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See what the "Indo-European language family" is in other dictionaries. Indo-European languages

In our time, this family is represented on all continents, and is also known from a number of dead, ancient written languages. The time of the formation of the Indo-European family of languages, scientists attribute to the period no later than the Bronze Age, and possibly even earlier. In the future, there was a selection of language branches (groups), and even later - the languages \u200b\u200bthat exist today. The areas where the initial formation of the peoples who spoke the Indo-European languages took place have not been precisely established, and there are a significant number of hypotheses about this.

The Indo-European family includes language branches or groups, individual languages spoken by the peoples listed below.

Slavic group:

a) Eastern European subgroup. Peoples: Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians;

b) West Slavic subgroup. Peoples: Poles, Lusatians, Czechs, Slovaks;

c) South Slavic subgroup. Peoples: Slovenes, Croats, Muslim Slavs (Bosniaks), Serbs, Montenegrins, Macedonians, Bulgarians.

Baltic group. Peoples: Lithuanians, Latvians.

German group. Peoples: Germans, Austrians, Swiss Germans, Liechtensteiners, Alsatians, Luxembourgers, Flemings, Dutch, Frisians, Afrikaners, Jews of Europe and America, English, Scots, Scots-Irish, Anglo-Africans, Anglo-Australians, Anglo-New Zealanders, Anglo-Canadians, US Americans, Bahamians, Jamaicans, Grenadians, Barbadians, Trinidadians, Belizeans, Guyanese Creoles, Surinamese Creoles, Swedes, Norwegians, Icelanders, Faroese, Danes, etc.

Celtic group. Peoples: Irish, Gaels, Welsh, Bretons.

Roman group. Peoples: Italians, Sardinians, Sanmarines, Italo-Swiss, Corsicans, Romansh, French, Monegasques (Monegasques), Normans, Franco-Swiss, Walloons, French Canadians, Guadalupes, Martiniques, Guyanese, Haitians, Reunion Creoles, Mauritian Creoles, Seychellois, Spaniards, Gibraltarians , Cubans, Dominicans, Puerto Ricans, Mexicans, Guatemalans, Hondurans, Salvadorans, Nicaraguans, Costa Ricans, Panamanians, Venezuelans, Colombians, Ecuadorians, Peruvians, Bolivians, Chileans, Argentines, Paraguayans, Uruguayans, Catalans, Andorrans, Portuguese, Anti-Brazilians , Romanians, Moldavians, Aromanians, Istro-Romanians.

Albanian group. Albanians.

Greek group. Peoples: Greeks, Greek Cypriots, Karakachans.

Armenian group. Armenians.

Iranian group. Peoples: Talysh, Gilyans, Mazendarans, Kurds, Balochs, Lurs, Bakhtiars, Persians, Tats, Khazars, Charaimaks, Tajiks, Pamir peoples, Pashtuns (Afghans), Ossetians.

Nuristani group. Nuristani.

Indo-Aryan group. Peoples: Bengalis, Assamese, Oriya, Biharis, Tharu, Hindustanis, Rajasthani, Gujaratis, Parsis, Bhils, Marathas, Konkanis, Punjabis, Dogras, Sindhis, Western Paharis, Kumaoni, Garkhwali, Gujars, Nepalis, Kashmiris, Sheena, Kohistani , Kho, Pashai, Thirah, Indo-Mauritian, Surinamese-Indo-Pakistani, Trinidadian-Indopa-Pakistani, Fijian, Gypsy, Sinhala, Vedda, Maldivian.

Kartvelian family

Dravidian family

Peoples: Tamils, Irula, Malayali, Erava, Erukali, Kaikadi, Dinara, Badaga.

Ural-Yukaghir family

Finno-Ugric group.

Peoples: Finns, Karelians, Veps, Izhors, Estonians, Livs, Saami, Mari, Mordovians, Udmurts, Komi, Komi-Permyaks, Hungarians, Khanty, Mansi.

Samoyed group. Peoples: Nenets, Enets, Nganasans, Selkups.

Yukagir group. Yukagirs.

Altai family

Turkic group. Peoples: Turks, Turkish Cypriots, Gagauzians, Azerbaijanis, Karadags, Shahsevens, Karapapahis, Afshars, Qajars, Qashqais, Khorasan Turks, Khalajs, Turkmens, Salars, Tatars, Crimean Tatars, Karaites, Bashkirs, Karachays, Balkars, Kumyks, Nogais, Kazakhs, Karakalpaks, Kirghiz, Uzbeks, Uighurs, Altaians, Shors, Khakasses, Tuvans, Tofalars, Yakuts, Dolgans, etc.

Mongolian group. Peoples: Mongols, Khalkha-Mongols, Mongols of the People's Republic of China, Oirats, Darkha-Kalmyks, Buryats, Daurs, etc.

Tungus-Manchu group. Peoples: Evenks, Negidals, Evens, Orochs, Udeges, Nanais, Ulchis, Oroks.

Korean family

Japanese family

Eskimo-Aleut family

Peoples: Eskimos (including Greenlanders), Aleuts.

Afroasian (Semitic-Hamitic) family

Semitic group. Peoples: Arabs of Southwest Asia and North Africa, Maltese, Jews of Israel, Assyrians, Amhara, Argobba, Harari, Gurage, Tigran, Tigre.

