Phonetic units of the language (phonemes). Features of Russian stress. Phonetic means of speech expressiveness. Phonetic units of the Russian language

PHONETIC-PHONOLOGICAL LEVEL.

LECTURE 6

PHONETICS - Greek Phone sound, phoneticos sound - a branch of the science of language, which studies the sound structure of the language. The content of the concept of "sound structure of the language" consists of sounds and such means of language as a phrase, intonation, speech tact, phonetic word and stress.

The largest phonetic unit of a language is a phrase. Phrase - this is a statement that is complete in meaning, united by a special intonation and separated from other similar units by a pause. The phrase does not always match the sentence. If a phrase coincides with a sentence, the phrase is considered from the point of view of phonetics: what is the intonation of this phrase, how many pauses are in the middle of this phrase, in what place are they.

Each phrase is framed by intonation. Intonation - a set of means of organizing sounding speech, reflecting its semantic and emotional-volitional sides. intonation appears in melodic - successive changes pitch (rising-decreasing), speech rhythm (strong, weak, long, short syllables), speech tempo (acceleration, slowdown in the course of speech), intra-phrase pauses and the general timbre of the statement (gloomy, cheerful). With the help of intonation, not only the design of the phrase occurs, but also the expression of the feelings and thoughts of people.

Intonation also helps to divide speech into syntagmas - intonation-semantic segments.

Intonation determines the rhythmic-melodic structure of speech, which serves in a sentence as a means of expressing syntactic meanings and emotional coloring. The main intonational means are tonal means. Each speaker has their own average tone of speech. but in some places of the phrase there is an increase or decrease in tone. At the same time, intonation includes a change in the intensity of the sound, its tempo, a change in timbre, and also pauses. The sound side also includes the sounds of speech, their combination into syllables, the organization of syllables into speech beats, verbal and phrasal stresses, and, finally, intonation.

Intonation conveys individual shades of the work of consciousness and participates in their formation . Timbre means of intonation - these are different qualities of the voice, determined mainly by the state of the vocal cords. In addition to a neutral voice, a relaxed voice is distinguished: “She is so kind, sweet”, a tense voice “she is so dexterous, energetic”, aspirated “she is so beautiful, divine”.

Intonation includes increasing or decreasing the volume of pronunciation of individual sections of the phrase: “What is her voice?”, Or “What is her voice!” pronounced differently because 1 - general question, and 2 is an exclamatory sentence. Intonation differentiates sentences different types, reflects the subjective attitude of the speaker to the statement, conveys different shades of his emotions.

Another concept of a sound system is speech beat - part of a phrase, limited by pauses and characterized by an intonation of incompleteness. Pauses between speech measures are shorter than between phrases. In terms of phonetics, the phrase is divided into speech bars, not words. The arbitrariness of dividing a phrase into speech beats leads to a distortion of the transmitted thought or its complete destruction. The speech tact, in turn, breaks down into smaller units - phonetic words. A phrase has as many phonetic words as it has accents. So, phonetic word - this is a part of a speech measure or phrase, if it is not divided into measures, united by one stress.

In turn, the phonetic word is divided into -syllables - part of a phonetic word, pronounced by one exhaled push of air and characterized by an increase in sonority. A syllable-forming or syllabic is a sound that acts as more sonorous than others. Syllabic are vowels as sounds of the greatest sonority, non-syllabic - consonants as sounds of lesser sonority, which are organized in a syllable around vowels.

The division of speech into syllables is one of the complex problems of phonetics, since the syllable is not a carrier of meaning, does not have its own semantics, but is only the result of articulations that give a certain acoustic effect. The ancient Greeks and Indians defined the syllable by the presence of a vowel - how many vowels in a word, so many syllables. Then from the end of the 19th century. expiratory (syllable - expiratory push of air) and sonorous theories of the syllable (syllable - a combination of a more sonorous, sonorous element + less sonorous + push of air) appeared. Then came the muscular theory - a piece of sound, pronounced by one impulse of muscular tension). And, finally, the articulatory-acoustic theory, where a syllable is the minimum spoken unit of speech, the elements of which are closely interconnected both acoustically and articulatory.

The syllable happens open, if it ends in a vowel, and closed if it ends in a consonant.

Not syllables in a word are pronounced the same. The separation of a syllable in a word is called stress or word stress. Syllable highlighting in different languages characterized as:

Power - the strength or intensity of articulation

Quantitative - achieved by the length of pronunciation

In most languages, syllable emphasis is determined by a combination of these phenomena. For example, in Russian.

Stress in different languages ​​can be fixed, falling on a certain syllable - French on the last syllable - or not fixed - English, Russian. Here it is movable - table-table, 'import, imp'ort /

The syllable is divided into smaller phonetic units - sounds. - this is the limit of the acoustic articulation of speech, its smallest unit. Sound, on the one hand, is the result of human articulatory activity, and, on the other hand, it is an acoustic entity perceived by ear.

Each language has a specific phonetic system, despite the fact that:

1. the speech apparatus of a native speaker of any language is able to pronounce any sound

2. existing languages ​​are based on the same sounds.

At the same time, the phonetic system of each language is original.

Basic concepts of phonetics

Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that studies the sound forms of a language, their acoustic and articulation, properties, laws by which they are formed, and the mode of functioning.

The sound of speech is the smallest unit of the howling chain, resulting from the articulation of a person and characterized by certain phonetic properties.

Sound is the basic unit of language with words and sentences, but by itself it has no meaning.

Sounds play an important meaning in the language, a significant role: they create the outer shell of words and thus help to distinguish words from each other.

Words differ in the number of sounds of which they are composed, the set of sounds, the sequence of sounds.

The sounds of the tongue are formed in the speech apparatus when air is exhaled. In the speech apparatus, the following parts can be distinguished:

1) breathing apparatus (lungs, bronchi, trachea), which creates the air jet pressure necessary for the formation of sound vibrations;

3) oral and nasal cavities, where vibrations occur under the influence of vibrations of the vocal cords air mass and additional tones and overtones are created, superimposed on the main tone that arose in the larynx.

4) The cavities of the mouth and nose are resonators that amplify additional tones of sound; organs of pronunciation, i.e. tongue, lips.

5) 5) the human brain and nervous system, which control the entire work of the speech apparatus.

Articulatory, all speech sounds are divided into vowels and consonants. The main differences between them are related to the way these sounds are formed and their role in the formation of a syllable. Vowels are syllable-forming, which form the top of the syllable, therefore, in almost all languages ​​of the world, the number of consonants exceeds the number of vowels.

Principles of Classification of Speech Sounds

According to the peculiarities of formation and acoustic properties, the sounds of the Russian language are divided into vowels and consonants.

Vowels are sounds that consist only of a voice; in the formation of vowels, the participation of the vocal cords and the absence of an obstruction in the oral cavity are mandatory. Exhaled air passes through the mouth without any obstruction. The phonetic function of vowels is in the organization of the sound integrity of a syllable, a word.

There are six main vowels in Russian: [a], [o], [u], [e], [i], [s].

Vowels are stressed (for example, noise - [y], forest - [e]) and unstressed (for example: water - [a], spring - [and]).

Consonants are sounds that consist of noise or voice and noise: when articulating consonants, the exhaled air encounters obstacles in its path in the oral cavity. In the formation of consonants, the participation of the vocal cords is not necessary, but the presence of a barrier and a joint articulation is mandatory.

Consonants as a class of sounds oppose vowels also because they are not syllable-forming: the very name "consonant", that is, occurring together with a vowel, indicates the subordinate role of the consonant in the syllable.

Finally, one more important feature in the opposition of vowels and consonants should be noted - their role as carriers of certain information. Since there are significantly fewer vowels than consonants, they are more common, choosing them is quite simple. There are much more consonants than vowels, so the choice of the necessary one is more difficult.

Voiced and voiceless consonants are paired and unpaired.

In accordance with this feature, all consonants are divided into noisy and sonorous (from Latin Zopogiz - sonorous).

The voiced consonant at the end of a word and before a deaf consonant is replaced by a paired deaf consonant. This replacement is called stunning (friend - [k], spoon - [w]).

A deaf consonant before a voiced consonant (except for l, p, Nu m, d) is replaced by a paired voiced consonant. This replacement is called voicing (request - [з "]).

