Artistic speech: vocabulary, syntax, phonetics. poetic semantics. Figures of poetic speech

Syntactic figures can be conditionally divided into figures additions, subtractions, placements and rearrangements.

1. Addition figures(deliberately lengthy speech) are based on mappings

repeatability. The main technique for constructing a deliberately lengthy speech is amplification, consisting of repetition. Units that are homogeneous in content or form are injected: synonyms, hyponyms, comparisons, epithets and paraphrases, etc.: The lady checked in luggage / A sofa, a suitcase, a bag, / A picture, a basket, a cardboard box / And a little dog(Marshak). The clarifying function uses adjunction- abundant distribution of any member of the proposal:

Where is our first meeting

Bright, sharp, secret,

On that memorable summer evening

Honey, is it random? (E. Belogorskaya)

Pleonasm- "an amplification figure based on the relationship of identity or almost complete identity of words or phrases associated with the same objects and phenomena" (T.G. Khazagerov): They came up with the concept people" to deceive individual of people. One of the values polysemantic word people -‘the same as people’ [Ozhegov, p. 355]. The paradoxical nature of the statement is based on playing around with different meanings of the first word: not only people, but also ‘population of the state, inhabitants of the country’, ‘nation, nationality, nationality’, ‘ basic, labor mass population of the country' [ibid.]. The concepts of "people" and "people" M.M. Zhvanetsky ironically contrasts: for the bureaucratic elite, the people are not people, but a shapeless "mass" with which you can do whatever you want.

Amplification is often characterized by syntactic parallelism - a homogeneous syntactic construction of sentences and their parts with different lexical content. Syntactic parallelism can be complete or incomplete. Incomplete covers only part of the syntactic structure of each of the compared segments of speech; for example, only the beginning (anaphora). IN complete parallelism extends to these segments as a whole: (5)

What is he looking for in a distant country?

What did he throw in his native land?(Lerm.)

This was an example of a complete direct parallelism.

But he may be reverse, mirror. This phenomenon is called chiasmus(from the Greek letter "xi" X). Here the second sentence or phrase is built in the reverse order of the morphological forms of the members of the sentence.

Falling leaves ( Tv. case) autumn rustled, / Winter is filled with frost(TV p.) . (Sholokhov).

Chiasm is Blok's favorite stylistic device. Here, as it were, the opening and twisting of the verse takes place, forming a ring construction of the phrase, and each of the words becomes communicatively significant.

Watching eyes look

And the heart beats, worrying, in the chest.

Another example:

Let them call. Forget the poet!

Come back to beautiful comforts!

Not! Better to perish in colder fierce!

Comfort - no! Peace - no!

Period- a hybrid figure formed by an utterance (complex sentence or FSC), which is clearly divided into 2 parts: protasis and apodosis. Protasis is characterized by an upward movement of tone and is divided into a number of homogeneous elements (colons). Apodosis is characterized by a descending tone: (7)

Your eyes, of course, are narrow, / And your nose is flat and your forehead is wide, / You don’t babble in French, / You don’t squeeze your legs with silk, / In English in front of the samovar / You don’t crumble the bread pattern, / You don’t admire Saint-Mar, / You don’t appreciate Shakespeare a little, / You don’t plunge into daydreaming, / When there is no thought in your head ... / You don’t gallop in the assembly ... / What is the need? - Exactly half an hour, / While the horses were harnessed to me, / My mind and heart were occupied / Your gaze and wild beauty. ( Pushkin. Kalmychka).

Anaphora is based on the repetition of a significant element (phonemes, morphemes, words, phrases) at the beginning of each segment of speech (“Wait for me” by K. Simonov). Another example: (6) Open the dungeon for me, / Give me the radiance of the day, / The black-eyed maiden, / The black-maned horse.(Lerm.).

Rarer addition figures are epiphora(repetition of linguistic elements at the end of the speech segment): They bring him vodka. Vodka burns him. He hates vodka.(Gogol. Evenings on a farm near Dikanka), anadiplosi c (contact repetition: linguistic elements of the end of one syntagma are repeated at the beginning of another syntagma); This technique is especially good for creating the effect of slow motion: He fell on the cold snow, / On the cold snow, like a pine tree, / Like a pine tree in a damp forest, / Chopped under a resinous root.(Lermontov. Song about the merchant Kalashnikov );

epanadiplosis: the use of the same word at the beginning and at the end of a sentence: You don't love people, you don't even love your children. Elections are hectic and expensive, and are elections necessary?simplock (epanaphora)- a combination of anaphora and epiphora; symbolizes the natural connection of the prerequisites, the beginning and the result, in addition, it can symbolize the movement in a circle: Kondrat Trifonovich takes greasy cards and begins to lay out grand solitaire. He wonders if he will bear rye himself-ten - it does not work out. He wonders if Agatha will stay with him - it doesn't work out. He wonders if his estate will get rid of the sale at a public auction - it does not work out. (S.-Sch .) , Epanalepsis -(Greek ‘fall after again’) - repetition of a word or part of a statement after intermediate words: I swear to tell the truth, the whole truth and nothing but the truth!Epimona (epiphoneme) from the Greek ‘delay, stop ’ - a figure consisting in the use of an explanatory or exclamatory sentence after the affirmative with the same general content to give the first more weight, = Russian . He again went to the boss damn it!

These addition figures may be accompanied by parcellation:

Here epiphora + parcellation.

The repetition of a verse or group of verses at the end of a stanza or song couplet is called refrain(chorus - in the song).

Syntactic convergence (I.V. Arnold) is a group of several elements coinciding in function, united by the same syntactic relation to the word or sentence that subordinates them. It can be a group of homogeneous members of a sentence or subordinate clauses in a complex sentence. Syntactic convergence is often complicated by stylistic devices: repetition, parallel constructions, polysyndeton, alliteration, gradation, etc., thus developing into stylistic convergence as an accumulation at a certain point in the text of a bunch of different stylistic devices in one stylistic function(Riffater).

synth effect. convergence can be based on the semantic and grammatical heterogeneity of syntactically homogeneous members. This phenomenon is called syllepsis- this is a deliberately illogical enumeration of objects; a number of homogeneous members of a sentence, where, in contrast to the normative use, homogeneous elements consist of words that do not match in meaning (i.e. words belong to different lexico-semantic groups): (10) At home, everyone has their own troubles: a wife, an apartment, a salary; There are a lot of snitches. Among them are pilots, sellers, designers, patients, just men and women.(Zhv.). The satirical effect here is created by a chaotic enumeration in a homogeneous series of people's names by profession, appearance, state of health, etc.; Well, women are divided into young and the rest. Among the rest - smart, wise, with a masculine mind, with feminine charm, loving wives, mothers, production workers, pilots, paratroopers, and whoever is there(Zhv.); He began to wait for the waiter or someone to talk to.(Zhv.) - here in a homogeneous row of words different parts speech. Standing in the yard good weather and a girl in a white dress; He washed clothes with diligence and with soap.

Such types of syllepsis are very interesting, which are formed with the help of syntactic application, when words from a homogeneous series realize different meanings of a multi-valued nuclear word: The chicken laid an egg, and the students laid a monument in the square. This phenomenon is called zeugmoy . There are interesting cases when homogeneous elements realize the free and phraseologically related meaning of the keyword: They sent the horses and the chairman obscenely to the fields, while they themselves went to the dance ( Zhv.) - here the word send (horses and obscenities) implements 3 values ​​depending on the object: 1) send somewhere; 2) convey in words feelings for someone; 3) strive to separate from someone. If the object is an animal, then the meaning of the word send- direct, if a person is phraseologically connected. He swallowed resentment and a piece of boiled pork; Drivers Larionov and Kutko, using weak spots and a counter plan, as well as an empty one, took on additional obligations and ordered to live long(Zhv. Meeting at the distillery).

Another addition figure is gemination. It depicts the multiplicity, variety of objects and phenomena, the duration, repetition and intensity of actions. Gemination is a contact repetition of the same words or phrases at least three times: Give me freedom, freedom, freedom - / And I don't need happiness(Lerm.).

In this regard, an important role is also played by polysyndeton and the figure of decrease is asyndeton.

In the narrow sense of the word polysyndeton- polyunion. Broadly speaking, it is multi-union and multi-proposition. This figure has 2 visual functions: a description of slow motion, slow events, and a description of various events: ... And for him they rose again / And the deity, and inspiration, / And life, and tears, and love(P.)

Asyndeton- unionless, has opposite functions. It depicts a quick change of events, as well as their monotony, monotony: (11) ... Flies, flies, look back / Does not dare; instantly ran around / Curtains, bridges, a meadow, / An alley to the lake, a forest, / Broke the bushes of sirens, / Flying through the flower beds to the stream, / And, panting, on a bench / Fell(Pushkin. Eugene Onegin). The only union here just symbolizes the stop of Tatyana's run. And here is an example of a combination of polysyndeton and asyndeton, where the first conveys a slowed down course of life. And the second is its monotony, monotony: (12) In the wilderness, in the darkness of confinement ( asyndeton) / Quietly dragged my days / Without a deity. No inspiration / No tears, no life, no love(polysyndeton). Pushkin.

Morphemes can also be repeated. This phenomenon is called homeology.