Berber group. Peoples: Kabils, Shauya, Reefs, Tamazight, Shilh (Shleh), Tuareg.

Chadian group. Peoples: Hausa, Angas, Sura, Ankwe, Bade, Boleva, Bura, Mandara (Vandala), Kotoko, Masa, Mubi, etc.

Kushite group. Peoples: Beja, Agau, Afar (Danakil), Sakho, Oromo (Galla), Somali, Konso, Sidamo, Omet, Kaffa, Himira, Maji, Iraqi, etc.

North Caucasian family

Abkhaz-Adyghe group. Peoples: Abkhazians, Abazins, Adyghes, Kabardians, Circassians.

Nakh-Dagestan group. Peoples: Avars (including Ando-Tsezes), Laks, Dargins, Lezgins, Udins, Aguls, Rutuls, Tsakhurs, Tabasarans, Chechens, Ingush.

Sino-Tibetan family

Chinese group. Peoples: Chinese, Hui (Dungan),

bye Tibeto-Burmese group. Peoples: Tibetans, Bhutanese, Ladakhis, Balti, Myanmar (Burmese), etc.

Groups: Bodo Garo, Miju, Digaro, Miri, Dhimal, Lekcha, East Himalayan, Newari, Gurung, West Malay.

Australo-Asiatic family

Mop-Khmer group. Peoples: Viet (Kinh), etc.

Nicobar group. Nicobars.

Khasi and Munda group.

Kadai family

Thai group. Peoples: Siamese (Khontai), Dai, Lao (Laotians).

Austronesian family

West Austronesian group. Peoples: Malays of Indonesia, Malays of Malaysia, Middle Sumatran Malays (Pasemakh, Seravey), etc.

Central Austronesian group.

East Austronesian group. 2.6.

The Indo-European language family is the most widespread in the world. Its distribution area includes almost all of Europe, both Americas and continental Australia, as well as a significant part of Africa and Asia. Over 2.5 billion people speak Indo-European languages. All languages belong to this family of languages. modern Europe, with the exception of Basque, Hungarian, Sami, Finnish, Estonian and Turkish, as well as several Altaic and Uralic languages \u200b\u200bof European Russia. The name "Indo-European" is conditional. In Germany, the term "Indo-Germanic" was formerly used, and in Italy - "Ario-European" to indicate that ancient people and ancient language from which, as is commonly believed, all later Indo-European languages \u200b\u200bare descended. The alleged ancestral home of this hypothetical people, whose existence is not supported by any historical evidence (except linguistic), is Eastern Europe or Western Asia.

The oldest known monuments of the Indo-European languages are the Hittite texts dating back to the 17th century. BC. To write the Indo-European languages were used different systems letters. Hittite cuneiform, Palai, Luvian and Old Persian were written in cuneiform, Luvian hieroglyphic - in a special hieroglyphic syllabary, Sanskrit - with the help of Kharoshtha, Devanagari, Brahmi and other alphabets; Avestan and Pahlavi - in special alphabets, modern Persian - in Arabic script. According to currently available information, all types of alphabets used and used by the languages of Europe come from the Phoenician.

The Indo-European family of languages includes at least twelve groups of languages. In order geographical location, moving clockwise from northwestern Europe, these are the following groups: Celtic, Germanic, Baltic, Slavic, Tocharian, Indian, Iranian, Armenian, Hitto-Luvian, Greek, Albanian, Italic (including Latin and Romance languages derived from it, which are sometimes classified as a separate group). Of these, three groups (Italic, Hitto-Luvian, and Tocharian) consist entirely of dead languages.

The first scholar to logically deduce the possibility of an original Indo-European proto-language was Sir William Jones. The Indo-European parent language was undoubtedly an inflectional language, i.e. its morphological meanings were expressed by changing the endings of words; in this language there was no prefixation and almost no infixation; he had three genders - masculine, feminine and neuter, at least six cases differed; nouns and verbs were distinctly opposed; heteroclise (i.e. irregularity in paradigm, cf. fero: tuli or I am: I was) was widespread. There was a highly developed system of vowel alternations that performed morphological functions, the remnants of which are partly preserved - for example, in English (cf. give, gave, given; drive, drove, driven; sing, sang, sung, etc.) and, in to a lesser extent, in Russian (cf. remove, remove, clean). The roots were modified by adding one or more root determinants (suffixes) and endings to the right.

With the help of reconstruction, one can try to identify the "ancestral home" of the Indo-Europeans, i.e. the last territory of their settlement before the first division, which took place at the latest in the III millennium BC. The widespread use of designations for "snow" (English snow, German Schnee, Latin nix, Russian snow, Lithuanian, etc.) and "winter" (Latin hiems, Lithuanian ziemà, Russian winter, Vedic himás), in contrast to the lack of common designations for "summer" and "autumn", clearly point to the cold northern ancestral home. This is also evidenced by the presence of the names of the trees given above, in the absence or late appearance of the names of trees growing in the Mediterranean area and requiring warm climate, - such as fig tree, cypress, laurel and grapevine. The names of tropical and subtropical animals (such as cat, donkey, monkey, camel, lion, tiger, hyena, elephant) are also late, while the names of bear, wolf, and otter are early. On the other hand, the presence of these names of animals and plants and the absence of the names of polar animals (seal, sea lion, walrus) and plants definitely speaks against the polar ancestral home.