Syllable. stress

A syllable is one vowel sound or several sounds in a word, which are pronounced with one push of air during speaking. A syllable is the smallest unit of pronunciation of a word. Syllables consisting of two or more sounds can end either in a vowel (this is an open syllable, for example, po-ra, mountain-ra,) or a consonant (this is closed syllable, e.g. doc-tor, black).

Stress is the selection of a syllable in a word with greater force when pronouncing the word using phonetic means (voice strength, longitude of sound, pitch).

The stress always falls on a vowel sound in a syllable, for example: book-ga, spring-sen-ny, in-gla-sit.

Depending on the location of the stress in the syllabic structure of the word, stress is free and connected. Free stress is a non-fixed stress that can fall on any syllable of a word (in Russian, for example, it can be on the last syllable: good, on the penultimate one: girlfriend, on the third from the end: expensive.

Associated stress is a fixed stress attached to a specific syllable in a word (in French it is on the last syllable, in English on the first).

Towards morphological structure word stress can be mobile and motionless.

A sub-stress is an accent that can move in different word forms of the same word, it is not tied to the same morpheme, for example: mountain - mountain.

A fixed stress is a constant stress tied to the same morpheme of different word forms of a word, for example: book, book, book.

The stress can distinguish the meanings of words or different forms of the word: atlas (collection geographical maps) - satin (shiny silk fabric), windows (im. pl.) - window (gen. sg.)

The word usually has one stress, but sometimes (as a rule, in compound words) there is a side stress (for example: medical institute, two-story).

To indicate the stress on the letter, in the necessary cases, the sign a is used at the top above the stressed vowel.

In some words of the Russian language, the stress is placed on one or the other syllable. Both options are correct, for example: at the same time and at the same time, cottage cheese - cottage cheese, otherwise - differently, thinking and thinking.

Russian stress in modified words during their addition or conjugation can be stored on the same part of the word on which it was in initial form: mountain - mountains, big - big, sandy - sandy, choose - I will choose, or it can move to another part of the word, for example: friend - friend, take - took.

Phoneme as a unit of language

Every language has huge variety sounds. But the whole variety of speech sounds can be reduced to a small number of language units (phonemes) involved in the semantic differentiation of words or their forms.

A phoneme is a unit of the sound structure of a language, represented by a number of positionally alternating sounds, which serves to identify and distinguish between significant units of the language.

There are 5 vowel phonemes in Russian, and the number of consonant phonemes ranges from 32 to 37.

Like any language unit, a phoneme has its own phonological features. Some of them are "passive" signs, others are "active", for example: hardness, sonority, explosiveness. To define a phoneme, it is necessary to know the set of its differential features.

To determine the phoneme, you need to find a position in the word in which the most phonemes differ (compare: small - mol - mule - here, under stress in the same phonetic environment, the phonemes [a], [o], [y]) are distinguished) .

Position is a condition for the implementation of a phoneme in speech, its position in a word in relation to stress, another phoneme, the structure of the word as a whole. Distinguish between strong and weak positions.

A strong position is a position in which the largest number of units differs. The phoneme appears here in its basic form, which allows it to perform its functions in the best possible way. For Russian vowels, this is the position under stress. For deaf / voiced consonants - a position before all vowels, for example: [g] ol - [k] ol.

A weak position is a position in which a smaller number of units differs than in a strong position, because phonemes have limited opportunities to perform its distinctive function, for example: s [a] ma - sama and soma.

For Russian vowels, a weak position is a position without stress. For deaf / voiced "consonants - the position of the end of the word, where they do not differ, coinciding in one sound, for example: forests - fox [fox], congress - eat [syest].

Transcription

Transcription is a special writing system used to accurately convey the sound composition of an oral or writing. Transcription is based on strict adherence to the principle of correspondence between the sign and the sound transmitted by this sign: the same sign must in all cases correspond to the same sound.

There are several types of transcriptions. The most commonly used phonetic transcription.

Phonetic transcription is used to convey a word in full accordance with its sound, i.e., with its help, the sound composition of the word is fixed. It is built on the basis of any alphabet using superscript or subscript characters that serve to indicate stress, softness, longitude, brevity. Among the phonetic alphabets, the most famous is the alphabet of the International Phonetic Association, built on the basis of the Latin alphabet, for example, the words window and day are transmitted as follows: [akpo \ [y y en y].

In Russia, in addition, transcription is used, which is based on Russian graphics: [ltsno], [d * en "].

The transcription does not use punctuation marks and capital letters.

Intonation and its elements

Intonation is a set of rhythmic and melodic components of speech, one of essential funds framing the statement, identifying it

meaning. With the help of intonation, the speech flow is divided into semantic segments with further detailing of their semantic relationships. Intonation includes:

1) melody of speech: the main component of intonation, it is carried out by raising and lowering the voice in the phrase;

2) the rhythm of speech, that is, the regular repetition of stressed and unstressed, long and short syllables. The rhythm of speech serves as the basis of aesthetic organization artistic text- poetry and prose;

3) the intensity of speech, i.e. the degree of its loudness, the strength or weakness of the utterance of the statement;

4) the rate of speech, i.e. the speed of its flow, the duration of the sound in time;

5) the timbre of speech, that is, the sound coloring of speech, which conveys its emotional and expressive shades.

Intonation forms the statement into a single whole, distinguishes the types of statements in terms of their purposefulness, expresses emotional coloring, characterizes the speaker and the situation of communication as a whole.

Read, indicate what role stress plays in words. Put the stress, make 5-7 sentences.

Flock protein - vegetable protein; the organ of speech - the organ sounds, the majestic castle - the door lock; smells of perfume - smells like a breeze; picturesque shores - from the opposite shore;

full-flowing rivers - along the river bank; lead from loved ones - lead the child by the hand; dense forests - the edge of the forest; drank coffee - drank wood.

Orthoepic and accentological norms

ORPHEPIC STANDARDS

Orthoepy - 1) a section of linguistics that studies normative literary pronunciation; 2) a set of rules that establish a uniform pronunciation that corresponds to the pronunciation standards adopted in the language.

There are several sections in Russian orthoepy:

6) pronunciation of vowels;

7) pronunciation of consonants (hard and soft, combinations of consonants);

8) pronunciation of individual grammatical forms;

9) pronunciation features foreign words;

10) errors in the pronunciation of individual words.

Pronunciation of unstressed vowels

In the modern Russian literary language, the vowels [a], [e], [o] are pronounced distinctly only under stress: poppy, stump, house. In the unstressed position, they are subjected to qualitative and quantitative changes as a result of decreased articulation. A qualitative reduction is a change in the sound of a vowel with the loss of some signs of its timbre. Quantitative reduction is the reduction of its longitude and strength.

To a lesser extent, vowels that are in the first pre-stressed syllable, for example, and [o] are pronounced the same way - like closed sound, denoted in phonetic transcription by the icon - “lid” - [l]: [plkd] - peace, [blzyr] - bazaar, etc. It differs from the shock [a] in a shorter duration.

The pronunciation of an unstressed [o] as a closed [l] is called a moderate akan and is a feature of Russian literary pronunciation.

In the rest unstressed syllables in place of [o] and [a) a short sound is pronounced, denoted in transcription by the sign: k [b] los6k, del [b], shkdl [b].

At the beginning of a word, unstressed [a] and [o] are pronounced like [a]: xioma, [a] blaka.

After hard hissing [w] and [w], the vowel [a] is also pronounced like [a] if it is in the first pre-stressed syllable: w [a] rgon, sh [a] gatp, and before soft consonants a sound is pronounced, the middle between [s] and [e]: f[s e] fly, losh [s e] dey.

In place of the letters e and i in the first pre-stressed syllable, a sound is pronounced, the middle between [e] and [i], denoted in the transcription [and e], for example: l [and e] gugiki, s [and e] blah.

In the rest of the unstressed syllables, in place of the letters to her I, a short [and] is pronounced, denoted in transcription by the sign: p[b]tachbk, vyt[b]nut.

In place of combinations aa, he, do, oo in pre-stressed syllables, [a] is pronounced long, denoted in transcription [a], for example: in [animation, z[a] park.

The distinct pronunciation of unstressed [a], [o], [e] is a violation of the orthoepic norms of the Russian literary language. It most often arises under the influence of the written appearance of the word and produces its literal, rather than sound composition. Also, errors in the pronunciation of vowels can be caused by the influence of local dialects.