Possible (13)

Repetition of inflections (homeotelevton):: Damask steel sounded, buckshot screeched, / The hand of the soldiers was tired of stabbing, / And the cannonballs prevented them from flying / A mountain of bloody bodies;

Homeeoopton: root repetition, repetition of the same or the same type of suffixes and prefixes (expressive agreement): From face to face Yusch them, idle bolt Yusch ikhsya, / Obagrya Yusch their hands are covered in blood / Lead me to the camp of perdition Yusch them / for the great cause of love(Nekrasov)

Decrease figures based on the display of non-repeatability,

inability to display large countable quantities, long segments, etc. In this regard, the figures of decrease reflect, first of all, the division of the set into separate parts, very heterogeneous in their significance. Hence their ability to display jumping from detail to detail, flickering, speed of movement, depicting the speed of mental processes. Decrease figures include ellipsis, asindeton, aposiopesis and prosiopesis.

Ellipsis in style is the omission of an implied element within a sentence. The illustrativeness of the ellipse is associated with the characteristic of the speed of change in the situation. Falls more often verbal predicate, which allows you to focus not on the movement itself, but on the accompanying external circumstances or objects associated with it: Tatyana in the forest; bear is behind her(Pushkin). The descriptiveness of the ellipsis increases if not only the name of the process itself is omitted, but even the object itself: The law forbids taking his [peasant's] life. But is it instant?(Radishchev)

aposiopesis- a figure of reduction based on reticence, the supposed omission of a word or phrase at the end of a sentence. Lack of understanding hints at the unexpected interruption of speech, caused by a feeling of shame, anger, great excitement, shock. Unlike the ellipsis, the omitted components are recovered with great difficulty and are not always unambiguous: I don’t need slippers - I don’t need slippers ... - Then she [ Oksana ] did not finish and blushed. Gogol. The ellipsis corresponds to the intonation contour of aposiopesis in writing. A variation of aposiopesis is apocope - the reproduction of a segment of speech in which the last syllable or syllables are left unfinished due to a sudden and unintentional break (strong excitement, death, shock): I saw: the moon leaned over the corpse, / And the dead lips whispered: “Grena…”(Svetlov). Sometimes the deliberate omission of the last syllable is associated with a transparent hint at the meaning of the unsaid: I love you…

Prosiopeza- a figure of decrease, based on the omission of a segment of speech, a text preceding this statement. The pass is easily restored due to the fact that it is a well-known catchword. Phraseologisms, proverbs, situations. In writing, this figure is usually preceded by an ellipsis or a special intonation at the beginning of the statement. Often used in newspaper headlines: ... In steamships, in lines, and in other long things ...(Lighthouse.)

PLACEMENT FIGURES are a means of accentuating a word or part of an utterance. The idea of ​​an unusual placement is achieved due to the violation of contact, i.e. location at a distance of what should be nearby. This purpose is served either simply pause, which does not correspond to the usual syntactic or semantic division (parcellation, synaph and chanting), or a pause filled with wedged alien lexical-syntactic content (tmesis, diakopa, parenthesis and anapodatone).

Parceling- a figure of placement, consisting in the division of the original integral structure into 2 intonationally isolated segments: the basic structure and the parcel (in postposition). The dismemberment is accompanied by an intermittent rhythm (excessive pause) and an intonation of explanation, realized in the parcel. A period is put in place of the pause in the letter: Write TV stories. TV novels. Teleconversations. TV plays.(Andronikov). I'm filming. Corruption. Children are the flowers of life. On the grave of his parents.

Sinafia- transferring part of a phrase or word from one stanza to another (emphasis technique):

I broke the bushes of sirens,

Flying through the flower beds to the stream,

And, out of breath, on the bench

Fell...

“Here he is! Here is Evgeny! A.S. Pushkin

Tmesis- placement figure, characterized by a violation of contact repetition as a result of wedging another word between repeating components: Free at last! Free at last! Oh God Almighty! Free at last!(From the inscription on the grave of Martin Luther King).

Parentesa- insertion into the sentence of a word, phrase or other sentence not grammatically connected with it: ... (14) His enemies, his friends / (Which, perhaps, the same thing) / He was honored this way and that(P.). An insert may be so long that a repetition of the previous text is necessary. This type of parenthesis is called anapodathon: This cat was ambushed by a citizen at the moment when an animal with a thieving look (what can you do, what do cats have such a look? This is not because they are vicious, but because they are afraid that one of the creatures stronger than them - dogs or people - did not cause them any harm or offense. Both are very easy, but honor. I assure you, there is none, yes, there is none), yes, and so, with a thieving look, the cat was going to rush for some reason into mugs(Bulgakov).

Emphasis- emotionally enhanced accentuation, modal underlining of the word with the help of:

emphatic stress, i.e. lengthening of vowels or consonants in a word: The fist is my position. Fist - Mordovian rr from!(Nekrasov);

literal pronunciation (term L.V. Shcherba): As if from p[o] suffering [it] does not turn into [o] blame- "Streets of Broken Lanterns"

Syllabic parceling: Shai-boo! Shai-boo!

diakopa - another nominative unit is inserted into a word or phraseological unit: I - Rach, I - ma, I - neither,- I- new (from the magazine "Satyricon")

syllable repetition: That's why Vologda is always sweet to me -when-when-when, Vologda- where

PERMUTATION FIGURES transmit not only a change in direction, but precisely a movement in the opposite direction. The idea of ​​this is achieved due to the violation of the usual order of succession (what should be later is placed earlier, and vice versa). This includes figures inversion And hysteronproterone. Inversion example: The centurion brought his young wife to his house. The young wife was good. Blush and white was the young wife.(Gogol). Hysteronproteron is a figure based on a permutation of words and consisting in such an arrangement that does not correspond to the temporal or logical sequence of the phenomena described. Usually displays the disorder of thoughts and feelings caused by strong emotion. The component that comes first is sometimes subjected to metaphorical rethinking: ... We will die / And we will rush into the thick of the battle(Virgil). Here the logical and temporal sequence suggests the reverse order - 'we will rush and die', but let's die means ‘forgetting about everything that connects with life’. Stale cognac, diluted bread... A. Shaganov. Cut into pieces, broken into shreds... (c) A. Vasiliev, "Spleen"

Hypallaga is defined by us both as a semantic-syntactic permutation based on the redistribution of static and procedural features of an object, and as a result of this permutation, for example: “ In the sandy steppes of the Arabian land Three proud palm trees grew tall ” (Lermontov 1972: 147)< “росли высокие пальмы”; “I I listen my Penates Always ecstatic silence ” (Mandelstam 1990: 68)< “восторженно слушаю тишь”; “She is walking up the hill. Sunset reflection on the face and on the wedding ring Glides orange ” (Severyanin 1988: 59)< “скользит оранжевый отблеск”.

Some of the figures are hybrid: zeugma combines addition and subtraction, aposiopesis- decrease in accommodation. The hybrid figure is simple chiasm- reverse, mirror-symmetrical arrangement of words in each of the 2 parts of the statement: My God, what spiritual misery! Cards and saber, saber and cards ... ( Sholokhov). Here addition is combined with permutation.

Anacoluthon(from other Greek ἀνακόλουθον - “inconsistent”, “inappropriate”) - a rhetorical figure consisting in incorrect grammatical agreement of words in a sentence, made by oversight or as a stylistic device (stylistic error) to give a stylistic characteristic to the speech of any character . Anacoluf is emphatic by nature and plays its role against the background of grammatically correct speech. Anacoluf, in particular, is used for the speech characterization of a character who does not speak the language very well (a foreigner, a child, just a person of little culture).

Colonel Skalozub in the comedy "Woe from Wit" by Griboyedov A.S., says instead of "I'm ashamed, as an honest officer":

Or at Tolstoy L.N. the chairman of the court, a man, apparently, brought up on French, He speaks : Do you wish to ask a question?

Or in M. Bulgakov, Professor Preobrazhensky points out the presence of an error in the statement of the proletarian Shvonder:

- We, the management of the house, - Shvonder spoke with hatred, - came to you after the general meeting of the residents of our house, at which the question of compacting the apartments of the house was raised ... - Who stood on whom? cried Philipp Philippovich, “do the best to express your thoughts more clearly.- Mikhail Bulgakov Heart of a Dog

Anacoluf is also widely used as a means of humorous, satirical depiction: Approaching this station and looking at nature through the window, my hat flew off. Chekhov A.P. Complaint book

I recently read from a French scientist that the lion's face is not at all like a human face, as scientists think. And we'll talk about this. Come, do me a favor. Come tomorrow, for example. Chekhov A.P. Letter to a learned neighbor

However, grammatical irregularity, attracting attention to itself, is able to give speech a more expressive character, and therefore writers of different eras and trends also resort to anacoluf in the author's speech to create an emotional accent:

The smell of shag and some sour soup made from there made life in this place almost unbearable.- Pisemsky A.F. Senile sin

The one that the bull on Lesvos suddenly saw, roared and, swirling towards her from the hill, poked with a horn, entering under her arm.- Solovyov S. V. Amort

Anakolufu is close solecism(from ancient Greek σολοικισμός (lat. soloecismus), from the name of ancient Greek Σόλοι (lat. Soloe)) - a syntactically incorrect turn of speech that does not distort the meaning of the statement; incorrect syntactic turn, an error in the choice of grammatical forms for any syntactic construction. Solecism, as a rule, arises when the rules for agreeing the members of a sentence or the rules for agreeing on main and subordinate clauses are violated.