One of the scientists who defended the Baltic hypothesis was G. Bender, other researchers named Scandinavia, Northern Germany, Southern Russia together with the Danube area, as well as the Kyrgyz and Altai steppes as the ancestral home of the Indo-Europeans. The theory of the Asian ancestral home, very popular in the 19th century, in the 20th century. supported only by some ethnologists, but rejected by almost all linguists. The theory of an Eastern European ancestral home located in Russia, Romania or the Baltic countries is confirmed by the fact that the Indo-European people had long and close contacts with the Finnish peoples in the north and with the Sumerian and Semitic cultures of Mesopotamia in the south.

Groups of the Indo-European family of languages

Indo-Aryan languages (Indian)- a group of related languages, dating back to the ancient Indian language. Included (together with the Iranian languages and closely related Dardic languages) in the Indo-Iranian languages, one of the branches of the Indo-European languages. Distributed in South Asia: northern and central India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Republic of Maldives, Nepal; outside this region - Romani, Domari and Parya (Tajikistan). The total number of speakers is about 1 billion people. (estimate, 2007). ancient Indian languages.

Ancient Indian language. Indian languages come from dialects of the ancient Indian language, which had two literary forms - Vedic (the language of the sacred "Vedas") and Sanskrit (created by Brahmin priests in the Ganges valley in the first half - the middle of the first millennium BC). The ancestors of the Indo-Aryans came out of the ancestral home of the "Aryan expanse" at the end of the 3rd - beginning of the 2nd millennium. The related Indo-Aryan language is reflected in proper names, theonyms and some lexical borrowings in the cuneiform texts of the state of Mitanni and the Hittites. Indo-Aryan writing in the Brahmi syllabary originated in the 4th-3rd centuries BC.

The Middle Indian period is represented by numerous languages and dialects that were in use in oral, and then in written form from the middle. 1st millennium BC e. Of these, Pali (the language of the Buddhist Canon) is the most archaic, followed by Prakrits (the Prakrits of inscriptions are more archaic) and Apabhransha (dialects that developed by the middle of the 1st millennium AD as a result of the development of Prakrits and are a transitional link to the New Indian languages ).

The New Indian period begins after the 10th century. It is represented by about three dozen major languages and a large number of dialects, sometimes quite different from each other.

In the west and northwest they border on Iranian (Balochi, Pashto) and Dardic languages, in the north and northeast - with Tibeto-Burman languages, in the east - with a number of Tibeto-Burman and Mon-Khmer languages, in the south - with Dravidian languages (Telugu, Kannada). In India, linguistic islands of other linguistic groups (Munda languages, Mon-Khmer, Dravidian, etc.) are interspersed in the array of Indo-Aryan languages.

Hindi and Urdu (Hindustani) are two varieties of the same New Indian literary language; Urdu - the state language of Pakistan (the capital of Islamabad), has a written language based on the Arabic alphabet; Hindi (state language of India (New Delhi) - based on the Old Indian script Devanagari.
Bengal (State of India - West Bengal, Bangladesh (Kolkata))
Punjabi ( East End Pakistan, Punjab state of India)
Lahnda
Sindhi (Pakistan)
Rajasthani (Northwest India)
Gujarati - s-W subgroup
Marathas - western subgroup
Sinhalese - insular subgroup
Nepal - Nepal (Kathmandu) - central subgroup
Bihari - Indian state of Bihar - eastern subgroup
Oriya - Indian state of Orissa - eastern subgroup
Assamese - ind. Assam State, Bangladesh, Bhutan (Thimphu) - east. subgroup
Gypsy -
Kashmiri - Indian states of Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan - Dardic group
Vedic is the language of the most ancient sacred books of the Indians - the Vedas, which were formed in the first half of the second millennium BC.
Sanskrit is the literary language of the ancient Indians from the 3rd century BC. to 4th century AD
Pali - Middle Indian literary and cult language of the medieval era
Prakrits - various spoken Middle Indian dialects

Iranian languages- a group of related languages \u200b\u200bas part of the Aryan branch of the Indo-European family of languages. Distributed mainly in the Middle East, Central Asia and Pakistan.

The Iranian group was formed according to the generally accepted version as a result of the separation of languages from the Indo-Iranian branch in the territory of the Volga region and southern urals during the Andronovo culture. There is also another version of the formation of the Iranian languages, according to which they separated from the main body of the Indo-Iranian languages on the territory of the BMAC culture. The expansion of the Aryans in ancient times took place to the south and southeast. As a result of migrations, Iranian languages spread by the 5th century BC. in large areas from the Northern Black Sea region to Eastern Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Altai (Pazyryk culture), and from the Zagros Mountains, eastern Mesopotamia and Azerbaijan to the Hindu Kush.

milestone in the development of the Iranian languages was the separation of the Western Iranian languages, which spread westward from Deshte-Kevir along the Iranian plateau, and the Eastern Iranian languages opposed to them. The work of the Persian poet Firdousi Shahnameh reflects the confrontation between the ancient Persians and the nomadic (also semi-nomadic) East Iranian tribes, nicknamed by the Persians as Turans, and their habitats as Turan.