A number of orthoepic errors are associated with the indistinguishability of stressed [e] and [o] (in the letter ё) after soft consonants: scam and scam, grenadier and grenadier, etc. In most native Russian words, unstressed [e] under stress corresponds to [o], cf. .: wife - wives, village - villages, etc.

In many cases, with the help of sounds [e] and [o], words or forms of words are distinguished: the expired year and the bled one, everything and everything, case (noun) and case (cattle).

However, most often the fluctuations in pronunciation [e] and [o] have neither semantic or stylistic meaning. These are equivalent versions of the literary norm. So, according to the "Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language", the pronunciation of the following words is variant: whitish and add. whitish, faded and additional. faded, being and being, from afar and additional. from afar, bile and additional. bile, maneuver and maneuver, pronominal and pronominal, crossed and additional. crossed, trellised and trellised.

Only [e] should be pronounced in the words: midwife, athlete, scam, bluff, splash, grenadier, tribal, peep, pharynx, fishing line, simultaneous, guardianship, settled, crypt, perfect look (term), helmet, etc.

Only [o] graphically ё should be pronounced in the words voyager, engraving, ice, bigamy, drowsiness, numb, sparkling, juniper, worthless, etc.

Pronounce the words correctly and put emphasis. See the spelling dictionary for help.

Zer, pointed, dusty, populated, cluttered, cramming, from afar, hibernation, stubble, sleet, firebrand, cries, wandering, foreigner, settled, nonsense, point, cross, brought, tearful, loan, sooty, motley. Exercise 2. Determine in which words we pronounce [e] - graphic e, and in which [o] - graphic e.

Newborn, worthless, incomparable, faded, pompous, pollinated, saddle, despicable, different times, this, gleam, background, swollen, brought, brought, obscene, humble, silver, unmercenary, athlete, perfect (communion).

Pronunciation of consonants

The pronunciation of consonants is associated with the laws of assimilation and deafening.

At the end of words and in the middle before deaf consonants, voiced consonants are stunned: bunch - gro [s "t"], meadow - lu [k], mitten - vare [shk] a, etc.

In the combinations “voiced consonant + voiceless consonant” or “voiced consonant + voiced consonant”, the first of them is likened to the second: mug - kru[shk]a, conspiracy - [zg] ovor.

Combinations of individual consonants are pronounced as follows:

si /, ass - [shsh] or [sh:]: made a noise - ra [sh:] skillful]

S ^ FS) evil [lzh] or [zh:]: fry - [zh:] fry;

zzh y zhzh (inside the root) - [zh "] or [zh:]: later - by [zh:] e \

mid - [w "]: happiness - [w "] astier \

zch (at the junction of the root and the suffix) - [w 1]: clerk - prik [w "] ik;

tch, dh - [h "]: speaker - report [h"] ik, desperate - from [h"] ayanny;

ts, dts - [ts]: well done - young [ts] s, fathers - o [ts] s \

ds, ts (at the junction of the root and the suffix) - [c]: fraternal - marriage [c] cue, factory - factory [c] coy \

in combinations gk, gch [g] is pronounced like [x]: light ~ le [x] cue.

It should be remembered that the voiced consonant [g] at the end of the word should sound like a deaf explosive [k]. The pronunciation of the deaf fricative [x] is unacceptable as a dialect (a feature of the southern dialects). An exception is the word god - 6o[x].

Softening of hard consonants before soft ones (assimilation, i.e., likening in softness) is most often observed before the suffix or inside the root: snow - [s"n"ek], Friday - [n"at"n"itsj], racer - [ gon "sh": ik], from the winter - [z "-z" ima].

In some cases, the softening of hard consonants before soft ones in the modern Russian literary language during pronunciation is optional, i.e. optional: branches [t "in"] and [te"), ate [s "yel] and [syel].

Softening [h] in the suffix -ism is not allowed if the consonant [m] is solid, for example: materialism] and organism [sm].

The combination of ch in most cases is pronounced in accordance with the spelling: exact, Milky Way, etc. Only in some words [shn] is pronounced in place of ch: two [gin "]ik, in patronymics on -ichna (Nikiti [shn] a). There are words with variable pronunciation: two-kopeck [shn] and [ch].

Write in the transcription the pronunciation of the combination ch in the following words:

Bath-laundry, bagel, barrel, alarm clock, pin, bakery, bottle, bribe, maid, mustard plaster, feverish, buckwheat, loser, five-kopeck, bachelorette party, dairy, oncoming, kalachny, housekeeper, on purpose, midnight, trifling, birdhouse, scrambled eggs.

Write down the words in which [sh] should be pronounced.

Careless, felt, bribery, all-night, mustard, shop, fabulous, cordial friend, heart muscle, country, petty, Kuzminichna, Ilyinichna, boring, candlestick, eyeglass case, barley, everyday, balalaika.

Find words that pronounce the sound [z*]. Dirt, request, mowing, idle, hint, pointer, here, do it, health, unwell, building, watermelon, brain, station, starry, envious, hello, run away, patriotism, idealism, position, ruthless, wintering, loading, clerk. List the words that have the [s] sound.

Epistemology, soft-hearted, convocation, agitation train, motto, collective farm, union, synthesis, discuss, sign, inscription, low, narrow, enter, slippery, burned out, faded, embroidered, miscalculate, calculation, sad, famous, envious, factory, fry.

Threshing, west, trap, bottom, day, December, good, excuse, horseshoe, jacket, drill, pond, pud, pudding, fall, case (nominative), bribery, subcourses, strand, span (of land), galaxy, code, treasure, pantry, plaid.

I. Faded, pipe, zamzav, ruthless, miscalculate, in part, thirty, childish, Bolshevik, capitalism, decide, gather.

II. Frozen, dove, jagged, compressed, subscriber, speaker, urban, soldier, anti-fascist, impressionism, woo, see each other.

III. Embroidered, timid, second, lifeless, carver, clean up, passionate, naval, revanchist, idealism, they say, dreams.

Errors in the pronunciation of some grammatical forms

In place of the letter g in the endings of the -th / -it should be pronounced [in]: red [in], then [in], fourth [in]. The sound [v] in place of the letter g is also pronounced in the words today, today, total.

It is necessary to distinguish in pronunciation the unstressed endings of the 3rd l. plural verbs I and II conjugation; ko[l"ut], not ko[l"ut], mu[h"it], not mu[h"and et], not [l"ut], not me[l"at], dy [shut], not dy [giut], etc.

In the forms of the 2nd l. unit before the return postfix -sya, the consonant sound [w] is preserved: dare [gis] or dare [gis" b]. instead of bathing [c > b].

Find the words in which you should pronounce [r].

Genesis, no coal, toast, big, today, god, whom, total, today's, blue, what, his, beautiful, sweet, kind, beloved, run, no one, neither one nor the other, white, mine, huge, worthless , miraculous, ours, alcohol, money, agreement.

Write down the words in which the sound [v] is pronounced.

Grass, mitten, cheesecake, green, mine, cow, boyish, inform, Petrov, Gordian knot, libel, no one, in the field, apostrophe, absolutely, light in the night, petition, girls, delivery, campfires, houses, hair, forever, eight, spring.

Features of the pronunciation of borrowed words

In book words of foreign origin and in some proper names, unstressed [o] is preserved: poet, poem, rococo, Zola, Chopin, sonnet, etc. novel, glass, etc.

At the beginning of words of foreign origin and after a vowel in place of the letter e, [e] is pronounced: exotic, exterior, duelist, pirouette.

The consonants l, g, k, x in foreign words soften before e: duke, scheme, molecule.

The consonants t, d, z, s, and, p most often remain firm before e: Voltaire, rendezvous, thermos, masterpiece, etc.

According to the Orthoepic Dictionary, in many words a variable pronunciation is allowed before e: parcel [n "d" e] and [nde], businessman [zne] and [me], add. [s"n"e] and [m"e], depot [d"e] and [de]. This is due to the fact that the change in the quality of consonants before e in borrowed words is a living process. The softening of consonants before e occurs primarily in commonly used words.

Determine in which words the consonant before e is solid. In case of difficulty, refer to the spelling dictionary.

I. Andante, despotism, adequate, benefit performance, nativity scene, debut, apartheid, asteroid, bulldenezh, waterline, dumping, synthetics, test, tetracycline, plywood.