Examples of violation of the agreement of the members of the proposal: “ Who needs sanatorium treatment, it is necessary to provide it" (instead of "... will be provided for them").

"One or two of my comrades" (instead of "... or two of my comrades").

"What time is it?" (instead of "What time is it?").

An example of violation of the agreement of proposals: " I'm ashamed as an honest officer"(A. S. Griboyedov. Woe from Wit).

An example of other solecisms in Russian:

"If You Would"

Inconsistent adverbial turnover:

« Arriving in Belev, fortunately we got a good apartment"and others (D. I. Fonvizin. Letters to relatives)

« Although I am not a prophet, but when I see a moth that it curls around a candle, I almost always succeed in prophecy"(I. A. Krylov. Plotichka)

« You will agree that, having the right to choose a weapon, his life was in my hands, and mine is almost safe: I could attribute my moderation to generosity alone, but I do not want to lie"(A. S. Pushkin. Shot)

« At first he was surprised and wanted to understand what this meant; then, making sure that he could not understand this, he became bored"and others (L. N. Tolstoy. Anna Karenina)

« Approaching this station and looking at nature through the window, my hat fell off"(A.P. Chekhov. Complaint book)

« Unable to balance himself on skis and lacking any experience to stay on the ice, his chances of returning to civilization would be very slim.» (Roald Amundsen. South Pole / Translated from Norwegian by M. P. Dyakonova, edited by M. A. Dyakonov)

Hyperbaton - a figure consisting in highlighting the topic of the utterance by putting it at the beginning or at the end of the phrase, usually with a break in the syntactic connection (in which the hyperbaton is close to the anacoluf).

« I am a researcher of the stars, planets and their laws, what does the truth of God require of me? “You very skillfully exalted the insight of your sight in order to see in the heavens invisible to a simple eye, strive to raise the insight of your hearing just as skillfully so that you can clearly hear and announce to others how the heavens will tell the glory of God.” Saint Philaret, Metropolitan of Moscow and Kolomna.

Here the first sentence contains a hyperbaton: " I am an explorer of the stars, planets and their laws, which the truth of God requires of me?”, which consists in the removal to the beginning and a special design of the topic of the statement with a break, but not a violation of the syntactic connection.

Literature

Main

1. Golub I. B. Stylistics of the modern Russian language / I. B. Golub. - M. : Russian language, 1997. - 256 p.

2. Kozhina M.N. Stylistics of the Russian language / M.N. Kozhin. - 3rd ed. - M. : Nauka, 1993. - 289 p.

3. Culture of Russian speech: Encyclopedic dictionary-reference book / Ed. L. Yu. Ivanova, A. P. Skovorodnikova, E. N. Shiryaeva et al. - M .: Flinta: Nauka, 2003. - 840 p.

4. Rosenthal D.E. Practical stylistics of the Russian language / D.E. Rozental. - M. : MGU, 1987. - 312 p.

Additional

5. Vinogradov VV Stistika. Theory of poetic speech. Poetics / V. V. Vinogradov. – M. : Nauka, 1963. – 323 p.

6. Gvozdev A. N. Essays on the style of the Russian language / A. N. Gvozdev. - M. : Russian language, 1965. - 297 p.

7. Efimov A. N. Stylistics of the Russian language / A. N. Efimov - M .: Russian language, 1969. - 222 p.

8. Culture of Russian speech: Textbook for universities / Ed. L. K. Graudina and E. N. Shiryaeva. - M.: Languages ​​of Slavic culture, 1998. – 420 p.

Figures of speech - These are special syntactic constructions.

· Antithesis reveals the contrast between phenomena or objects. Forms the antithesis of a pair (or several) of antonyms, linguistic or contextual. When everything is calm, you make noise; when everyone is worried, you are calm; in matters of indifference - you get excited; in passionate questions - cold; if you need to be silent - you scream; when you should speak, you are silent; if you are here, you want to leave; if you are not there, you dream of returning, in the midst of the world you demand war; on a hike you sigh for peace ... Antithesis is a way of creating ideas: the author extracts the opposite from thought, cognizes the world not only by comparing similar phenomena (metaphor), but also in the collision of “opposite”, “extreme” phenomena.

· gradation- a rhetorical figure, the essence of which is the arrangement of enumerated elements (words, phrases, phrases) in ascending order of their meaning (“ascending gradation”) or in descending order of values ​​(“descending gradation”). The full life of Russian classics in school is a condition for the existence of our people, our state; it is, as they say now, a matter of national security. Not reading "Onegin", not knowing "Crime and Punishment", "Oblomov", we turn into some other nation. What's with the "people"! They don’t call us otherwise than “population” anyway ...” The first sentence is built on the basis of the “ascending” gradation. From the second sentence to the end of the passage, the gradation is descending.

· Repeat used to enhance the utterance, to give speech dynamism, a certain rhythm. White-white; asked-asked for help; a little bit.

· Lexical repetition- repetition of the same word or phrase with slight variations. Behind those villages are forests, forests, forests. Winter was waiting, nature was waiting.

· Anaphora- a kind of repetition: the same word, several words, are repeated at the beginning of several phrases following one after another. Anaphora gives rhythm to speech.

· Epiphora- repetition of the same elements at the end of each parallel row. I would like to know why I am a titular councillor? Why a titular adviser?

· Syntax parallelism- repetition of syntactic constructions, a special arrangement of successive phrases with the same syntactic structure, with the same word order, the same type of predicates. In the previous example, anaphora is inseparable from syntactic parallelism. I miss my grandfather's house with its large green yard... I miss the spacious kitchen in my grandfather's house with its earthen floor... I miss the evening roll call of women from hill to hill...

· Period- this is a way of syntactic design of a complex sentence, which combines anaphora and syntactic parallelism. When I think about the fate of Russian literature, when I remember the feat of arms that she accomplished, when I understand that she lives in the soul of every person at any time - then I agree with Maxim Gorky: yes, literature is our national pride!

· Rhetorical exclamation marks the emotional semantic culmination of a segment (part) of speech. Serves the task of establishing active interaction with the addressee. O times! Oh manners!

· Rhetorical question serves to emotionally highlight the semantic centers of the text, to form the emotional and evaluative attitude of the addressee to the subject of speech. What is culture, why is it needed? What is culture as a system of values? What is the purpose of the liberal education that we have always had in the tradition?

· Introduction of someone else's speech- (fictitious). The author of the text (speech) acts as a playwright, creating the intended replicas of the audience, with which he either agrees or argues. In addition to the voice of the speaker himself, other voices begin to sound in his speech, speaking from other positions (opponent's opinion); discussion turns into discussion. Except for the rare eccentrics, we usually try to surround and present ourselves in the best possible way, to show ourselves and others even better than we really are. You will say that this is vanity, vanity, pretense. Yes, absolutely. Let me just point out two very nice motives...

· Hypophora- this is a question-answer move, this is a segment of monologue speech that combines a rhetorical question (or a series of questions) and the answer to them; thought question. The question-answer move consists in the fact that the speaker, as if anticipating the objections of the listeners, guessing their possible questions, formulates such questions himself, answers them himself. The question-answer move involves the addressee in a dialogue, makes him a participant in the search for truth.

· Rhetorical address or exclamation is used not so much to name the addressee, but to attract attention. Russia! Russia! Where are you aiming? Ice formed at zero degrees does not sink in water. Truly a fabulous property!

· Allegory- allegory, in art - a detailed assimilation, the details of which add up to a system of hints; moreover, the direct meaning of the image is not lost, but is supplemented by the possibility of its figurative interpretation. In fables and fairy tales, cunning is shown in the form of a fox, greed - in the form of a wolf, deceit - in the form of a snake.

· Parceling- such a division of the sentence, in which the content of the statement is realized not in one, but in two or more intonation-semantic speech units following one after another after a separating pause. Flerov knows everything. And Uncle Grisha Dunaev. And the doctor too.

· polysyndeton- polyunion. The ocean left before my eyes, and swayed, and thundered, and sparkled, and faded, and shone, and went somewhere to infinity.

· Asyndeton- incompatibility. Swede, Russian, stabs, cuts, cuts. People knew that somewhere, very far from them, there was a war going on. To be afraid of wolves - do not go into the forest.

· Ellipsis- omission of an element of the statement, easily restored in a given context or situation. In all - the windows are curious, on the roofs - the boys. We sat down - in ashes, hailstones - in dust, in swords - sickles and plows.

· Default- a turn of speech, which consists in the fact that the author does not fully express the thought, leaving the reader to himself what exactly remained unsaid. But listen: if I owe you ... I own a dagger, I was born near the Caucasus.

· Grotesque- depiction of reality in an exaggerated, ugly comic form, intertwining the real with the fantastic, the scary with the funny.

· Pamphlet- topical satire, usually of a political nature.

· Pathos- (feeling, passion) - passionate inspiration, uplift.

Syntactic means speech ingenuity(figures of speech)

Speech (rhetorical, stylistic) figures are any language means that give speech imagery and expressiveness. Figures of speech are divided into semantic and syntactic.

Semantic figures speeches - are formed by combining words, phrases, sentences or larger segments of text that have a special semantic significance.