In II - I centuries. BC. the Great Central Asian migration of peoples takes place, as a result of which the eastern Iranians populate the Pamirs, Xinjiang, Indian lands south of the Hindu Kush, and invade Sistan.

As a result of the expansion of Turkic-speaking nomads from the first half of the 1st millennium AD. Iranian languages begin to be supplanted by Turkic ones, first in the Great Steppe, and with the beginning of the 2nd millennium in Central Asia, Xinjiang, Azerbaijan and a number of regions of Iran. The relic Ossetian language (a descendant of the Alano-Sarmatian language) in the mountains of the Caucasus, as well as the descendants of the Saka languages, the languages of the Pashtun tribes and the Pamir peoples, remained from the steppe Iranian world.

Current state The Iranian-speaking array was largely determined by the expansion of the Western Iranian languages, which began under the Sassanids, but gained full strength after the Arab invasion:

The spread of the Persian language throughout the territory of Iran, Afghanistan and the south of Central Asia and the massive displacement of local Iranian and sometimes non-Iranian languages in the respective territories, as a result of which the modern Persian and Tajik communities were formed.

Expansion of the Kurds into Upper Mesopotamia and the Armenian Highlands.

Migration of the semi-nomads of Gorgan to the southeast and the formation of the Baloch language.

The phonetics of the Iranian languages shares many similarities with the Indo-Aryan languages in development from the Indo-European state. The ancient Iranian languages belong to the inflectional-synthetic type with a developed system of inflectional forms of declension and conjugation and are thus similar to Sanskrit, Latin and Old Church Slavonic. This is especially true of the Avestan language and, to a lesser extent, Old Persian. In Avestan, there are eight cases, three numbers, three genders, inflectional-synthetic verbal forms of present, aorist, imperfect, perfect, injunctiva, conjunctiva, optative, imperative, there is a developed word formation.

Persian - writing based on the Arabic alphabet - Iran (Tehran), Afghanistan (Kabul), Tajikistan (Dushanbe) - southwestern Iranian group.
Dari is the literary language of Afghanistan
Pashto - since the 30s the state language of Afghanistan - Afghanistan, Pakistan - East Iranian subgroup
Baloch - Pakistan, Iran, Afghanistan, Turkmenistan (Ashgabat), Oman (Muscat), United Arab Emirates (Abu Dhabi) - northwestern subgroup.
Tajik - Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan (Tashkent) - Western Iranian subgroup.
Kurdish - Turkey (Ankara), Iran, Iraq (Baghdad), Syria (Damascus), Armenia (Yerevan), Lebanon (Beirut) - Western Iranian subgroup.
Ossetian - Russia (North Ossetia), South Ossetia (Tskhinval) - East Iranian subgroup
Tatsky - Russia (Dagestan), Azerbaijan (Baku) - western subgroup
Talysh - Iran, Azerbaijan - northwestern Iranian subgroup
Caspian dialects
The Pamir languages are the non-written languages of the Pamirs.
Yagnob is the language of the Yaghnobis, the inhabitants of the Yagnob river valley in Tajikistan.
Old Persian - this one and the next are dead
Avestan
Pahlavi
Median
Parthian
Sogdian
Khwarezmian
Scythian
Bactrian
Saky

Slavic group. Slavic languages are a group of related languages of the Indo-European family. Distributed throughout Europe and Asia. The total number of speakers is about 400-500 million people [source not specified 101 days]. They differ in a high degree of closeness to each other, which is found in the structure of the word, the use of grammatical categories, the structure of the sentence, semantics, the system of regular sound correspondences, and morphonological alternations. This closeness is explained by the unity of origin Slavic languages and their long and intense contacts with each other at the level of literary languages and dialects.

Long-term independent development Slavic peoples in different ethnic, geographical, historical and cultural conditions, their contacts with various ethnic groups led to the emergence of differences in material, functional, etc. The Slavic languages within the Indo-European family are closest to the Baltic languages. The similarity between the two groups served as the basis for the theory of the "Balto-Slavic proto-language", according to which the Balto-Slavic proto-language first emerged from the Indo-European proto-language, later splitting into Proto-Baltic and Proto-Slavic. However, many scientists explain their special closeness by the long contact of the ancient Balts and Slavs, and deny the existence of the Balto-Slavic language. It has not been established in which territory the separation of the Slavic language continuum from the Indo-European / Balto-Slavic took place. It can be assumed that it occurred to the south of those territories that, according to various theories, belong to the territory of the Slavic ancestral homelands. From one of the Indo-European dialects (Proto-Slavic), the Proto-Slavic language was formed, which is the ancestor of all modern Slavic languages. The history of the Proto-Slavic language was longer than the history of individual Slavic languages. For a long time it developed as a single dialect with an identical structure. Dialect variants arose later. The process of transition of the Proto-Slavic language into independent languages took place most actively in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium AD. e., during the formation of the early Slavic states on the territory of the South-East and of Eastern Europe. During this period, the territory of Slavic settlements increased significantly. The areas of various geographical areas with different natural and climatic conditions, the Slavs entered into relationships with the population of these territories, standing at different stages of cultural development. All this was reflected in the history of the Slavic languages.

The history of the Proto-Slavic language is divided into 3 periods: the most ancient - before the establishment of close Balto-Slavic language contact, the period of the Balto-Slavic community and the period of dialect fragmentation and the beginning of the formation of independent Slavic languages.