I. Alma mater, detailing, adenoids, beret, harem, degenerate, atheism, outsider, burime, riding breeches, citadel, clarinet, sector, masterpiece, Schopenhauer.

Academician, accordion, dispatch, hypotenuse, democracy, no less, bijouterie, sandwich, grapefruit, interior, scarf, phonetics, thermometer, tete-a-tete, director.

Watercolor, mezzanine, patentless, rowdy, brotherhood, woodcock, grotesque, newspaper, Odessa, rent, tour, tenor, thermos, tube dispensary, territory.

Write out the words in which before e, according to the norms of Russian pronunciation, you can pronounce both a hard consonant and a soft one. See a dictionary for help.

Annexation, bacteria, parcel post, brunet, beefsteak, businessman, Bremen, Bruxelles, child prodigy, genesis, delegate, devaluation, deductive, Daudet, Descartes, deputy, depot, dermatologist, deformation, editor, resolution, tennis, tradescantia, term.

Errors in the pronunciation of individual words

In speech, sometimes some sounds are unjustifiably omitted, others, on the contrary, are inserted or rearranged. Similar errors can be observed when pronouncing foreign words, cf.:

Wrong: dermat[n] tin (added [n]) incident [n] dent (added [n]) intriguer [t] ka (added [t]) state [n] tirovat (added [n]) hypocrisy [n] property (added [n]) tro [l "e] bus (omitted [l] and [th]) [n "bp" and 3 trumpets] ation (rearrangement of sounds) laboratory [l] laboratory (replacing the sound [p] with [k]) legal [t] adviser (added [t]) light doom[d] judgment (added [d])

Instead of the correct skirt, skirts, they say yu [n] ochka, yu [n] ok, keeping the stunning that occurs before the consonant [k] in the form of the nominative case: yu [n] ka, yu [n] ki.

Instead of one [o] in the word porcupine, they pronounce wild [oo] b-raz, and the standard-bearer sounds like a banner [nln6] set. These gross errors indicate strong influence vernacular.

ACCENTOLOGICAL STANDARDS

Accentology (from lat. assep1u $ - stress) is a section of linguistics that studies the features and functions of stress.

In Russian, stress is free, which distinguishes it from some other languages. For example, in Czech, the stress is assigned to the first syllable, in Polish - to.

That's right: leatherette incident intriguer to ascertain hypocrisy trolleybus perturbation laboratory legal adviser doomsday penultimate, in Armenian - after the last. Since in Russian the stress can fall on any syllable, it is called heterogeneous (daughter, cow, kilogram). This feature makes it difficult to assimilate accentological norms.

The second feature of Russian stress is the presence of mobility / immobility. Mobile stress is called, changing its place in different forms of the same word (house - home, I can - you can). If in various forms words, the stress falls on the same part, it is called motionless (ringing - calling - calling - calling).

The diversity and mobility of Russian stress serve to distinguish different ones that coincide in spelling, for example: pickaxe ("Protestant Church") and pickaxe ("tool"), cowardly ("to be afraid") and cowardly ("jogging"), cut off (Sov. view ) and cut off (non-native appearance), the dress is small (kr. form with lag.) and slept a little (adv.).

For stress, there is the concept of variance, which means that some words have variants of stress. Accent variants do not differ in either lexical or grammatical meaning. But they are often characterized by varying degrees of use and in many cases are assigned to different areas of use.

Equal accentological options include: barge and barge, gas and gas, dombra and dombra, frosty and frosty, rust and rust, flounder and flounder, combiner and combiner, salmon and salmon, etc.

Other normative options are divided into basic and acceptable, i.e. less desirable, for example / cottage cheese and extra. cottage cheese, cooking and more. cooking.

A number of stress options are associated with the professional sphere of use, cf .: flute - flute (among musicians), bite - bite (among specialists), compass - compass (among sailors).

Specific stress in borrowed words. It depends on many circumstances: on the stress in the source language, in the intermediary language in indirect borrowing, on the age of borrowing and the degree of mastery of the word by the Russian language. Therefore, the stress in borrowed words should be consulted in dictionaries.

Accent errors

The greatest number of accentological errors occurs in the formation of the following forms:

I. In nouns:

monosyllabic nouns m.r. in oblique cases singular have an accent on the end: pancake - pancake, screw - screw, umbrella - umbrella, tench - tench, stack - stack, polecat - polecat, stroke - stroke, etc.

disyllabic nouns in V.p. unit have an emphasis on the ending (spring - spring, gum - gum, sheep - sheep, foot - foot, etc.) and on the root (winter - winter, board - board, wall - wall, etc.).

a number of nouns zh.r., used with the prepositions v and na, are pronounced with an accent on the ending: in the chest, on the door, in the night, in the net, in the shadow, on the chain, etc.

nouns in R.p. plural have an accent:

a) on the basis of: localities, honors, profits, ice holes, pranks;

b) at the end: branches, handfuls, positions, fortresses, planes, degrees, tablecloths, speeds, sterlets, taxes, stories, news, quarters.

II. In adjectives:

Short adjectives in m.r. and. cf. unit and in plural have an accent on the first syllable of the stem, and in the f.r. - at the end, for example: oars - fun - fun, but - fun.

In verbs:

in verbs of the past tense in f.r. the emphasis most often falls on the ending: she took, lied, drove, asked, started, understood, slept (from sleeping), etc.

Less often on the basis of: shaved, laid, wings, soaps, awl, slept (from falling), etc.

verbs in -toile are divided into two groups:

a) with an emphasis on and: block, guarantee, debate, compromise, copy, etc.;

b) with an emphasis on a: bombard, engrave, group, seal, form, etc.

In participles:

in most passive participles of the past tense, the stress in all forms, except for the female form, falls on the stem: taken - taken - taken, but - taken.

participles in -brazen, -tattered, -called in all forms have an accent on the prefix: convened - convened - convened - convened.

In phraseological units, the emphasis on the pretext is usually preserved: climb the wall, grab your head, be after your heart, from morning to night.

Read the words with the correct stress.

Alibi, alphabet, aristocracy, analogue, arrest, anatomist. Benefits, barge, fear, pamper, bartender, bows, bows.

Gross, elections, elections, religion, willow, hand, hand, hand.

Gas pipeline, stamp, herald, citizenship, penny. Dispensary, contract, contracts, contracts, leisure, nap. Heretic, heresy. Life, blinds.

Witch doctor, yawn, long, hangnail, ringing, sign.

For a long time, otherwise, industry, icon painting, hieroglyph.

Kilometer, quarter, catalogue, pantry, rubber, flint, beautiful, more beautiful.

Lapel, chunk.

A glimpse, thinking.

Place emphasis on the following words:

Long, intent, obituary.

Officers, encourage, guardianship, facilitate, trivialize, wholesale, provision.

Sentence, call, paralysis, pullover, remembering, noose, dowry.

Belt, shell, spreading.

Funds, orphan, orphans, orphans, statue, plum, carpenter, steward.

Shoe, dancer, sacrament, immediately. Notify, more convenient, strengthening, dead, aggravate. Phenomenon, fetish, trick, facsimile, chaos, masters. Gypsy, sorrel, holy fool, expert, language barrier, manger, manger.

Read the words, place the stress:

Merry, merry, merry, merry. Young, young, young, young.

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The main units of the sound structure of the language are: sound, syllable, phonetic word, speech tact, phrase, stress, intonation.

Sound- this is the smallest unit of sounding speech, the limit of acoustic articulation of speech. Sounds are produced by the work of the human articulatory apparatus and are perceived by him by ear. Each language is characterized by a special phonetic system, despite the fact that the speech apparatus of a native speaker of any language is capable of producing any sound and that the sound structure of existing languages ​​is based on the same sounds.

Syllable formed by a combination of several sounds. Syllabic is a sound that appears as more sonorous than others in the syllable. Syllabic are vowels as sounds of the greatest sonority, non-syllabic - consonants as sounds of lesser sonority, which are organized in a syllable around vowels. A syllable is open if it ends in a vowel and closed if it ends in a consonant. Syllable- this is a part of a phonetic word, pronounced by one expiratory push of air and characterized by an increase in sonority.

phonetic word is a set of syllables united by one stress.