These include:

• · comparison- a stylistic figure based on the figurative transformation of a grammatically structured juxtaposition. Example: Crazy years, the extinct fun is hard for me, like a vague hangover (A. S. Pushkin); Under it is a stream lighter than azure (M. Yu. Lermontov);
• · ascending gradation- a figure of speech, consisting of two or more units, placed in increasing intensity of meaning: I ask you, I ask you very much, I beg you;
• descending gradation - a figure that creates a comic effect by violating the principle of growth. Example: A lady who is not afraid of the devil himself and even a mouse (M. Twain);
• · zeugma- a figure of speech that creates a humorous effect due to grammatical or semantic heterogeneity and incompatibility of words and combinations: He drank tea with his wife, with lemon and with pleasure; It was raining and three students, the first - in a coat, the second - to the university, the third - in bad mood;
• · pun- a figure that is a play on words, a deliberate combination in one context of two meanings of the same word or the use of similarities in the sound of different words to create a comic effect. Example: There are no colors in her creations, but there are too many of them on her face (P. A. Vyazemsky);
• · antithesis- a stylistic figure based on the opposition of compared concepts. The lexical basis of this figure is antonymy, syntactic basis- parallelism of structures. Example: Easy to make friends, hard to separate; the smart one will teach, the fool will get bored;
• · oxymoron- a figure of speech, consisting in attributing to the concept of a sign incompatible with this concept, in a combination of concepts that are opposite in meaning: a living corpse; young old men; hurry slowly.

Syntactic figures speeches - are formed by a special stylistically significant construction of a phrase, sentence or group of sentences in the text. In syntactic figures of speech leading role the syntactic form plays, although the nature of the stylistic effect largely depends on the semantic content. According to the quantitative composition of syntactic constructions, figures of decrease and figures of addition are distinguished.

TO figures decrease relate:

• ellipsis - a stylistic figure, consisting in the fact that one of the components of the statement is not mentioned, is omitted in order to give the text more expressiveness, dynamism: The foxes decided to bake the rabbit, and the rabbit from the oven jumped onto the stove, then onto the bench and into the window from the bench (Y.A. Kozlovsky);
• · aposiopesis- deliberately incomplete statement: Here he will return and then ...;
• · prosiopesis- omission of the initial part of the statement. For example, the use of patronymics instead of the given name and patronymic;
• · apocoinu- characteristic of colloquial speech, the combination of two sentences into one statement containing a common member: There is a person waiting for you.

TO figures additions relate:

• · repeat- a figure consisting in the repetition of a word or sentence in order to emphasize, strengthen thoughts;
• · anadiplosis(pickup) - a figure of speech constructed in such a way that a word or group of words is repeated at the beginning of the next segment: It will come, as big as a sip - a sip of water during the heat of summer (V.A. Rozhdestvensky);
• · prolepsa- the simultaneous use of a noun and a pronoun that replaces it. Example: Coffee, it's hot.

According to the location of the components of the syntactic construction, such a figure of speech as inversion is distinguished. Inversion - this is a rearrangement of the syntactic components of the sentence, violating their usual order: He dug up worms, dragged fishing rods; Your fences have a cast-iron pattern (A. S. Pushkin).

The extension of the function of the syntactic construction lies at the heart of the rhetorical question.

Rhetorical question - the sentence is interrogative in structure, but narrative in terms of the purpose of the statement. A rhetorical question is a rhetorical figure that is a question that has no answer. In essence, a rhetorical question is a question to which an answer is not required or expected due to its extreme obviousness. In any case, an interrogative statement implies a well-defined, well-known answer, so a rhetorical question is, in fact, a statement expressed in an interrogative form. For example, asking a question "How yet we we will tolerate this injustice?" does not expect an answer, but wants to emphasize that "We tolerate injustice, and too much for a long time" and seems to imply that "It's time already stop her tolerate And undertake something on this about".

A rhetorical question is used to enhance the expressiveness (highlight, underline) of a particular phrase. characteristic feature of these revolutions is a convention, that is, the use grammatical form and intonation of the question in cases that, in essence, do not require it. A rhetorical question, as well as a rhetorical exclamation and a rhetorical appeal, are peculiar turns of speech that enhance its expressiveness - the so-called. figures. A distinctive feature of these turns is their conventionality, that is, the use of interrogative, exclamatory, etc. intonation in cases that essentially do not require it, due to which the phrase in which these turns are used acquires a particularly emphasized connotation that enhances its expressiveness. Thus, a rhetorical question is, in essence, a statement expressed only in an interrogative form, due to which the answer to such a question is already known in advance. Example: Can I see faded beauty in the brilliance of the new Dream? Can I again clothe the nudity with the veil of a familiar life? - V.A. Zhukovsky.

It is obvious that the meaning of these phrases is the assertion of the impossibility of returning "the dreams of faded beauty", etc.; The question is a conditional rhetorical phrase. But due to the form of the question, the author's attitude to the phenomenon in question becomes much more expressive and emotionally colored.

Internet illustration.

POETIC LANGUAGE (continued)

The next section of this chapter is devoted to the second group of artistic means by which the poetic image is born. These are special ways of constructing sentences - syntactic (stylistic) figures of speech.

ANADIPLOSIS (from the Greek "repetition") - repetition last word(groups of words) of the previous sentence at the beginning of the next:
Oh, spring, without end and without edge,
Endless and endless dream! (A. Blok)

ANAPHORA (from the Greek "anaphora" - bringing up) - the repetition of the same elements at the beginning of sentences or lines. There are its types:

1. sound (repetition of the same sounds):
Storm-blown bridges
A coffin from a blurry cemetery. (A. Pushkin)
2. morphemic (repetition of identical morphemes):
black eyed girl,
Black-maned horse! (M. Lermontov)
3. lexical (repetition of the same words):
The winds did not blow in vain,
The storm was not in vain. (S. Yesenin)
4. syntactic (repetition of the same syntactic constructions, that is, parallelism):
Do I wander along the noisy streets,
Do I enter a crowded temple,
Am I sitting among the foolish youths,
I surrender to my dreams. (A. Pushkin)
5. strophic (repetition of identical words at the beginning of stanzas). Examples are from M. Lermontov (“When the yellowing field is agitated”), from K. Simonov (“Wait for me”).

Epiphora - repetition of words at the end of lines:

The sun in the morning in the well of lakes
I looked - there is no month ...
It hung its legs on a hillock,
It clicked - there is no month ... (S. Yesenin)

If the same words are repeated in the middle of the line, then you have another figure - SIMPLOCK:

We have a road for young people everywhere,
Elders are respected everywhere. (V. Lebedev-Kumach)

ANTITHESIS (from the Greek “antithesis”) is a contrast that serves to enhance the expressiveness of speech and feelings.

The basis of antithesis is antonyms (Greek "anti" - against, "onyma" - name) - words with the opposite meaning:

Memory has the following property:
After the worst hardships
Forgotten quickly BAD,
And the GOOD lasts a long time. (K.Vanshenkin)

Each word, when meeting with the opposite in meaning, is revealed more fully. A vivid example of the use of this technique in poetry is the poems of Francois Villon, read by him at the poetic competition at the court of Charles of Orleans, who loved word games. Ilya Ehrenburg translated them:

I'm dying of thirst over the stream.
I laugh through my tears and work hard while playing.
Wherever I go, everywhere is my home,
A foreign land for me is my native country.
I know everything - I know nothing.
Of all the people I understand the most,
Who calls the swan a raven.
I doubt the obvious, I believe in a miracle.
Naked like a worm, more magnificent than all masters,
I am accepted by everyone, expelled from everywhere.

Types of antonyms:
1) heterogeneous (good - bad, clean - dirty),

2) single-rooted (kind - unkind, public - antisocial),

3) contextual, acquiring the opposite meaning only in a specific text, as, for example, in Derzhavin:
Where the table was food, there is a coffin.

Here, “food” (a symbol of abundance) and “coffin” (a symbol of death) are contrasted, although in ordinary speech they are not at all antonyms.

GRADATION - a chain of homogeneous members with a gradual increase (called climax) or decrease (anti-climax) of significance or feelings:

"I came, I saw, I conquered" famous phrase Caesar, - gradation-climax.
An example of gradation-anticlimax:
No one will give us deliverance
Not a god, not a king, not a hero.
("International")

INVERSION - a violation of the usual word order, when the desired word is placed in an unusual place for it. If the poet wants to emphasize the importance of something, he puts the right word at the beginning of the line or at the end, making it logically stressed. Inversion examples:
a) the definition comes after the word being defined:
I am sitting behind bars in a RAW dungeon... (A. Pushkin)

B) circumstance (adverb) is after the main word:
In the north, LONELY stands wild ... (M. Lermontov)

C) predicate before subject:
DROPS the forest its crimson dress ... (A. Pushkin)

OXYMORON (OXYMORON) - a combination of words that are opposite in meaning - in fact, this is a paradoxically sounding antithesis:

And the impossible is possible
The road is long and easy. (A. Blok)

Oxymoron can be found in the titles of works: "Optimistic tragedy" by V. Vishnevsky, "Living corpse" by L. Tolstoy, "Dead souls" by N. Gogol, "Hot snow" by Y. Bondarev. Poets love this figure, as it immediately attracts the attention of readers with its paradox and unusualness:

We love everything - and the heat of cold numbers,
And the gift of divine visions. (A. Blok)
***
Mother!
Your son is very sick!
Mother!
He has a heart of fire. (V. Mayakovsky)

PARALLEL CONSTRUCTIONS (SYNTAX PARALLELISM) help to combine disparate parts into a single image.