Eastern subgroup

Russian
Ukrainian
Belorussian

Southern subgroup

Bulgarian - Bulgaria (Sofia)
Macedonian - Macedonia (Skopje)
Serbo-Croatian - Serbia (Belgrade), Croatia (Zagreb)
Slovenian - Slovenia (Ljubljana)

Western subgroup

Czech - Czech Republic (Prague)
Slovak - Slovakia (Bratislava)
Polish - Poland (Warsaw)
Kashubian - dialect of Polish
Lusatian - Germany

Dead: Old Church Slavonic, Polabian, Pomeranian

Baltic group. The Baltic languages are a language group representing a special branch of the Indo-European group of languages.

The total number of speakers is over 4.5 million people. Distribution - Latvia, Lithuania, previously the territory of (modern) north-east of Poland, Russia (Kaliningrad region) and north-west of Belarus; even earlier (before the 7th-9th, in some places the 12th centuries) up to the upper reaches of the Volga, the Oka basin, the middle Dnieper and Pripyat.

According to one theory, the Baltic languages are not a genetic formation, but the result of an early convergence [source not specified 374 days]. The group includes 2 living languages (Latvian and Lithuanian; sometimes the Latgalian language is distinguished separately, which is officially considered the dialect of Latvian); the Prussian language attested in the monuments, which became extinct in the 17th century; at least 5 languages known only by toponymy and onomastics (Curonian, Yatvingian, Galindian/Golyadian, Zemgalian and Selonian).

Lithuanian - Lithuania (Vilnius)
Latvian - Latvia (Riga)
Latgalian - Latvia

Dead: Prussian, Yatvyazhsky, Kurzhsky, etc.

German group. The history of the development of the Germanic languages is usually divided into 3 periods:

ancient (from the emergence of writing to the XI century) - the formation individual languages;
middle (XII-XV centuries) - the development of writing in the Germanic languages and the expansion of their social functions;
new (from the 16th century to the present) - the formation and normalization of national languages.

In the reconstructed Proto-Germanic language, a number of researchers single out a layer of vocabulary that does not have Indo-European etymology - the so-called pre-Germanic substratum. In particular, these are the majority of strong verbs, the conjugation paradigm of which also cannot be explained from the Proto-Indo-European language. The displacement of consonants compared to the Proto-Indo-European language - the so-called. "Grimm's law" - supporters of the hypothesis also explain the influence of the substrate.

The development of the Germanic languages from antiquity to the present day is associated with numerous migrations of their speakers. The Germanic dialects of the most ancient times were divided into 2 main groups: Scandinavian (northern) and continental (southern). In the II-I centuries BC. e. part of the tribes from Scandinavia moved to the southern coast of the Baltic Sea and formed an East Germanic group, opposing the West Germanic (formerly southern) group. The East Germanic tribe of the Goths, moving south, penetrated the territory of the Roman Empire up to the Iberian Peninsula, where it mixed with local population(V-VIII centuries).

Inside the West Germanic area in the 1st century AD. e. 3 groups of tribal dialects were distinguished: Ingveon, Istveon and Erminon. The migration in the 5th-6th centuries of part of the Ingvaeonic tribes (Angles, Saxons, Jutes) to the British Isles predetermined the development of the English language in the future. Scandinavian dialects after their isolation in the 5th century. from the continental group, they were divided into eastern and western subgroups, on the basis of the first Swedish, Danish and Old Gutnish languages were later formed, on the basis of the second - Norwegian, as well as insular languages - Icelandic, Faroese and Norn.

The formation of national literary languages was completed in England in the 16th-17th centuries, in Scandinavian countries in the 16th century, in Germany in the 18th century The spread of the English language outside of England led to the creation of its variants in the USA, Canada, and Australia. The German language in Austria is represented by its Austrian variant.

North German subgroup

Danish - Denmark (Copenhagen), northern Germany
Swedish - Sweden (Stockholm), Finland (Helsinki) - cont. subgroup
Norwegian - Norway (Oslo) - continental subgroup
Icelandic - Iceland (Reykjavik), Denmark
Faroese - Denmark

West German subgroup

English - UK, USA, India, Australia (Canberra), Canada (Ottawa), Ireland (Dublin), New Zealand(Wellington)
Dutch - Netherlands (Amsterdam), Belgium (Brussels), Suriname (Paramaribo), Aruba
Frisian - Netherlands, Denmark, Germany
German-Low German and High German - Germany, Austria (Vienna), Switzerland (Bern), Liechtenstein (Vaduz), Belgium, Italy, Luxembourg
Yiddish - Israel (Jerusalem)

East German subgroup

Gothic - Visigothic and Ostrogothic
Burgundian, Vandal, Gepid, Heruli

Roman group. Romance languages (lat. Roma "Rome") are a group of languages and dialects that are part of the Italic branch of the Indo-European language family and genetically ascend to a common ancestor - Latin. The name Romanesque comes from the Latin word romanus (Roman). The science that studies Romance languages, their origin, development, classification, etc. is called romance and is one of the subsections of linguistics (linguistics). The peoples who speak them are also called Romance. The Romance languages developed as a result of the divergent (centrifugal) development of the oral tradition of different geographical dialects of the once single folk Latin language and gradually became isolated from the source language and from each other as a result of various demographic, historical and geographical processes. The beginning of this epochal process was laid by the Roman colonists, who settled the regions (provinces) of the Roman Empire, remote from the capital - the city of Rome, in the course of a complex ethnographic process, called ancient Romanization in the period of the 3rd century BC. BC e. - 5th c. n. e. During this period, the various dialects of Latin are influenced by the substrate. For a long time, the Romance languages were perceived only as vernacular dialects of the classical Latin language, and therefore were practically not used in writing. The formation of the literary forms of the Romance languages was largely based on the traditions of classical Latin, which allowed them to converge again in lexical and semantic terms already in modern times.