Not all syllables in a word are pronounced the same. The separation of a syllable in a word is called accent. The stress in a word is called verbal. Stress in a word in different languages ​​is characterized by the following reasons: power(strength or intensity of articulation), quantitative(time or longitude of pronunciation), musical(movement of tone, its rise or fall). The emphasis of a syllable is determined by a combination of these characteristics. Stress in different languages ​​can be fixed(fall only on a certain syllable in a word: French and Latin languages ​​- on the last syllable) or unfixed(English, Russian), as well as mobile(Russian language - tooth - tooth, forest - forests) or motionless(French, Latin, English and other languages). In Russian, there is no stress: prepositions(on, under, etc.) official words(inter., particles, unions, etc.) and some. etc. Therefore, the concept of a stressed word is associated with the concepts "proclitics" and "enclitics". Proclitic – unstressed word, adjoining the beginning of the subsequent full-significant word bearing stress: in the table [f-became ' uh], on the ground [n-z'iml' uh]. Enclitica is an unstressed word adjacent to the end of the previous full-value word: lie on your back [l’ech ‘ná-sp’inu].

speech beat- this is a set of phonetic words, limited by pauses and characterized by an intonation of incompleteness. Pauses between speech measures are shorter than between phrases.

Phrase- the largest phonetic unit of sounding speech. Phrase- this is a set of speech measures, this is a statement that is complete in meaning, united by a special intonation and separated from other, similar units by a pause. The phrase does not always match the sentence. The phrase is analyzed with the so-called. its intonation, the number and place of pauses in the middle of this phrase, the number of speech measures, etc. The arbitrariness of dividing a phrase into speech beats leads to a distortion of the transmitted thought or its complete destruction. Pauses between phrases are longer than between speech measures.

Each phrase is framed intonation. Intonation is a set of means of organizing sounding speech, reflecting its semantic and emotional-volitional sides. Intonation is manifested in melody - successive changes in pitch (increase / decrease), speech rhythm (strong / weak, long / short syllables), speech tempo (acceleration / slowdown in the flow of speech) intra-phrase pauses and the general timbre of the statement (“gloomy”, “ cheerful”, etc.). With the help of intonation, not only the design of the phrase occurs, but also the expression of the feelings and thoughts of people. Intonation also helps to divide the text into intonational-semantic segments - syntagmas. Timbre means of intonation are different qualities of the voice, determined mainly by the state of the vocal cords. The voice can be neutral, relaxed, tense, etc. The quantitative and dynamic characteristics of intonation include an increase or decrease in volume and a change in the tempo of pronouncing individual sections of a phrase.

Lesson Plan #3

Discipline: "Russian language and culture of speech"

Topic of the lesson: Topic 1.1. Phonetic units language (phonemes). Features of Russian stress. Phonetic means of speech expressiveness.

Class type : lesson

Objectives of the lesson.

4.1. Educational: the formation of knowledge about phonetic units, features of Russian stress and means of speech expressiveness

4.2. Educational: promote education business qualities students.

4.3. Developing: development of cognitive interest in the Russian language and culture of speech, cognitive abilities- speech, memory and attention, development of skills for mastering educational material using tutorials

Interdisciplinary connections.

5.1 Providing all disciplines

5.2.Provided: Russian language

Methodological support lessons.

6.1. Visual aids

6.2. Handout:

6.3. Technical means

6.4. Used Books:

Uch. 1. – Vvedenskaya L.A., Cherkasova M.N. Russian language and culture of speech: textbook / Vvedenskaya L.A., Cherkasova M.N. - Ed. 15th, sr. - Rostov n / a: Phoenix, 2014. - 380, p. - (Secondary vocational education).

Uch. 2. – Kuznetsova, N.V. Russian language and culture of speech [Text]: a textbook for students of institutions of secondary vocational education. - 3rd ed. / N.V. Kuznetsova. - M. : FORUM - INFRA-M, 2009. - 368 p. - (Professional education).

Uch. 3. – Samsonov, N.B. Russian language and culture of speech [Text]: textbook for students educational institutions secondary vocational education / N.B. Samsonov. - M.: Oniks, 2010. - 304 p.

8. Course of the lesson

8.1 Structure of the lesson

Time

Elements

lessons

Used-

NP, TCO

8.2. Lesson content.

item number

Lesson elements

Organization of students for class.

Motivation of cognitive activity of students:

Reporting the topic of the lesson;

Defining the goals and objectives of the lesson;

brief information about the sequence of students' work in class, etc.

Checking homework, establishing the level of knowledge, skills and abilities of students. Forms and methods of control. Frontal survey on the following questions:

What do you understand by the concept of "culture of speech"?

What are the aspects of the "culture of speech".

What are the basic requirements for speech?

What does the culture of speech study?

What are the criteria for a good speech? Provide examples of your own to illustrate each criterion.

Explain why it is important to be able to speak correctly and appropriately.

How can you develop good speaking skills?

A lesson in learning new material. Forms and methods of teaching: verbal, explanatory and illustrative (conversation, analysis), partial-search method (choice of examples, quotes by students, transfer of features of objects to a new one - the principle of comparison, analogy), reproductive and problem-based teaching methods; interactive lecture, students' reports, independent work of students with cards and a table, analytical conversation. Methodical methods: conversation, analysis, work in groups, students' reports.

Explanation of new material. An interactive lecture by the teacher using information technology (presentation), during which students complete the task: draw up a summary (fill in the table).

Organizing time. introduction teacher.

Lesson plan:

Question 2. Russian stress and its main features.

Question 1. Phonetic units of the language (phonemes).

Vowels and consonants

Phonetics is the study of the sound side of a language. This is a science that studies sounds and their regular alternations, features of stress, intonation, division of the sound stream into syllables and larger segments.

Phonetics deals with the material side of the language, with sound means devoid of independent meaning, for example, the union a is a word that has an opposite meaning, but [a] does not have this meaning.

A phoneme is the shortest linearly distinguished linguistic unit, represented by a whole range of alternating sounds, which serves to distinguish and identify words and morphemes.

Phonetics (rp. phonetike) studies the sounds of speech, and graphics (gr. graphikos - drawn) studies their representation in writing, i.e. letters.

Distinguish between the terms "sound" and "letter", we pronounce and hear sounds, and we write letters.

Speech sounds are divided into two groups: vowels and consonants.

Vowels are sounds that are formed in the organs of speech under the pressure of exhaled air, which does not encounter obstacles in the oral cavity. Therefore, only the voice is involved in the formation of vowel sounds.

Consonants are sounds that consist either of one noise formed by various barriers in the oral cavity on the path of air exhaled from the lungs, or of noise and voice. In the first case, deaf consonants are formed, in the second - voiced. The sonorous consonants l, m, n, r are also distinguished, in the formation of which the voice prevails over the noise, they are, as it were, louder than voiced ones.

Most voiceless and voiced consonants form pairs, however, some consonants are only voiceless, others are only voiced. In the table below, the sign ["] above the consonant on the right indicates the softness of its pronunciation; the Latin letter [j] denotes a medial voiced consonant, a dash above the consonant indicates a long sound, for example [w "].

Sounds Paired Unpaired

Voiced bb "c c" d "d d" f f "z z" l l "m m" n n "r p" j

Deaf n p "f f" k k "t t" w w "s s" x c h "

There are also hard consonants and soft consonants. Most hard and soft consonants form pairs, however, some consonants are only hard, others are only soft, as shown in the table below.

Sounds Paired Unpaired

Solid

Soft b "v" z "l" m "n" n "r" s "t" f "g" k "x" w "w" h

When characterizing speech sounds, these features should be indicated. This should be kept in mind when analyzing words phonetically. In this case, the given word should be written in transcription. For example, let's do a phonetic analysis of the word "graphics" - [graphic].

Let's characterize the sounds in this word. Let's name the vowels first. The vowel a is stressed, the vowel i is unstressed, the vowel a is [b] unstressed (sounds are indicated by the corresponding letters). Consonants: g - noisy, sonorous, paired, solid; p - sonorous, solid; f - noisy; deaf, double, soft; k - noisy, deaf, steamy, hard. The consonants in this word are also indicated by the corresponding letters. The word has seven sounds and seven letters.

When parsing words phonetically, it is necessary to take into account the peculiarities of the Russian graphic system, since the same letter can denote different sounds. For example, the letter v - sounds differently in the words sound and call in the second word, it means a deaf consonant [f].