These are: a) the same construction of consecutive sentences:

I called you but you didn't look back
I shed tears, but you did not descend. (A. Blok)

B) compositional parallelism based on the similarity of storylines or parts of the composition: for example, a description of an autumn thaw is followed by a description of a sad mood;

C) chiasm - when in neighboring sentences the second is built in the reverse order of parts:

Here Pushkin's exile began
And Lermontov's exile ended. (A. Akhmatova)
***
Spanish grandee like a thief
Waiting for the night and afraid of the moon. (A. Pushkin)

D) negative parallelism is especially loved in the folk song:

Not the cold winds rustle,
Not quicksands run, -
The grief rises again
Like an evil black cloud.

Modern poets also use such constructions:

I didn't get lost
But still, poof.
I'm not cold
But don't put out the fire.
I'm not blind
But give me your hand.
I am not weak
But have pity on me.
(M. Sopin. “My field of fate”, M .: Sovremennik, 1991)

PARCELLATION (French "parcelle" from Latin "particle") is an expressive figure of speech when a sentence is broken into parts as independent sentences. With the help of intonation, the most important parts for the author are highlighted. An example from A. Tvardovsky in the second quatrain of the example:
But if you happen somehow
Out of stupidity, out of early youth,
You decide to go down the shameful path,
Forgetting about honor, duty and vocation:

Do not support a comrade in need.
Turn fun into someone's grief.
Cunning at work. Lie. Hurt mother.
To equal glory with an unkind friend, -

Then before you - a covenant to you alone:
Just remember, boy, whose son you are.

Purposes of parceling:
- focusing on the main thing in the image;
- highlighting important details;
- emotional strengthening of the impact of the text on the reader;
- creating the effect of surprise;
- Contrast enhancement.

An example of parceling by A. Griboyedov:

And all the Kuznetsk bridge, and the eternal French,
Where did fashion come to us, and authors, and muses:
Destroyers of pockets and hearts!
When the Creator delivers us
From their hats! bonnets! and studs! and pins!
And bookstores and biscuit shops!

hyphen - mismatch between the end of the sentence and the end of the line. This gives rise to an additional pause within the verse. It is interesting that in folk poetry there is almost no transfer - it is typical mainly for the author's speech. Distinguish:

A) line break:
Tell that from everywhere
Joy blows over me
I don't know what I will
Sing - but only the song matures. (A. Fet)

B) syllabic transfer is sharper, but also more expressive. In M. Svetlov's "Grenada", the break in the word seems to scream about the sudden death of the hero:

And the dead lips whispered: Grena...
Yes, to a distant region, to a sky-high stretch
My friend left and took away the song.

Daniil Kharms masterfully uses this technique in comic children's poems:
And you know what,
And you know what pa
And you know that you
What does my dad have
Had forty sons?

REPEAT is one of the most common stylistic figures, whose the main objective- underline the most important words or parts in the verse.

An excellent example of this technique is in the poem by Yakov Kozlovsky:

I'm talking to myself again
It's like I'm fighting with myself.
I'm afraid I won't meet you
And I'm afraid to meet you.

your outstretched hand
I'm afraid to hold in my hands,
I'm afraid, in pain,
And let go too soon.

And again I'm from distant wanderings
I long for you alone
I'm afraid of your sad eyes,
But I'm also afraid of funny eyes.

I'm afraid you can't see everything in me
I'm afraid you can't see easily
I'm afraid you'll get married soon
I'm afraid you'll never get out.

What events await me?
I do not presume this.
And I'm afraid to forget about you
And I'm afraid to remember you.

There are types of repetitions:
a) simple repetition of words or phrases:
Father, father, leave the threats
Don't scold your Tamara. (M. Lermontov)

B) anaphora, simplex, epiphora, redif, parallelism, assonance, alliteration (you have already met them),

C) leitmotif - a repetition of especially important elements of the plot,

D) refrain - a repetition of a sentence, phrase or stanza-couplet in songs.
“Green Noise is coming, / Green Noise, spring noise!” - this refrain sounds in every stanza of N. Nekrasov's poem "Green Noise".

D) pleonasm - excessive repetition homogeneous words and uniform revolutions (dreamed in a dream, ran running, snub nose ...):

E) tautology - the repetition of words that are identical in meaning, an extreme degree of pleonasm:
The shadow frowned darker ... (F. Tyutchev)

Repetition can become an element of a ring composition when a poem begins and ends with the same words, as, for example, in N. Rubtsov's Star of the Fields.

RHETORICAL FIGURES

RHETORICAL ADDRESSES, as in the verses of Svetlana Petrovskaya:

Wind, are you my friend or foe?
We've been with you for a long time!
Evenings hoisting the black flag,
The wind drinks sunset wine.

You're lucky with wings
And mine - like the rustle of pages ...
Wind, why are you to spite me
Are you throwing joyful birds up high?

In the first stanza there is another figure - a rhetorical exclamation.

Another example of exclamations: look how unusually - polynomially - V. Bryusov expresses his expression:

Don't reach me! don't reach me! I'm tired! tired! tired!
The dryness of the steppes is more hospitable than the ledges of these rocks!

Stones everywhere, only stones! moss and bare pine!
Breast of granite, be soft to me! sing me a song, silence!

A RHETORICAL QUESTION does not require an answer at all, it has only an emotional meaning, filled with feelings and edges, as in a poem by Veronika Tushnova:

Do you know,
what is grief
when a tight noose
on your throat?

In poetry, it is not necessary to fully reveal your thoughts and feelings. Reticence, understatement - this is also a special stylistic figure.

This is DEFAULT, whose main goal is to give the listener or reader the opportunity to think (or invent) their own version of what is happening. In writing, default is usually indicated by an ellipsis, in oral pronunciation - by a long pause.

A striking example of silence, awakening deep thoughts and strong feelings, is in the poem by I. Bunin:

In the forest, in the mountain, the spring is alive and sonorous,
An old dove above the spring
With a blackened lubok icon,
And in the spring there is a birch bark.

I do not like, oh Russia, your timid,
A thousand years of slave poverty.

But this cross, but this ladle is white...
Humble, native traits!

What reconciles the poet with the "slave poverty" of Russia? What do the cross and the ladle, carefully left by the spring, tell his heart? Think about it and you, dear readers.

By default adjoins ELLIPSIS (ELLIPSE) - omission of the implied word. Unlike the default, the missing word in the ellipse is easily recovered in this context. At the same time, the entire intonation of the line becomes more energetic, elastic. Most often, the verb is skipped, giving the text dynamism.

In speech, an ellipsis is a short pause; in writing, a dash (or without it). Examples:

To the horses, brother, and a foot in the stirrup,
Saber out - and in the battle! Here
God gives us a feast. (D. Davydov)

In literary criticism, you will come across such terms as ASINDETON (non-union) and POLYSYNDETON (multi-union). The first technique enhances the dynamics, as in the description of the Poltava battle by A. Pushkin:

Swede, Russian stabs, cuts, cuts.
Drum beat, clicks, rattle...

The second slows down speech, but at the same time emphasizes the unity of the enumerated:

Oh, red summer! I would love you
If it weren't for the heat, and dust, and mosquitoes, and flies. (A. Pushkin)

CHIASM (from the Greek "chiasmos" - cruciform) is a stylistic figure, a rearrangement of words against the background of parallel construction of sentences: in the first half of the chiasm, the words are arranged in the same sequence, and in the second - in the reverse order. According to the principle of chiasm, the first two lines in the poem by A. Blok are built:
I'm waiting for a cold day
I'm waiting for gray twilight.
Heart sank, ringing:
You said: "I'll come..."

The inversion of the major and minor terms makes the second line a mirror image of the first. And it is unusually beautiful and expressive.

« The new rhetoric identifies as fundamental rhetorical figures: metaphor - semantic substitution by similarity; metonymy - substitution by contiguity, association, causality; synecdoche - substitution based on quantitative relations (plurality - singularity) or involvement, inclusion. And if literary thinking is metaphorical, then film thinking is metonymic by its very nature.

According to A.A. Sip, " Every time a poetic image is perceived and animated by the understanding person, it tells him something different and more than what is immediately contained in it. Thus, poetry is always allegory ... in the broadest sense of the word». Therefore, it is legitimate to say that a number of fundamental rhetorical figures determine the artistic and figurative essence of thinking in different types and genres of art.

Rhetorical figures are classified depending on the type of deviation operation used (for the first time this principle of classification was proposed by the Mu group): 1) from the sign (word) - morphological; 2) from the grammatical code - syntactic; 3) from the meaning - semantic; 4) from the principles of thinking - logical.

The first type of rhetorical figures arises on the basis of deviations from morphological norm (sign, word undergo partial or complete transformations, replacements, deformations). Let us designate the main varieties of this type of deviations.

Epentheza (insert) - a rhetorical figure that arises by adding an extra word in the middle of a sign (pronounced word). So, in Russian vernacular they say: like», « cheerfully". The artist can use this figure to characterize the hero or create a mocking, ironic author's speech. This artistic medium It is also used in the visual arts, for example, when creating a caricature portrait or cartoon.

