syntactic constructions, others (for example, L.N. Tolstoy) - complex, weighted ones. The syntactic pattern of verse and prose is noticeably different. It is no coincidence that A. S. Pushkin, sensitive to language, writes in “Count Nulin”:

In the last days of September

(Speaking in despicable prose).

The phrase “in the last days of September” seemed to the poet too “normal” for poetry; it is more appropriate in prose. Hence the disclaimer.

In short, the syntactic pattern of a text depends on many factors. At the same time, world culture has described and mastered many characteristic “violations of the norm”, without which today artistic speech is hardly possible at all. These techniques are called " syntactic figures" Some of these techniques simultaneously concern vocabulary and syntax; they are usually called lexico-syntactic, others mainly relate to the sphere of syntax, and are accordingly called syntactic proper.

Lexico-syntactic means

Oxymoron – a technique when one concept is defined through its impossibility. As a result, both concepts partially lose their meaning, and a new meaning is formed. The peculiarity of the oxymoron is that it always provokes the generation of meaning: the reader, faced with a blatant impossible phrase, will begin to “complete” the meanings. Writers and poets often use this technique to say something briefly and succinctly. In some cases, the oxymoron is striking (“The Living Corpse” by L. N. Tolstoy, “Hot Snow” by Yu. Bondarev), in others it may be less noticeable, revealing itself upon a more thoughtful reading (“ Dead Souls"N.V. Gogol - after all, the soul has no death, the “dead green branches” of Pushkin’s anchar - after all, the green foliage of a tree is a sign of life, not death). We will find a huge number of oxymorons in the poetry of A. Blok, A. Akhmatova and other luminaries of Russian poetry.

Catachresis - a deliberately illogical statement that has an expressive meaning. “Yes, she’s a fish! And her hands are kind of white, like fish.” It is clear that a fish cannot have arms; the metaphor is based on catachresis.

Antithesis - a sharp opposition to something, emphasized syntactically. A classic example of antithesis is Pushkin’s characterization of the relationship between Lensky and Onegin:

They got along. Wave and stone

Poetry and prose, ice and fire

Not so different from each other.

Let us note that in Pushkin the emphasized antithesis is partially removed by the next line, which makes the situation ambiguous.

Syntactic features associated with repetitions

Repeat. The simplest way is actual repetition (doubling). The rhetorical significance of such repetition is enormous. A person is designed in such a way that he believes an action repeated several times more than an action that is said to be strong. For example, saying “I hate him, I hate him, I hate him” will have a greater effect than “I hate him so much.” The artistic role of repetition is enormous. Since ancient times, both prosaic and especially poetic artistic speech has been replete with repetitions; people appreciated the aesthetic impact of repetitions at the very dawn of art. Both folklore texts and modern poetry are full of repetitions. A repeated word or repeated construction not only “swings” the emotion, but leads to some slowdown in speech, allowing you to focus on the supporting and important word. In this sense, repetition is connected with another important poetic device – retardation(artificial slowing of speech). Retardation can be achieved different ways, repetition is the simplest and most famous. As an example, here is one of the most famous and poignant poems by Nikolai Rubtsov:

Sail, swim, swim

Past the gravestones

Past the church frames

Past family dramas...

Boring thoughts - away!

Think and think- laziness!

Stars in the sky - night!

The sun is in the sky - day!

Sail, swim, swim

Past the native willow tree,

Past those calling us

Dear orphan eyes...

Anaphora, or unity of command– repetition of sounds, words or groups of words at the beginning of a sentence, a completed paragraph (in poetic speech – stanzas or lines):

“My duty is clear to me. My duty is to do my job. My duty is to be honest. I will do my duty."

In prose speech spoken out loud, anaphora allows you to enhance the effect of the evidence and examples given. The repetition at the beginning of each sentence “multiplies” the significance of the arguments: “It was in these places that he spent his childhood. It was here that he read his first books. It was here that he wrote the first lines."