The double meaning of the letters e, e, u, i should be taken into account. At the beginning of a word, after vowels, after separating hard and soft signs, they denote two sounds: d + e, d + o, d + y, d + a (pit, yula, mine, family, congress). After consonants, these letters denote one sound (e, o, u, a) and the softness of the preceding consonant (crumpled, chalk, sang, love).

The letters b, c, d, d, z, k, l, m, n, p, p, s, t, f, x denote both hard and soft consonants. The softness of consonants (except for hissing) in the letter is indicated by the letters e, e, u, i, and, b, and the hardness is indicated by the letters e, o, y, a, s, for example: measure - mayor, pen - peer, mashed potatoes - blizzard.

Syllable

A syllable is one vowel sound or a combination of a consonant with a vowel, which are pronounced with one push of exhaled air. A syllable ending in a vowel is called an open syllable, for example: go-lo-va, stra-to-sphere. A syllable ending in a consonant sound is called closed, for example: koi-ka, mountain-dy, pal-ka.

Word hyphenation rules:

1. Words are transferred by syllables, for example: hundred-ro-on, without-water-ny.

2. When transferring, you can neither leave at the end of the line, nor transfer to another line a part of the word that does not make up a syllable.

That's right: skip, move.

Incorrect: skip-sk, sd-vinut.

3. You can not separate the consonant from the vowel following it.

That's right: hero, bu-stya, va-tyak.

Wrong: ger-oh, empty-yak.

4. If there is a letter y after the prefix, then you cannot transfer the part of the word that begins with it.

That's right: to play, to play, to find, to find.

Wrong: un-play, sub-search.

1. You can not tear off the letters ъ and ь from the previous consonant.

That's right: junction, less.

Wrong: one-way, less.

2. You can not tear off the letter y from the previous vowel.

That's right: district-he, build-ka, flock-ka.

Incorrect: ra-yon, construction, hundred.

7. You can not leave one letter at the end of a line or transfer one letter to another line.

That's right: ana-to-miya.

Incorrect: a-anatomy, anatomy-z.

Therefore, some words cannot be transferred, for example: Asia, shoes, beehive, anchor.

With a confluence of consonants, transfer options are possible, for example: se-stra, ses-tra, sister-ra.

Such transfers are preferred in which significant parts of the word (morphemes) are not broken, for example: beat (and not beat), call (and not call), throw (and not throw).

Sound laws in Russian

The sound law in the field of vowels consists in their reduction and - weakening of vowels in an unstressed position. So, in the word head in the first pre-stressed syllable, in place of the letter o, the sound [a] is pronounced ( square brackets indicate a sound, not a letter), and in the second pre-stressed syllable, in place of the letter o, a short sound is pronounced, the middle one between [s] and [a]: it is conventionally denoted by the sign [b]. It turns out such a phonetic transmission [chapter].

After soft consonants in place of the letters e and i in the first pre-stressed syllable, a sound close to [and] is pronounced, for example: spring [in "isna], spot [n" itno]; in the rest of the pre-stressed syllables and in the stressed syllables, a sound is pronounced that resembles a very short [and], which is conventionally denoted by the sign [b], for example: giant [v "ylikan], piglet [n" ptachok].

Sound laws in the field of consonant sounds are manifested primarily in the deafening of voiced consonants and in the voicing of deaf ones. Only before vowels (strong position) consonants do not change their sound: day [d "en"], tone [tone]. In weak positions (the position at the absolute end of a word, the position of a voiced noisy consonant before a deaf noisy consonant and a voiceless noisy before a voiced noisy) positional exchanges are observed.

1. At the absolute end of the word, voiced consonants change to deaf ones: mushroom - gri [p], cottage cheese - cottage cheese [k], lunch - both (t), garage - gara [w], order - zaka [s].

2. Voiced consonants in front of the deaf change to deaf: boat - lo [tk] a, spoon - lo [shk] a, sheep - o [fc] a, fairy tale - ska [sk] a, teeth - zu [pk] and, exhibition - exhibition [fk] a. Thus, consonants paired in deafness-voicedness sound the same in a weak position.

Positional changes consonants are also associated with the softening of hard consonants before soft ones. Sounds [h], [s], [t], [n] before some soft consonants and before [h "], [w"] soften in the roots of words: [h "] here, [s"] tep, ne [ n] -this, bird [n "] chik, ba [n"] schik; at the junction of the prefix and the root: without [z "] children, in [z"] to put, and [z "] division, ra [s"] cut.

Sometimes, before soft consonants, some consonants can be softened both in the roots of words and at the junction of the prefix and the root: [d]ve, and [z]myat.

The sound system of the Russian language is characterized by the simplification of consonant combinations and the reduction of groups of identical consonants. In combinations of letters zdn, stn, ntsk, stsk, stl, rdts, ndsh, d, t are not pronounced: according to [zn] o, not [sn] y, giga [nsk] y, slav [ssk] y, lucky [sl] ivey, se [rc] e, la [nsh] aft. The consonant is not pronounced in in combination vstv: chu [st] o, hello [st] uy - and l in combination lnts: so [nts] e.

When three identical consonants collide, they are reduced to two: ras + quarrel - ra [ss] yell, Odessa + sky - Ode [ss] cue.

The sound laws operating in the modern language sometimes lead to the complete assimilation of some consonants to the consonants following them. Knowledge of the sound laws of the Russian language is necessary in order to master the norms of literary pronunciation, which is of particular importance in assessing the culture of speech.

Question 2. Russian stress and its main features

The science of literary pronunciation and stress is called o r f o e p and e y (gr. orthos - direct, correct and eros - speech). The most important feature of this science is its soft, compliant nature: it not only indicates the rules of literary pronunciation, but also sets the permissible limits for their violation (depending on the conditions of communication). For the speech of speakers, speakers speaking to a large audience, there are some rules, for a friendly conversation - others.

stress

Features of Russian stress

A word can consist of one or more syllables, one syllable in a word is stressed, the rest are unstressed.

There are verbal and phrasal (logical) stress (belongs to intonation, being part of it).

Word stress is the selection of one of the syllables of a non-single word. With the help of stress, part of the sound chain is combined into a single whole - a phonetic word.

Russian verbal stress is free, that is, not assigned to a syllable determined by location: children, sit, carnation, general, etc.

Russian stress is distinguished by its heterogeneity: in different forms of a word or in words of the same root, it can be on different syllables, different morphemes: fur - fur - fur.

At the same time, in many cases, the stress in the forms of the word does not change its place (single place): bed, bed - beds.

All significant words are stressed. Service words (prepositions, conjunctions, particles) usually do not have stress. In the flow of speech, service words merge with the significant words to which they refer, forming a phonetic word with it: at the station, by the road. Unstressed adjoining functional words are called proclitics if they are in front of the stressed word (at the station) and enclitics if they are behind it (is it far).

Usually the words of the Russian language have one stress. However, a large number of two and three-syllable words, quite long, have 2 or 3 stresses. The last of them is basic and full-fledged, the rest are additional (collateral stress): railway, mechanical engineering, aerial photography.

If the speech tact consists of several phonetic words, then one of the words carries a stronger stress. Such a selection of one of the words of the speech tact is called tact stress. One of the measures of the phrase is also emphasized by a stronger stress, which is called phrasal stress. Typically, the time stress is on last word speech measure, and phrasal stress highlights the last measure of the phrase. For example: Elizaveta Ivanovna / was sitting in her room, still in her ball gown, / immersed in deep thoughts.

The function of bar and phrasal stress is to phonetically combine several words into a speech beat and several beats into a phrase.

Highlighting in a speech tact with a stronger stress of a word to emphasize it special significance called logical (phrasal) stress. Any word in a speech can carry a logical stress.

Stress is the selection of one of the syllables in a word by amplifying the voice. Depending on which element is highlighted, a distinction is made between logical and verbal stress.

Logical stress is the selection of a word or group of words that are important in terms of meaning in a given phrase.

Word stress is the emphasis of a syllable in a word.

Stress in Russian is characterized by the following main features:

1. stressed syllable pronounced with more force; stress is characterized by a greater volume of the stressed syllable.

2. The stressed syllable is distinguished by a longer duration.

3. A stressed syllable, unlike an unstressed one, is characterized by a significant tension of the pronunciation apparatus, as well as an increase in exhalation.