French - France (Paris), Canada, Belgium (Brussels), Switzerland, Lebanon (Beirut), Luxembourg, Monaco, Morocco (Rabat).
Provencal - France, Italy, Spain, Monaco
Italian - Italy, San Marino, Vatican, Switzerland
Sardinian - Sardinia (Greece)
Spanish - Spain, Argentina (Buenos Aires), Cuba (Havana), Mexico (Mexico City), Chile (Santiago), Honduras (Tegucigalpa)
Galician - Spain, Portugal (Lisbon)
Catalan - Spain, France, Italy, Andorra (Andorra la Vella)
Portuguese - Portugal, Brazil (Brazilia), Angola (Luanda), Mozambique (Maputo)
Romanian - Romania (Bucharest), Moldova (Chisinau)
Moldovan - Moldova
Macedonian-Romanian - Greece, Albania (Tirana), Macedonia (Skopje), Romania, Bulgarian
Romansh - Switzerland
Creole languages - crossed Romance languages with local languages

Italian:

Latin
Medieval Vulgar Latin
Oscan, Umbrian, Saber

Celtic group. The Celtic languages are one of the western groups of the Indo-European family, close, in particular, to the Italic and Germanic languages. Nevertheless, the Celtic languages, apparently, did not form a specific unity with other groups, as was sometimes believed earlier (in particular, the hypothesis of Celto-Italic unity, defended by A. Meie, is most likely incorrect).

The spread of the Celtic languages, as well as the Celtic peoples, in Europe is associated with the spread of the Hallstatt (VI-V centuries BC), and then the La Tene (2nd half of the 1st millennium BC) archaeological cultures. The ancestral home of the Celts is probably located in Central Europe, between the Rhine and the Danube, but they settled very widely: in the 1st half of the 1st millennium BC. e. they penetrated the British Isles, around the 7th century. BC e. - in Gaul, in the VI century. BC e. - to the Iberian Peninsula, in the V century. BC e. they spread to the south, cross the Alps and come to northern Italy, finally, by the 3rd century. BC e. they reach Greece and Asia Minor. We know relatively little about the ancient stages of the development of the Celtic languages: the monuments of that era are very scarce and not always easy to interpret; nevertheless, data from the Celtic languages (especially Old Irish) play important role in the reconstruction of the Indo-European parent language.

Goidel subgroup

Irish - Ireland
Scottish - Scotland (Edinburgh)
Manx - dead - language of the Isle of Man (in the Irish Sea)

Brythonic subgroup

Breton - Brittany (France)
Welsh - Wales (Cardiff)
Cornish - dead - in Cornwall - peninsula southwest of England

Gallic subgroup

Gaulish - extinct since the era of education French; was common in Gaul, Northern Italy, in the Balkans and Asia Minor

Greek group. The Greek group is currently one of the most peculiar and relatively small language groups (families) within the Indo-European languages. At the same time, the Greek group is one of the most ancient and well-studied since antiquity. At present, the main representative of the group with full set language features is the Greek language of Greece and Cyprus, which has a long and complex history. The presence of a single full-fledged representative today brings the Greek group closer to the Albanian and Armenian, which are also actually represented by one language each.

At the same time, other Greek languages and extremely isolated dialects existed earlier, which either died out or are on the verge of extinction as a result of assimilation.

1. modern Greek - Greece (Athens), Cyprus (Nicosia)
2. ancient Greek
3. Middle Greek, or Byzantine

Albanian group.

Albanian (alb. Gjuha shqipe) is the language of the Albanians, the indigenous population of Albania itself and part of the population of Greece, Macedonia, Kosovo, Montenegro, Lower Italy and Sicily. The number of speakers is about 6 million people.

The self-name of the language - "shkip" - comes from the local word "shipe" or "shpee", which actually means "stony soil" or "rock". That is, the self-name of the language can be translated as "mountain". The word "shkip" can also be interpreted as "understandable" (language).

Armenian group

Armenian is an Indo-European language, usually classified as a separate group, rarely combined with Greek and Phrygian. Among the Indo-European languages, it is one of the ancient written languages. The Armenian alphabet was created by Mesrop Mashtots in 405-406. n. e .. The total number of speakers around the world is about 6.4 million people. During its long history, the Armenian language has been in contact with many languages. Being a branch of the Indo-European language, Armenian later came into contact with various Indo-European and non-Indo-European languages, both living and now dead, adopting from them and bringing to our days much of what direct written evidence could not preserve. with Armenian in different time Hittite and hieroglyphic Luvian, Hurrian and Urartian, Akkadian, Aramaic and Syriac, Parthian and Persian, Georgian and Zan, Greek and Latin came into contact. For the history of these languages and their speakers, the data of the Armenian language are in many cases of paramount importance. These data are especially important for urartologists, Iranianists, Kartvelists, who draw many facts of the history of the languages they study from Armenian.