The role of anaphora especially grows in poetic texts, where it has become one of the almost obligatory features of verse:

Wait me and I'll be back.

Just wait a lot

Waitwhen you feel sad

Yellow rains,

Waitwhen the snow is swept away,

Wait when it's hot,

Waitwhen others are not expected,

Forgetting yesterday.

Waitwhen from distant places

No letters will arrive

Waitwhen you get bored

To everyone who is waiting together.

The famous poem by K. Simonov cannot be imagined without the anaphoric spell “wait for me.”

In the poem by Nikolai Rubtsov just quoted, the doubling “swim, swim, swim” resonates with the anaphora “past..., past..., past...”, which creates a subtle psychological picture of the verse.

Epiphora – repetition of the same words at the end of adjacent segments of speech, a technique opposite to anaphora: “Find the right solution and do what needs to be done - that's the main thing in their work. React quickly to the situation and not get confused - that's the main thing in their work. Do your job and return alive to your wives - that's the main thing in their work…»

In poetic speech, epiphora sometimes (rather rarely) appears in the form of a word or expression that ends any line, as, for example, in the poem “Smiles” by E. Yevtushenko:

You once had many smiles:

Surprised, delighted, sly smiles,

Sometimes a little sad, but still smiles.

You don't have any of your smiles left.

I will find a field where hundreds of smiles grow.

I will bring you an armful of the most beautiful smiles...

But much more often, epiphora in poetry is the repetition of a key word or expression through some fragment of text, a kind of “small refrain”. It is very characteristic of oriental poetry and its stylizations. Here, for example, is a fragment of M. Kuzmin’s oriental stylization:

Pistachios are blooming in the garden, sing, nightingale!

Sing the green ravines, nightingale!

There is a carpet of spring poppies along the mountainsides;

Lambs are wandering in a crowd. Sing, nightingale!

In the meadows the flowers are colorful, in the bright meadows!

And porridge and chamomile. Sing, nightingale!

Spring spring holiday gives us all

From the Shah to the Bug. Sing, nightingale!

Epanaphora (anadiplosis) , or joint- a technique in which the end of a sentence is repeated at the beginning of the next one. “We all expect each other to understand our deepest desires. Our deepest desires, the fulfillment of which we are all secretly waiting for.”

The technique of joining is well known to everyone from Russian folk poetry or its stylizations:

Let's get going, guys. write a petition,

Write a petition , send to Moscow.

Send to Moscow, hand over to the Tsar.

In poetry, epanaphora is one of the most common and favorite techniques:

I was catching with a dream fading shadows,

Fading shadows fading day

I climbed the tower and the steps shook,

And the steps shook under my feet.

The textbook poem by K. Balmont, known to many from school, is built, among other things, on constant epanaphors.

Multi-Union, or polysyndeton– deliberate increase in the number of conjunctions in a sentence. When using this rhetorical figure, speech is slowed down with forced pauses, and the role of each of the words is emphasized, as well as the unity of what is listed. Polyunion is, in fact, a special case of anaphora: “ A house, A relatives, A friends, A Have you forgotten your neighbors?

Asyndeton, or asyndeton- such a construction of speech in which conjunctions and connecting words are omitted, which gives the utterance dynamism and swiftness, as, for example, in Pushkin’s “Poltava”:

Swede, Russian stabs, chops, cuts,

Drumming, clicks, grinding.

Syntactic parallelism - a technique in which neighboring sentences are constructed according to the same pattern. The similarity of such elements of speech is often ensured by anaphora or epiphora: “I see how the city has changed and children have appeared on its streets; I see how the roads have changed, and new foreign cars have appeared on them; I see how people have changed and smiles have appeared on their faces.”