In Russian, the stress is different, i.e. can stand on any syllable (first, second, third, etc.), for example: room, road, threshing. Russian stress is mobile: it can move from one syllable to another when the form of the word changes, for example: head - head (Vin. pad.), City - cities (plural).

In compound words, in addition to the main one, there may also be a secondary, or side, stress, for example: radio transmission, car building.

Emphasis can play a semantic role, for example: perfume (perfume) - perfume (plural from the word "spirit").

Since Russian stress is diverse and mobile, and because of this, its setting cannot be regulated by the same rules for all words, the placement of stress in words and word forms is also regulated by the rules of orthoepy. " Pronouncing dictionary Russian language, ed. R. I. Avanesova describes the pronunciation and stress of more than 60 thousand words, and due to the mobility of Russian stress, all forms of this word are often included in the dictionary entry. So, for example, the word call in the forms of the present tense has an accent on the ending: call, call. Some words have variable accents in all their forms, such as cottage cheese and cottage cheese. Other words may have variant stresses in some of their forms, for example: weaving and weaving, scythe and scythe.

Differences in pronunciation can be caused by a change in the orthoepic norm. So, in linguistics it is customary to distinguish between "older" and "younger" orthoepic norm: the new pronunciation gradually replaces the old one, but at some stage they coexist, though mainly in speech different people. It is with the coexistence of the "senior" and "junior" norms that the variability of the positional softening of consonants is associated.

Variation in pronunciation can be associated not only with dynamic process changes in pronunciation norms, but also with socially significant factors. So, pronunciation can distinguish between the literary and professional use of the word (compass and compass), neutral style and colloquial speech (thousand [thous "ich" a] and [thousand "a]), neutral and high style (poet [paet] and [poet ]).

Stress is the pronunciation of one of the syllables in a word (or rather, a vowel in it) with greater force and duration. Other distinguishing features of Russian stress are its heterogeneity and mobility.

The diversity of Russian stress lies in the fact that it can fall on any syllable in a word, as opposed to languages ​​with a fixed place of stress (for example, French or Polish): tree, road, milk.

The mobility of stress lies in the fact that in the forms of one word, the stress can move from the stem to the ending: legs - legs.

In compound words (that is, words with several roots) there can be several stresses: instrument and aircraft construction, however, many compound words do not have a side stress: steamship [parakhot].

Stress in Russian can perform the following functions:

1) organizing - a group of syllables with a single stress makes up a phonetic word, the boundaries of which do not always coincide with the boundaries of a lexical word and can unite independent words together with service ones: into the fields [fpal "aʹ], he [onta];

2) semantic - stress can distinguish

a) different words, which is connected with the diversity of Russian stress: flour - flour, castle - castle,

b) the form of one word, which is associated with the diversity and mobility of Russian stress: earth - earth.

Question 3. Phonetic means of speech expressiveness.

The use of various methods of sound organization of speech to enhance its expressiveness is called sound recording. It consists in a special selection of words that, by their sound, contribute to the figurative transmission of thought. Sound writing is possible only in artistic speech, and above all in poetry.

In order for the sound of speech to become noticeable, it is necessary to clearly distinguish words during reading and strengthen expressive consonances. This requires a special intonation, possible only in poetry and lyrical prose. Here the words are convex, weighty, they are pronounced slowly; emotional speech is rich in pauses. And in poetry, thanks to rhythm, rhyme, words are voiced more than in a simple conversation.

Masters of the artistic word use a variety of techniques to enhance the phonetic expressiveness of speech. The most important of them is sound instrumentation, which consists in the selection of words of close sounding. For example, in Pushkin: Peter is feasting. And proud and clear, / And his eyes are full of glory. // And his royal feast is beautiful ("Poltava"). The richness of sound repetitions of vowels [o, a] and consonants [n, p, t] reflects the breadth of the glorified victorious triumph; the roll call of sounds strengthens the first phrase - Peter feasts.

Depending on the quality of the repeated sounds, two types of sound instrumentation are distinguished: alliteration and assonance. Alliteration is the repetition of consonants: Snow is still whitening in the fields, // And the waters are already rustling in spring - // They run and wake up the sleepy shore, // They run and shine and say (Tyutch.). With the greatest certainty, our hearing captures the repetition of sounds that are at the beginning of a word and in a pre-stressed position. Is it possible not to notice the alliteration, for example, at the beginning of S. Yesenin's poem “With Good morning!? The golden stars dozed off, // The mirror of the backwater trembled... We notice the sound likeness not only of the adjacent words, but also of the text separated by other words. For example, the repetition of [p] and [s-s] in S. Yesenin's quatrain:

Goy you, Russia, my dear,

Huts - in the robes of the image ...

See no end and edge -

Only blue sucks eyes.

Poetic speech can be instrumented by the repetition of several sounds at once. And the more they are involved in such a roll call, the more clearly their repetition is heard, the more aesthetic pleasure the sound of the text brings us. Such is the sound instrumentation of Pushkin's wonderful lines: Look: under a distant vault // The free moon is walking; Cherished, in eastern bliss, // On the northern, sad snow // You left no traces [about legs]; She liked novels early on; Whose benevolent hand will pat the old man's laurels!

Another type of instrumentation is assonance - the repetition of vowels: It's time, it's time! The horns are blowing... (A. Pushkin) Assonance is usually based only on percussion sounds, since in an unstressed position the vowels change significantly. And we must also take into account that the sound [a] can be denoted by the letter o in an unstressed position, the sound [o] - the letter ё. So, in an excerpt from Pushkin's Poltava, assonances to [a] and to [o] are created only by the vowels we have highlighted:

Quiet Ukrainian night.

The sky is transparent. The stars are shining.

Overcome your slumber

Doesn't want air...

Shorter and reduced sounds, conveyed by the same letters - o and a, are not relevant for sound writing, they are hardly noticeable. But if the vowels are not subject to changes in unstressed position, they participate in the creation of assonance. For example, Nekrasov with assonance on [y] conveys "music" railway: All is well under the moonlight, / Everywhere I recognize my dear Russia ... / I quickly fly along cast-iron rails. // I think my own thought...

Russian poets were fascinated not only by the "sweet-voiced" music of speech, but also by other sounds. Great artists did not refuse to use any harmonies for the purpose of sound recording, finding application for them in poetry. Remember the "unaesthetic" hissing in Nekrasov's poems: From the jubilant, idly chattering, // Enveloping their hands in blood... They are emotionally justified, like Lermontov's, when he wrote: Perhaps, behind the wall of the Caucasus // I'll hide from your pashas, // From their all-seeing eye, // From their all-hearing ears.

Consolidation of the studied material. Problematic, partially exploratory teaching methods.

1. What is the object of study of phonetics?

2. With what sections of the language is phonetics closely related? Give examples.

3. What principles underlie the division of sounds into vowels and consonants?

4. What phonetic laws in the field of consonants do you know? Describe them.

5. Name the techniques for enhancing the phonetic expressiveness of speech.

6. Define the terms alliteration, assonance. Give examples.

7. What is the purpose of alliteration and assonance in poetic speech?

8. Point out the differences between anaphora and epiphora.

Exercises

1. Highlight the words that contain th:

Fragrant bird cherry

Bloomed with spring

And golden branches

What curls curled.

Honey dew all around

Slips down the bark

Spicy greens underneath

Shines in silver.

2. In what words do two letters represent one sound?

Alley, drive up, rainy, sharp, doubt, seamless, military, copper, incident, family, contained, take, cabman, skimmed.

3. Indicate in the text consonant sounds that do not have a pair of deafness-voicedness and hardness-softness.

And finally I'll be happy

Quietly leave this world

And in my gratitude

I will forget your slap.

(P.)

4. Determine the strong and weak positions of the vowels.

Jam, urban, kindness, ground, close, try on, reconcile.

5. Read an excerpt from A.E. Fersman's lecture "Stone in the culture of the future." Find repetitions in the text and explain why the author uses them.

Are not the precious stones themselves the emblem of firmness, constancy and eternity? Is there anything harder than diamond that can match the strength and indestructibility of this form of carbon?

Aren't corundum in its many variations, topaz and garnet, the main grinding materials, and only new artificial products of human genius can be compared with them? Are not quartz, zircon, diamond and corundum among the most stable chemical groupings of nature, and do not the fire resistance and invariability of many of them at high temperatures far exceed the fire resistance of the vast majority of other bodies?