Synonymy- with one and the same signified, the constituent elements of the signifier are replaced by others. So, in the "Bronze Horseman" A.S. Pushkin the usual phrase " cold body"replaces poetically expressive" cold corpse". Special cases of stylistic synonymy include archaisms - replacement modern concept obsolete, obsolete. In Pushkin's "Prophet" we read:

With fingers as light as a dream
He touched my eyes.

The use of elements of the order system in modern architecture, the rejection of perspective in painting are also examples of archaisms.

Neologisms- newly formed words. For example, using the neologism " thundering goblet» F.I. Tyutchev creates a vivid poetic image in the poem "Spring Thunderstorm".

The rhetorical figure is turning text into a set of sounds , the meaning of which is not perceived, although the sounds are articulate. In this case, there is not enough redundancy of speech and there is no full-fledged artistic communication, because reduction (return to any kind of “zero level”) turns out to be impossible; absurdity arises - words devoid of meaning, as in the poem by A.E. Twisted "Heights":

Eyu
ias
oa
oasieya
oa

This rhetorical device - the destruction of the traditional sign system and the creation of a new one - is widely used in abstract painting and concrete music.

Quoting foreign words can also be a rhetorical figure. Its use is well known by L.N. Tolstoy in War and Peace. Other "foreign" inclusions are also artistically expressive. For example, dialectisms in the "Quiet Don" by M. Sholokhov, jargon in the "Cavalry" by I. Babel.

Docking of different linguistic layers also occurs when using the eclectic style in architecture.

Pun- play on words, use to achieve artistic expressiveness and the comic polysemy of words, homonymy (the complete coincidence of signifiers with a difference in signifieds) or the sound similarity of words.

As a technique of expressiveness, the pun is used by no means only in the comedy genre. For example, M. Gorky resorts to it in one of the episodes of his epic novel “The Life of Klim Samgin”. One day, the comrades flogged Boris Varavka, considering him a snitch and an informer. Klim Sam-gin did not like Boris. Having somehow caught “a belated beetle and giving it to Boris with two fingers, Klim said:

- Oh, insect.

« Pun Gorky writes, appeared by itself, suddenly and made Klim laugh...».

In the visual arts, a pun is found, for example, in some paintings by S. Dali, which are read differently from different angles of peering: people against the backdrop of an ancient castle are a bust of Voltaire.

Anagram- a rhetorical figure formed by rearranging at the morphological level (letters in a word). This figure was first used by the Greek grammarian Lycophron (3rd century BC). Anagram examples: " murmur - ax»; as well as aliases such as Khariton Makentin - Antioch Cantemir.

Palindrome("Flip") - reverse permutations, phrases, stanzas of a verse, equally read in both directions (from left to right and from right to left). Examples: " I go with the sword of the judge"(G.R. Derzhavin) or in V. Khlebnikov's poem "Razin":

Setuy cliff
Morning hell
We flew Nizari Razin
Flowing and gentle gentle and flowing
Volga divas carries a cramped view of the corners
deer turned blue

In a certain sense, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl, standing right on the river bank, can be considered a palindrome in architecture. Reflected in the river, it doubles and is visually perceived in unity with its reverse image in the water surface. In addition, this temple has axial symmetry and "same" from left to right and right to left.

The second type of rhetorical figures arises on the basis of deviations from the syntactic norm (at the same time, the author influences the form of the sentence, changes its grammatical structure). The zero step of the syntactic norm for this type of rhetorical figures is based on grammatical norm, defining structural relations between morphemes. According to the conclusions of the linguist R.O. Jacobson, the word order in many languages ​​reflects the logic of the content of the sentence: the verbs are arranged in accordance with the temporal sequence of events, indicating the “main character of the message”, the subject dominates the object. Violation of these "natural" syntactic and grammatical features of the message has the meaning of a rhetorical figure.

Ellipsis- an artistic and expressive omission in speech of parts of a sentence, which, due to the redundancy of information embedded in the statement, are implied and can be mentally restored. So, V.A. Zhukovsky in the poem "The Singer in the Camp of Russian Warriors" omitted the verb " let's turn»:

We sat down - in the ashes; hail - to dust;
In swords - sickles and plows.

Or another example. I.A. Krylov writes: Not here: the sea does not burn", and the expression " it wasn't here».

When a word or other elementary meaningful semantic unit disappears from a phrase, its intonation changes, which is expressed in a written text by ellipsis. An example of such a rhetorical figure in painting is the painting by V.I. Surikov's "Morning of the Streltsy Execution", where there is no execution scene itself - there is a complete plot reduction.

An example of an ellipsis in dramaturgy is the dialogue between Elena Andreevna and Astrov in the play by A.P. Chekhov "Uncle Vanya". The excited speech of the jerky characters:

« Elena Andreevna. No... It's already been decided... And that's why I look at you so bravely that the departure has already been decided...
Astrov. How strange ... We knew each other and suddenly for some reason ... we will never see each other again. So it's all over the place...»

In order to be able to perceive the meaning of the text from which something is thrown out, the redundancy of this text must be large enough to compensate for the missing element.

Reduction of syntactic signs - a rhetorical figure similar to asindeton (omission of unions: “ I came, I saw, I conquered..."). For the first time, the French poet G. Apollinaire allowed the exclusion of syntactic signs from a poetic text. Later, this rhetorical figure began to be used by many poets and prose writers. But even when using this rhetorical figure, it is unacceptable to violate the boundaries of redundancy, since syntactic uncertainty due to the reduction of punctuation marks can turn into semantic uncertainty. In the cinema, “punctuation marks” (influxes, blackouts, etc.) were excluded from his film “8/2” by F. Fellini in the frames of the transition from real events to memories or scenes imagined by the hero. This gave the film additional expressiveness.

Amplification - enumeration and heaping. A prime example this rhetorical figure can serve as the following stanza from "Eugene Onegin" A.S. Pushkin:

More cupids, devils, snakes
They jump and make noise on the stage;
More tired lackeys
They sleep on fur coats at the entrance;
Haven't stopped stomping yet
Blow your nose, cough, hiss, clap;
Still outside and inside
Lanterns are shining everywhere;
Still, vegetating, the horses are fighting,
Bored with your harness,
And the coachmen, around the lights,
Scold the gentlemen and beat in the palm of your hand:
And Onegin went out;
He goes home to get dressed.

Amplification is used in the paintings of I. Bosch, S. Dali.

Syllepsis- a rhetorical figure that arises through an artistic and expressive violation of the rules for coordinating morphemes or syntagmas by gender, number, person or time. V. Hugo, for example, owns the following lines:

You wake up in the morning and the whole family
Hugs and kisses you: mother, sister, daughter!

The syllepsis as a replacement of one person by another can be found in N.G. Pomyalovsky. One of the bursaks, Pyotr Teterin, signs for receiving state boots: “ Petra Tetenry got boots».

In the theater, an additional artistic effect arises from the performance of a child's role by an actress-"travesty", female roles - by a man or male - by a woman.

Chiasmus- this is a rhetorical figure that sets a certain order in one sentence, and in another there is its reverse (mirror) symmetry; a compositional figure in which, out of two sentences built on syntactic parallelism, the second sentence is built in the reverse order of members. Let's remember Pushkin's lines:

Secrets of the great POLYGLOTs: language BARRIER and CREATIVITY

Shushpanov Arkady Nikolaevich

Before a person who has chosen to engage in a serious, creative Business, there are many barriers. One of them - language. How to overcome it faster?

The experience of famous polyglots is collected and systematized in just a few principles. Everyone who has read the book, using them, can, as from a designer, make personal language learning method.

The book is addressed to readers who are faced with the task of mastering a foreign language, as well as those interested in issues of creativity.

The less we love a woman,
The easier it is for her to like us...

Here the first sentence is built according to the scheme: “subject - predicate”, and the second, on the contrary, “predicate - subject”.

Parallelism - one of the lines in its syntactic construction repeats the other. In "Reflections at the front door" N.A. Nekrasov writes:

What is this crying sorrow to you,
What are these poor people to you?

Rhetorical figure tmesis occurs when usually closely related morphemes or syntagmas are separated by other elements inserted between them. V. Hugo, for example, in the poem "The Ungrateful King" writes:

You commanded in your pride -
Be ashamed! - so that day and night you
Your monk praised in Latin
And in Castilian, your judge.

Or A.A. Blok in the poem "Humiliation" we read:

In the yellow, winter, huge sunset
Drowned (so magnificent!) bed ..

Tmesis in cinema is expressed as an unexpected montage between two connected episodes, and in painting it occurs with certain types of collage and caricature.

Inversion- manifests itself in a change in the order of the subject, predicate, circumstances of time and place, as well as in similar operations relating to such pairs as "verb - adverb" or "noun - adjective as a definition":

Oh, sad, sad was my soul (P. Verlaine).

Inversion, chiasma and other rhetorical figures, built on the "game" of the order and arrangement of words or other signs, allow you to create a sense of speech space, help the recipient to feel sign system this art. On this basis, artistic searches arise, similar to the "topographic experiments" of S. Mallarme, G. Apollinaire, M. Butor.

Rhetorical figures of the second type in a specifically refracted form are also used in other artistic and communicative systems, for example, in cinema.