Gradation - such an arrangement of parts of a statement relating to one subject, in which each subsequent part turns out to be more expressive than the previous one: “I don’t know the country, the city, the street, or the house where she lives”; “We are ready to object, argue, conflict, fight!” Sometimes a gradation is distinguished from a similar figure " accumulation"(repetition with semantic reinforcement, say, accumulation of synonyms with increasing expression). More often today they only talk about gradation, combining all similar techniques with this term:

To the village, to my aunt, to the wilderness, to Saratov ,

There you will grieve.

(A. S. Griboyedov)

Amplification – repetition of speech structures or individual words. Amplification can be expressed, for example, in the accumulation of synonyms or comparisons. “We try to build good, friendly relationships, we try to make our relationships fraternal and reliable.” Amplification often also means a return to the same thought, its deepening. A particular type of amplification is increment (buildup) – a technique when the text is repeated every time with each new fragment. This technique is very popular in English children's poetry. Let's remember “The House That Jack Built” (translation by S. Ya. Marshak):

Here's the house

Which Jack built.

And this is wheat

In the house,

Which Jack built.

And this is a cheerful tit bird,

Who often steals wheat,

Which is stored in a dark closet

In the house,

Which Jack built...

Chiasmus – reverse parallelism. “We have learned to treat animals like people, but that doesn’t mean we should treat people like animals.” The mirror expressiveness of chiasmus has long been adopted by poets and writers. A successful chiasmus, as a rule, leads to a memorable formula: “You must eat to live, and not live to eat.”

Syntactic features not related to repetitions

Paraphrase - a deliberate distortion of a well-known phrase used for rhetorical purposes. For example, the phrase “Man – that sounds bitter” paraphrases famous phrase Gorky “Man – that sounds proud.” The power of paraphrase is that contexts familiar to the listener begin to “play”, and the phenomenon of resonance arises. Therefore, a paraphrase will always be more convincing than the same thought expressed without using a well-known aphorism.

Rhetorical question - a question that does not require an answer, but has emotional significance. Often this is a statement expressed in question form. For example, the rhetorical question “Who should we ask now what to do?” implies “Now we have no one to ask what to do.”

Rhetorical exclamation. Usually this term refers to the exclamation itself. Using an exclamation, you can directly convey emotions: “What a time that was!” The exclamation is expressed intonationally, as well as with the help of interjections and a special sentence structure: “Oh, what changes await us!” "My God! And all this is happening in my city!”

Rhetorical appeal- a conditional address to someone within the framework of a monologue. This request does not open a dialogue and does not require a response. In reality, this is a statement in the form of an address. So, instead of saying, “My city is mutilated,” a writer might say, “My city! How they mutilated you!” This makes the statement more emotional and personal.

Parcellation –deliberate “fragmentation” of a syntactic structure into simple elements, most often in violation of the syntactic norm. Parcellation is very popular among writers and poets, as it allows you to highlight each word and put emphasis on it. For example, A. Solzhenitsyn’s famous story “Matrenin’s Dvor”, from the point of view of the syntactic norm, should have ended like this: “We all lived next to her and did not understand that she is the very righteous person, without whom, according to the proverb, not a village is worth , neither the city nor the whole land is ours.” But the writer uses parcellation, and the phrase becomes much more expressive:« We all lived next to her and did not understand that she was the very righteous person without whom, according to the proverb, the village would not stand.

Neither the city.

Neither the whole land is ours.”

Inversion – deliberate violation of the correct word order. IN modern culture inversion is the norm of poetic speech. It not only allows you to shade the right words, but also radically expands the possibilities of rhythmic plasticity of speech, that is, it makes it possible to “fit” the desired combination of words into a given rhythmic pattern of the verse. Poetry is almost always inverse:

Love, hope, quiet glory

The deception did not endure us for long...

(A.S. Pushkin)

There are a lot of syntactic means of expressiveness; it is physically impossible to talk about them all within the limits of our manual. It is also worth noting paraphrase(description of a concept or phenomenon instead of directly naming it), ellipsis(omission of a necessary linguistic element, for example, “and he rushed to her” instead of “and he rushed to her”), etc.