6. A. Blok

May is cruel with white nights!

Eternal knock on the gate: come out!

Blue haze behind

Uncertainty, doom ahead!

Pay attention to the repetition of sounds at the beginning and at the end of words. This technique is called a mixture of anaphora and epiphora. Why does the author use this technique in this poem?

7. Read an excerpt from F. Tyutchev's poem. Name the repeated identical or similar consonants.

Snow is still whitening in the fields,

And the waters are already rustling in the spring -

They run and wake up the sleepy shore,

They run and shine and say...

What is the name of such an approach? Find examples of this technique in other poems of the poet.

Homework:

Task for independent work:

Lecturer: Matveeva M.V.

The subject of phonetics

The subject of phonetics is the sound means of language: sounds, stress, intonation.

The task of phonetics- study and description of the sound system of the language in this stage its development.

Basic phonetic units and means

All units of phonetics are divided into segmental and supersegment.

· Segment units- units that can be distinguished in the flow of speech: sounds, syllables, phonetic words (rhythmic structures, beat), phonetic phrases (syntagms).

o phonetic phrase- a segment of speech, which is an intonation-semantic unity, highlighted on both sides by pauses.

o Phonetic word (rhythmic structure)- part of a phrase, united by one verbal stress.

o Syllable- the smallest unit of the speech chain.

o Sound is the smallest phonetic unit.

· Supersegment units(intonational means) - units that are superimposed on segmental ones: melodic units (tone), dynamic (stress) and temporal (tempo or duration).

o stress- selection in speech of a certain unit in a series of homogeneous units using the intensity (energy) of sound.

o Tone- rhythmic-melodic pattern of speech, determined by a change in the frequency of the sound signal.

o Pace- speed of speech, which is determined by the number of segment units uttered per unit of time.

o Duration- the time of the speech segment.

The sound side of speech is a very complex and multifaceted phenomenon. The sound of speech is formed directly in the human speech apparatus, which consists of five main parts:

· Breathe-helping machine,

larynx,

extension tube, which includes the mouth and nose,

organs of pronunciation

The brain is the nervous system.

The respiratory apparatus is the thorax, thoracic cavity, lungs and windpipe. Each of constituent parts the respiratory apparatus performs its characteristic functions.

The larynx is a tube of cartilage interconnected by short elastic muscular ligaments. The vocal cords are attached to the cartilages that form the larynx and, due to their mobility, change the degree of tension.

Pronunciation organs are located in the oral cavity, i.e. organs, from the work of which the final high-quality finish of each sound of speech is ensured. These organs are usually divided into active (lips, tongue, vocal cords, lower jaw) and passive (teeth, tongue, palate, upper jaw).

Vowels can be in strong and weak positions.

Strong position - a position under stress, in which the sound is pronounced clearly, for a long time, with greater force and does not require verification, for example: city, land, greatness.

· In a weak position (without stress), the sound is pronounced indistinctly, briefly, with less force and requires verification, for example: head, forest, teacher.

All six vowels are distinguished under stress.
In an unstressed position, instead of [a], [o], [h], other vowels are pronounced in the same part of the word. So, instead of [o], a slightly weakened sound [a] - [vad] a is pronounced, instead of [e] and [a] in unstressed syllables, [ie] is pronounced - a sound that is average between [i] and [e], for example: [ m "iesta], [h" iesy], [n "iet" brka], [s * ielo].

The alternation of strong and weak positions of vowels in the same part of the word is called positional alternation of sounds.

The pronunciation of vowel sounds depends on which syllable they are in relation to the stressed one.

In the first pre-stressed syllable, vowels change less, for example: st [o] l - st [a] la.

· In other unstressed syllables, the vowels change more, and some do not differ at all and in pronunciation approach zero sound, for example ^: transported - [n "riev" 6s], gardener - [sdavot], water carrier - [vodavbs] (here ъ to b denote an obscure sound, zero sound).

The alternation of vowels in strong and weak positions is not reflected in the letter, for example: to be surprised is a miracle; in an unstressed position, the letter that denotes the stressed sound in this root is written: to be surprised means “to meet with a diva (miracle)”.

This is the leading principle of Russian spelling - morphological, providing for a uniform spelling meaningful parts words - root, prefix, suffix, ending, regardless of position.

The morphological principle is subject to the designation of unstressed vowels, checked by stress.

1. The main classification of world languages
Currently, there are from 3 to 5 thousand languages ​​on earth. The difference is connected with the difference between dialects and languages, secondly, with the definition of the area and the scope of use, and thirdly, with the assessment of the "vitality" of the language.
The plurality of languages ​​necessitates classification. In modern linguistics, 4 classifications have been developed:
1) Areal (geographical)
2) Functional
3) Typological (morphological)
4) Genealogical
The first is based on the study of the language map of the world. Describes the boundaries of the distribution.
The second is based on the study of the functions and areas of language use (cultural, diplomatic, language of education, etc.)
The most important are typological and genealogical classifications.

language families,

I. The Indo-European family of languages ​​is the largest. 1 billion 600 million speakers.

II. Altai family. 76 million speakers.
III. Uralic languages.
IV. Caucasian family. (Georgian, Abkhazian, Chechen, Kabardian)
V. Sino-Tibetan family
VI. Afroasian family (Semito-Hamitic family)

Speech sounds are studied in the section of linguistics called phonetics.

All speech sounds are divided into two groups: vowels and consonants.

There are 36 consonants in Russian.

The consonant sounds of the Russian language are such sounds, during the formation of which the air meets some kind of barrier in the oral cavity, they consist of a voice and noise, or only of noise.

In the first case, voiced consonants are formed, in the second - deaf.

Most often, voiced and deaf consonants form pairs of voiced-deafness: [b] - [p], [c] - [f], [g] - [k], [d] - [t], [g] - [ w], [h] - [s].

However, some consonants are only deaf: [x], [c], [h "], [w] or only voiced: [l], [m], [n], [r], [G].

There are also hard and soft consonants. Most of them form pairs: [b] - [b "], [c] - [c"], [g] - [g "], [d] - [d "], [h] - [h"] , [k] - [k "], [l] - [l "], [m] - [m *], [n] - [n *], [n] - [n "], [r] - [p "], [s] - [s"], [t] - [t"], [f] - [f"], [x] - [x"].

Solid consonants [g], [w], [c] and soft consonants, [h "], [t"] do not have paired sounds.

In a word, consonant sounds can occupy different positions, that is, the location of a sound among other sounds in a word.

· A position in which the sound does not change is strong. For a consonant, this is the position before a vowel (weak), sonorant (true), before [v] and [v *] (twist). All other positions are weak for consonants.
At the same time, the consonant sound changes: the voiced before the deaf becomes deaf: hem - [patshyt "]; the deaf before the voiced becomes voiced: request - [prbz" ba]; voiced at the end of the word is stunned: oak - [dup]; the sound is not pronounced: holiday - [praz "n" ik]; hard before soft can become soft: power - [vlas "t"].

The Indo-European family of languages ​​is the largest. 1 billion 600 million speakers.
1) Indo-Iranian branch.
a) Indian group (Sanskrit, Hindi, Bengali, Punjabi)
b) Iranian group (Persian, Pashto, Forsi, Ossetian)
2) Romano-Germanic branch. The specialty of this branch are Greek and Arabic.
a) Romance (Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Provençal, Romanian)
b) German group

North German subgroup (Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Icelandic)

West German subgroup (German, English, Dutch)
c) Celtic group (Irish, Scottish, Welsh).

3) Balto-Slavic branch of languages
a) Baltic group (Lithuanian, Latvian)
b) Slavic group

West Slavic subgroup (Polish, Chechen, Slovak)

Southern subgroup (Bulgarian, Macedonian, Slovenian, Serbian, Croatian)

East Slavic subgroup (Ukrainian, Belarusian, Russian).

The place of the Russian language in the genealogical classification: The Russian language belongs to Indo-European family languages, the Balto-Slavic branch, the East Slavic subgroup.

speech sound - the sound generated by the pronunciation apparatus of a person for the purpose of linguistic communication (the pronunciation apparatus includes: pharynx, oral cavity with tongue, lungs, nasal cavity, lips, teeth).

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