Rhetorical figures of the third type (tropes) - are built on the basis of "semantic shifts" , replacement of one semantic content by another, deviation from the "zero meaning". In the trail, the main meaning of the sign changes, the word is assigned a meaning that does not coincide with its direct meaning. The trope changes the content of the word, retaining a piece of its original meaning. Such semantic rhetorical operations are based on the fact that any phenomenon can be divided on two grounds: 1) the constituent parts of the phenomenon: the river is the source, channel, mouth; 2) varieties of the phenomenon: the river is flat, mountainous, underground. These two fundamental semantic relationships underlie the paths to which, according to R.O. Jacobson, realistic schools of art are predisposed.

On the basis of the transition from the particular to the general, from the part to the whole, from the lesser to the greater, from the species to the genus, the rhetorical figures of synecdoche and antonomasia arise. Generalizing (expanding) synecdoche - using more instead of less. For example, people say: mere mortals”, however, this expression can also be applied to animals. The generalizing synecdoche makes speech more philosophical. Narrowing synecdoche - using less for more. For example, in "The Bronze Horseman" A.S. Pushkin's word flags" is used instead of the phrase " merchant ships flying national flags»: « All flags will visit us...". A narrowing synecdoche also occurs in poetic speech when the singular replaces the plural. For example, in Pushkin's poem "Poltava": Swede, Russian - stabs, cuts, cuts».

In cinema, synecdoche as a rhetorical figure is used in big plans(“blow-up”), when a part of an object, as it were, personifies its whole (the image of the guns is the image of the battleship Potemkin in the film of the same name by S. Eisenstein). In sculpture, the bust, and in painting, the portrait often appear as a synecdoche.

Antonomasia - replacement of a person's name with an object related to him, or a common name with his own. So, in "Mozart and Salieri" A.S. Pushkin calls Michelangelo " creator of the Vatican”, and in one of the verses he calls the doctor an esculapius.

One of the main rhetorical figures in the service of poetics and aesthetics is metaphor- the establishment in an artistic message of a semantic connection by similarity, a change in the semantic content of a word (more broadly, a sign in general), a reference to both its direct and figurative meanings. According to the figurative expression of the Mu group, a metaphor is a small semantic scandal. How " transfer of names by analogy”, it serves as a powerful factor in the enrichment of concepts. The basis for creating a metaphor is the similarity, which manifests itself in the intersection of two meanings of a word or other sign. The “Mu” group, defining the general trope of rhetoric, notes that “metaphor ascribes to the union of two sets those features that, strictly speaking, are inherent only in the intersection of these sets ... Metaphor ... sort of pushes the boundaries of the text, creates a feeling of its “openness ", makes it more capacious." At the same time, the "Mu" group reveals the presence of pictorial metaphors in painting. A vivid example of a metaphor in a literary text is the figurative definition of a person proposed by B. Pascal: “ Man is but a reed, the weakest of the creatures of nature, but he is a thinking reed» .

Bringing together different objects, a metaphor helps to better describe one of them. It is no coincidence that it is often formalized with the help of unions " how», « like», « like”, contributing to the comparison and establishment of similarity or identity. These are the stereotypical comparisons: clear as day b", " one as a finger».

Rhetorical figures are in a certain sense "false", and no one takes the identification contained in them literally. An example of such a "false" but expressive metaphor is the line of G. Heine:

So dry in my mouth, as if I had eaten the sun ...

Interesting considerations about the nature of metaphor were once expressed by the poet I.L. Selvinsky at a seminar on poetic skill at the Literary Institute. M. Gorky SP of the USSR, of which the author of these lines was a participant. Selvinsky noted the existence of metaphors of Eastern and Western types, belonging to different artistic traditions. Eastern tradition assumes, as a rule, one point of similarity between the compared objects. For example, say " the girl is slim as a telegraph pole” within the framework of the Eastern tradition, Selvinsky believes, is quite acceptable. In the traditions of Russian and, in general, European poetry, a metaphor must bear at least three points of similarity with the phenomena being compared. Following this tradition, it is legitimate to say: "a girl is like a birch." The similarity here is that both compared objects are slender, young, flexible, spring-like fresh and joyful.

Reasoning I.L. Selvinsky are valuable in that, using the example of metaphor, they show the relation of rhetorical figures to the deep structures of artistic thinking, fixing such an important parameter as national identity. Selvinsky showed the features of the expressive metaphor of the European tradition, using a phrase describing a chandelier hidden in a gauze cover for the summer: “ The chandelier was like a cocoon". There are three types of similarity here: the outer is a white shell, the inner is something contained in the shell, the existential is the temporality of the state that will be changed, and the inner will be revealed and revived.

In Aeschylus we read: May we not experience that, because of which - great suffering, for the sake of which - the great sea was plowed by the sword". Analyzing this metaphor, literary critic O. Freidenberg writes: “ The image of “plowing with a sword” leads to mythology: the semantic identity of agricultural and military tools is known. The great sea plowed by the sword is the sea on which Paris and Helen sailed to Troy, the sea of ​​love that caused the war of nations.

Mythological images continue to speak to their specific language. But they also “allegory” themselves, giving a conceptual meaning: “May we avoid the harmful consequences of love.” The ancient “other rendering” consists in the fact that the image, without losing its character (plowing the sea with a sword), acquires a meaning that does not at all correspond to its meaning (the disastrous results of passion). This new meaning begins to convey the semantics of the image "otherwise", in a different way, in a completely different mental plane - abstractly, as if a thought reads one thing and says another» .

M. Proust believed that a metaphor is a privileged expression of a deep poetic vision, giving the style a “kind of eternity”. This idea can be confirmed by an example of a cinematic metaphor from A. Rene's film "Hiroshima, my love": at first, the viewer sees the body of a murdered Japanese, his arms are outstretched, this image is montage compared with the image of the body of a soldier of the Nazi army, lying in the same position. We can also recall other cinematic metaphors: in S. Eisenstein's "Strike" the types of massacre introduced into the episode of the police attack, or in Ch. Chaplin's "New Times" shots depicting a flock of sheep are cut into the picture of the crowd. Examples of metaphors in monumental sculpture are the sphinx mating a man and a lion, and the centaur mating a man and a horse.

The general aesthetic universality of rhetorical figures is evidenced by the definition of architecture as a metaphor made of stone, given by the Italian theorist of rhetoric and poetics of the 17th century. E. Tesauro.

Metaphor, the queen of rhetorical figures, also found its place in the system of Indian rhetoric and poetics in the figure of rupaka (“giving appearance”)178. And no wonder, because Indian poetry is metaphorically rich. Thus, in Kalidas we read: Your fingers are stems, the shine of your nails is flowers, your hands are vines, and all of you are spring beauty, open to our gaze.". The distinctions between rupak and metaphor, which P. Grinzer outlines in his work, are not sufficient for not recognizing these figures as corresponding to each other, especially if we proceed from the broad understanding of metaphor proposed in the classification of rhetorical figures by the Mu group.

A rhetorical figure close to metaphor is comparison- identification of a common feature when comparing two phenomena. For example, A.S. Pushkin in the poem "Anchar" there is such a comparison:

Anchar, like a formidable sentry,
It stands alone in the entire universe.

Mounting juxtaposition-comparison is often used in cinematography.

Metonymy(literally renaming) - establishing a connection between phenomena by adjacency, transferring the properties of an object to the object itself, with the help of which these properties are discovered, allegorical designation of the subject of speech. So, A.S. Pushkin " the hiss of foamy glasses» replaces the foamy wine poured into glasses. In metonymy, the effect can be replaced by the cause, the content by capacity, as a result of which the name is transferred based on the adjacency of meanings. For example, sometimes the material from which a thing is made replaces the designation of the thing itself. A.S. Griboedova Famusov recalls: “ Not on silver, on gold».

The French researcher of rhetoric Du Marset revealed the difference between metonymy and synecdoche. The first, he believes, involves a comparison of objects that exist independently of each other (“ in metonymy, the replaced and replacing concepts do not have a common semantic part”), and the second is a rhetorical conjugation of objects that make up some unity and correlate as part with the whole.

Researchers also note the existence of metonymic epithets (" The light of day shines» - M.V. Lomonosov), metonymic paraphrases (“ Great Peter's daughter» - M.V. Lomonosov).

Coats of arms and other symbolic sign formations have a metonymic character (the coat of arms is the metonymy of the state). Collage in painting generates a metonymic relationship between the glued part and the painted part of the canvas. This is written by Yu.M. Lotman: " Drawn and glued objects belong to different and incompatible worlds according to their characteristics: reality / illusory, two-dimensionality / three-dimensionality, sign / non-sign and so on. Within a number of traditional cultural contexts, their meeting within the same text is absolutely forbidden. And that is precisely why their combination forms that exceptionally strong semantic effect that is inherent in the path».

Oxymoron- close proximity in the syntagma of two signs or words with contradictory meanings, direct correlation and combination of contrasting, seemingly incompatible features and phenomena. These are " black Sun " in the finale of "Quiet Don" M.A. Sholokhov or " splendor of shamelessness"- a capacious characteristic of a woman of easy virtue in W. Faulkner's novel "The City".