Hitto-Luvian group. The Anatolian languages are a branch of the Indo-European languages (also known as the Hitto-Luvian languages). According to glottochronology, they separated quite early from other Indo-European languages. All languages of this group are dead. Their carriers lived in the II-I millennium BC. e. on the territory of Asia Minor (the Hittite kingdom and the small states that arose on its territory), were later conquered and assimilated by the Persians and / or Greeks.

The oldest monuments of the Anatolian languages are the Hittite cuneiform and Luvian hieroglyphics (there were also brief inscriptions in the Palaic language, the most archaic of the Anatolian languages). Through the work of the Czech linguist Friedrich (Bedřich) the Terrible, these languages were identified as Indo-European, which contributed to their decipherment.

Later inscriptions in Lydian, Lycian, Sidetic, Carian, and other languages were written in Asia Minor alphabets (partially deciphered in the 20th century).

Dead

Hittite
Luuvian
Palai
carian
Lydian
Lycian

Tocharian group. The Tocharian languages are a group of Indo-European languages consisting of the dead "Tocharian A" ("Eastern Tocharian") and "Tocharian B" ("Western Tocharian"). They were spoken in the territory of modern Xinjiang. The monuments that have come down to us (the first of them were discovered at the beginning of the 20th century by the Hungarian traveler Aurel Stein) date back to the 6th-8th centuries. The self-name of the carriers is unknown, they are called “Tochars” conditionally: the Greeks called them Τοχάριοι, and the Turks - toxri.

Dead

Tocharian A - in Chinese Turkestan
Tocharsky V - ibid.

Indo-European taxon: family Ancestral home: Indo-European ranges of Kentum (blue) and Satem (red). The estimated original area of satemization is shown in bright red. Range: the whole world ... Wikipedia

A set of languages of late forms of one language (derived from one language), for example, Indo-European S. Ya., Ural S. Ya. etc. There is a tradition of using the term “S. I." only in relation to isolated groups of related ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

A set of groups (branches) of languages, the similarity of which is explained by a common origin. Indo-European family of languages. Finno-Ugric (Finnish-Ugric) family of languages. Turkic family of languages. Semitic family of languages... Dictionary of linguistic terms

language family- a group of related languages. The main families of languages with a written tradition are: a. Indo-European (Slavic, Germanic, Celtic, Greek, Albanian, Romance, Iranian, Indian, Hetto Luvian, Tocharian, Armenian languages); b. Euskero… … Grammatological Dictionary

Language systematics auxiliary discipline, which helps to organize the objects studied by linguistics - languages, dialects and groups of languages. The result of this ordering is also called the taxonomy of languages. The taxonomy of languages is based on ... ... Wikipedia

language family- The whole set of languages of a given kinship. The following families of languages are distinguished: 1) Indo-European; 2) Sino-Tibetan; 3) Niger Kordofanian; 4) Austronesian; 5) Semito Hamitic; 6) Dravidian; 7) Altai; 8) Austro-Asian; 9) Thai; ... ... Dictionary of linguistic terms T.V. Foal

Indo-Germanic language family- 1. name, previously used instead of the international term "Indo-European family of languages"; sometimes used and now in it. linguistics. 2. Includes, along with about 15 languages and groups of languages, also Greek. and lat... Dictionary of antiquity

Indo-European language family, the most widely spoken in the world. Its distribution area includes almost all of Europe, both Americas and continental Australia, as well as a significant part of Africa and Asia. Over 2.5 billion people speak Indo-European languages. All the languages of modern Europe belong to this family of languages, with the exception of Basque, Hungarian, Sami, Finnish, Estonian and Turkish, as well as several Altaic and Uralic languages \u200b\u200bof the European part of Russia

The Indo-European family of languages includes at least twelve groups of languages. In order of geographical location, moving clockwise from northwestern Europe, these are the following groups: Celtic, Germanic, Baltic, Slavic, Tocharian, Indian, Iranian, Armenian, Hitto-Luvian, Greek, Albanian, Italic (including Latin and descended from her Romance languages, which are sometimes separated into a separate group). Of these, three groups (Italic, Hitto-Luvian, and Tocharian) consist entirely of dead languages.

Indo-Aryan languages (Indian listen)) is a group of related languages dating back to the ancient Indian language. Included (together with the Iranian languages and closely related Dardic languages) in the Indo-Iranian languages, one of the branches of the Indo-European languages. Distributed in South Asia: northern and central India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Republic of Maldives, Nepal; outside this region - Romani languages, Domari and Parya (Tajikistan). The total number of speakers is about 1 billion people. (estimate, 2007). ancient Indian languages.

Ancient Indian language. Indian languages come from dialects of the ancient Indian language, which had two literary forms - Vedic (the language of the sacred "Vedas") and Sanskrit (created by Brahmin priests in the Ganges valley in the first half - the middle of the first millennium BC). The ancestors of the Indo-Aryans came out of the ancestral home of the "Aryan expanse" at the end of the 3rd - beginning of the 2nd millennium. The related Indo-Aryan language is reflected in proper names, theonyms and some lexical borrowings in the cuneiform texts of the state of Mitanni and the Hittites. Indo-Aryan writing in the Brahmi syllabary originated in the 4th-3rd centuries BC.