Repeat- sound, symbolic (verbal), synonymous repetition is carried out in the name of artistically expressive, emotionally inspiring and logically persuasive goals. Repeat attached artistic expression amplification, change and increment of meaning. Such, for example, is the repetition by A.S. Pushkin:

I'm going, I'm going in an open field;
Ding ding ding bell...
Terrible, terribly scary
Amid the unknown plains!

In L. Buñuel's film The Discreet Charm of the Bourgeoisie, the same scene of receiving guests is repeated many times in the dreams of various actors. Then this scene comes true.

A rhetorical figure of repetition in architecture is, for example, the colonnade of the wings of the Kazan Cathedral in Leningrad.

In Sanskrit poetic culture, the rhetorical figure of repetition corresponds to the figure of Avritti, which has three varieties: repetition of words with a change in meaning, repetition of meaning with a change in words, and repetition of both words and meaning.

The fourth type of rhetorical figures arises on the basis of deviations from the logical norm. For figures of this type, the “zero level” may be a “protocol” speech, certifying the truth of the facts disputed by the rhetorical figure. Rhetorical figures of the fourth type are built on the basis of the conscious use of polysemy (polysemy of a word or sign) for artistic expressive purposes.

Antithesis- opposition of various, sharply contrasting phenomena. It is built according to the logical formula " A is not A ". Antithesis is especially expressive when it is composed of metaphors. For example, G. R. Derzhavin resorts to such an antithesis in the poem “God”:

I am a king - I am a slave - I am a worm - I am a god!

overlay- the use of the word simultaneously in the direct and in the figurative, "figurative" meaning. Its most common form is superposition, which is based on two meanings of a word expressed in one of its uses. So, in V. Hugo we read:

And they remember you, sorting through the ashes
Your hearth and your heart!

The specificity of the overlay lies in the fact that the expression "the ashes of one's heart" is perceived metaphorically. At the same time, the reader, when perceiving the text, takes into account direct meaning the words "ashes" in the context of "the ashes of their hearth."

Overlay as a rhetorical figure is also present in other art forms, for example in cinematography, in double exposure shots. In this case, one image is superimposed on another and forms a new thought that is not contained in any of the interacting images.

The quantitative (exaggerating) nature of rhetorical figures is inherent in hyperbole. Roman orator and theorist of eloquence M.F. Quintilian defined hyperbole as an appropriate digression from the true state of things. It involves the ultimate increase in the action, properties, dimensions of an object for artistic expressive purposes. When N.V. Gogol states in Taras Bulba that " rare bird will fly to the middle of the Dnieper", he uses hyperbole as a rhetorical figure in the organization of artistic speech. Sometimes hyperbole appears in combination with a metaphor (" This cat is a tiger"). Among the ancient Indian rhetorical figures (alankar) there is a figure similar to the hyperbole dating back to ancient rhetoricians - this is atishaya (exaggeration) and its variety - atishayokti (exaggerated statement). This figure is born when you want to describe some property (of a subject) that goes beyond the ordinary. Yes, shine and whiteness women's clothing and the female body, indistinguishable in the radiance of moonlight, is figuratively conveyed in Kalidasa with the help of this rhetorical figure: “ When, in wreaths of white jasmine, smearing the body with sandalwood ointment, in a linen dress, women go on a date, they cannot be distinguished in the moonlight».

But in order not to violate the aesthetic measure in art, as Pseudo-Longin correctly noted, the artist " it is necessary to know the limit to which in each individual case it is possible to bring the hyperbole».

Examples of hyperbole in architecture: the grandiose pyramid of Cheops, because for the practical purpose of burial and memorial fixation of the grave, a mound or crypt is enough; hyperbole of the entrance gate - the triumphal arch at the same time symbolizes the greatness of the deeds of those in whose honor it was created.

IN litote the quantitative, but already downplaying, nature of rhetorical operations is also manifested. Litota reduces the phenomenon, speaks of less in order to say more. The litotes are: miniature - in painting, a hut on chicken legs - in architecture.

Carried to the limit, the litote turns into silence ( The best way to say less is to say nothing at all). Silence can also be hyperbolic in nature: from a strong emotion, speech is cut off by silence, and a written text by ellipses. Sudden cessation of speech - interruption or temporary cessation - suspension. In temporary art forms, suspension can be expressed not only in silence, but also in freeze-frames (film art) or in a silent scene (theater). A well-known example of such silence is a silent scene in N.V. Gogol's "Inspector". The gendarme announces the arrival of a genuine auditor, and then the author's remark follows: “The spoken words strike everyone like thunder. The sound of amazement unanimously emanates from the ladies' lips; the whole group, suddenly changing position, remains in petrification.

Allegory- allegory, the transfer of the meanings of one circle of phenomena to another, the transfer by similarity from the literal meaning to the non-literal meaning of a judgment, thought or a whole system of judgments. Thus, in The Tale of Igor's Campaign, Boyan's playing on the harp is conveyed through allegory:

Then ten falcons set off on a herd of swans;
Whose falcon flew - that song was sung before:
Whether to the old Yaroslav, whether to the brave Mstislav ...
(translated by V. Zhukovsky).

In the finale of I. Bergman's film "The Seventh Seal" in the traditional allegorical form (a skeleton with a scythe), death appears to the heroes and takes them away from life. And in " strawberry meadow”by the same director, an allegory of the end of time in a dream of a sick hero appears the dial of a street clock without hands.

In a fable, an allegorical deviation from the logical norm occurs through personification (the king is a lion) or through a narrowing synecdoche (the cunning fox, the worker is an ant).

Euphemism- replacement of a rude, forbidden, indecent or overly harsh expression with a softer, more acceptable ethically, socially, aesthetically. At the same time, the meaning of the euphemism is preserved, but random semantic shades are added to it. So, in one of the poems by E.A. Baratynsky uses the less harsh expression “abode of the night” to designate the “grave”, “the other world”, thereby achieving greater artistic expressiveness.

The figure of euphemism is widely used in cinema.

Among the ancient peoples, among the taboos, there were prohibitions to mention this or that phenomenon, so they had to give concepts about them using allegorical expressions or euphemism. It can be assumed that allegory and euphemism are the oldest rhetorical figures that arose even before the development of artistic consciousness proper.

Antiphrasis differs from irony by the absence of a comedic beginning in criticism. An example of this rhetorical figure, when a deplorable point of view is said: " Good position!»

Negation- a rhetorical figure used to figuratively characterize the phenomenon "from the opposite", by reporting what it is not. For example, M.Yu. Lermontov characterizes his lyrical hero in this way:

No, I'm not Byron, I'm different
Still unknown chosen one,
Like him, a wanderer persecuted by the world,
But only with a Russian soul.

Using rhetorical figures of the fourth type, the authors of a literary text, deliberately breaking the logical connection and even sometimes mocking the logic of reality, in a certain sense pay tribute to it, because they use the redundancy of information about it. For example, " a knife without a blade that lacks a handle”(G.K. Lichtenberg) is an object that exists only in language, through which we get the opportunity to see a special reality.

Rhetorical figures provide such a paradoxical and unexpected combination of initial signs, words, in which a dialectical leap occurs and a qualitatively new thought arises, which is not directly contained in any of the original signs and does not arise from their simple extra-rhetorical addition.

Giving a global-philosophical, universal-existential meaning to rhetorical figures, Tesauro believed that they constitute the very basis of the mechanism of thinking of that genius that spiritualizes both man and the Universe. These ideas are continued in contemporary views on rhetoric, as a result of which the actual artistic value of rhetorical figures is underestimated. Correctly noting the presence of tropes in science, Yu.M. Lotman makes the expansive conclusion that they " belong to creativity in general»: « ...paths are not an external adornment, some kind of appliqué imposed on thought from the outside - they are the essence of creative thinking...their scope is also wider than art. It belongs to creativity in general. So, for example, all attempts in constructing spatial physical models of elementary particles, etc., are rhetorical figures (tropes). And just like in poetry, in science, irregular convergence often acts as an impetus for the formulation of a new pattern.».

In general, this is true, but with the only caveat that in science, tropes and rhetorical figures are an additional, optional means. In art, they are indispensable, they are “the very essence”, figures of figurative, and not any creative thinking.

The strength of rhetorical figures lies in the fact that, being carriers of conceptual meaning, they at the same time have a visual nature. Thus, it is rhetorical figures that create a “bridge” in our thinking, a jumper between the activity of the left and right hemispheres, one of which provides conceptual, and the other - visual, concrete-sensory thinking. This duality, the ambivalence of rhetorical figures (conceptuality and "visibility", conceivability, concrete sensuality) allows them to live both in verbal (prose, poetry) and in fine arts(painting, sculpture), as well as in its other forms, built on the interaction of visual and verbal principles (theater, cinema, etc.). Through the intonational side of their verbal nature and through the closeness of its concrete-sensual side, rhetorical figures turn out to be significant for musical thinking as well.

« In the system of poetic language, figures and paths are the main nodes in which the energy tension of the stylistic body of the text is concentrated.”, - rightly notes M.Ya. Polyakov. To read rhetorical figures, the main thing is to understand what figurative meaning receives a given sign formation in a given context.

So, the artist, with the help of these four types of rhetorical figures, violates the "zero stage" of speech, thus creating artistic speech that conveys artistic meaning and carries a specifically aesthetic impact.

Borev Y. Aesthetics.