The New Indian period begins after the 10th century. It is represented by about three dozen major languages and a large number of dialects, sometimes quite different from each other.

1. Hindi and Urdu (Hindustani) - two varieties of the same New Indian literary language; Urdu - the state language of Pakistan (the capital of Islamabad), has a written language based on the Arabic alphabet; Hindi (state language of India (New Delhi) - based on the Old Indian script Devanagari.

2. Bengal (State of India - West Bengal, Bangladesh (Kolkata))

3. Punjabi (eastern part of Pakistan, Punjab state of India)

5. Sindhi (Pakistan)

6. Rajasthani (Northwest India)

7. Gujarati - s-W subgroup

8. Marathas - Western subgroup

9. Sinhalese - island subgroup

10. Nepali - Nepal (Kathmandu) - central subgroup

11. Bihari - Indian state of Bihar - eastern subgroup

12. Oriya - ind. state of Orissa - eastern subgroup

13. Assamese - ind. Assam State, Bangladesh, Bhutan (Thimphu) - east. subgroup

14. Gypsy -

15. Kashmiri - Indian states of Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan - Dardic group

16. Vedic - the language of the most ancient sacred books of the Indians - the Vedas, formed in the first half of the second millennium BC.

17. Sanskrit is the literary language of the ancient Indians from the 3rd century BC. to 4th century AD

18. Pali - Middle Indian literary and cult language of the medieval era

19. Prakrits - various colloquial Middle Indian dialects

Iranian languages- a group of related languages within the Aryan branch of the Indo-European family of languages. Distributed mainly in the Middle East, Central Asia and Pakistan.

The Iranian group was formed according to the generally accepted version as a result of the separation of languages from the Indo-Iranian branch in the territory of the Volga region and the southern Urals during the period of the Andronovo culture. There is also another version of the formation of the Iranian languages, according to which they separated from the main body of the Indo-Iranian languages on the territory of the BMAC culture. The expansion of the Aryans in ancient times took place to the south and southeast. As a result of migrations, Iranian languages spread by the 5th century BC. in large areas from the Northern Black Sea region to Eastern Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Altai (Pazyryk culture), and from the Zagros Mountains, eastern Mesopotamia and Azerbaijan to the Hindu Kush.

The most important milestone in the development of the Iranian languages was the identification of the Western Iranian languages, which spread westward from Deshte-Kevir along the Iranian plateau, and the Eastern Iranian languages opposed to them. The work of the Persian poet Firdousi Shahnameh reflects the confrontation between the ancient Persians and the nomadic (also semi-nomadic) East Iranian tribes, nicknamed by the Persians as Turans, and their habitats as Turan.

The current state of the Iranian-speaking array was largely determined by the expansion of the Western Iranian languages, which began under the Sassanids, but gained full strength after the Arab invasion:

Expansion of the Kurds into Upper Mesopotamia and the Armenian Highlands.

Migration of the semi-nomads of Gorgan to the southeast and the formation of the Baloch language.

Phonetics of Iranian languages shares many similarities with the Indo-Aryan languages in development from the Indo-European state. The ancient Iranian languages belong to the inflectional-synthetic type with a developed system of inflectional forms of declension and conjugation and are thus similar to Sanskrit, Latin and Old Church Slavonic. This is especially true of the Avestan language and, to a lesser extent, Old Persian. In Avestan, there are eight cases, three numbers, three genders, inflectional-synthetic verbal forms of present, aorist, imperfect, perfect, injunctiva, conjunctiva, optative, imperative, there is a developed word formation.

1. Persian - writing based on the Arabic alphabet - Iran (Tehran), Afghanistan (Kabul), Tajikistan (Dushanbe) - southwestern Iranian group.

2. Dari is the literary language of Afghanistan

3. Pashto - since the 30s the state language of Afghanistan - Afghanistan, Pakistan - East Iranian subgroup

4. Baloch - Pakistan, Iran, Afghanistan, Turkmenistan (Ashgabat), Oman (Muscat), United Arab Emirates (Abu Dhabi) - northwestern subgroup.

5. Tajik - Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan (Tashkent) - Western Iranian subgroup.

6. Kurdish - Turkey (Ankara), Iran, Iraq (Baghdad), Syria (Damascus), Armenia (Yerevan), Lebanon (Beirut) - Western Iranian subgroup.

7. Ossetian - Russia (North Ossetia), South Ossetia (Tskhinval) - East Iranian subgroup

8. Tatsky - Russia (Dagestan), Azerbaijan (Baku) - western subgroup

9. Talysh - Iran, Azerbaijan - northwestern Iranian subgroup

10. Caspian dialects

11. Pamir languages are the unwritten languages of the Pamirs.

12. Yagnob is the language of the Yaghnobi, the inhabitants of the Yagnob river valley in Tajikistan.

14. Avestan

15. Pahlavi

16. Median

17. Parthian

18. Sogdian

19. Khorezmian

20. Scythian

21. Bactrian

22. Saky

Slavic group. Slavic languages are a group of related languages of the Indo-European family. Distributed throughout Europe and Asia. The total number of speakers is about 400-500 million people [source not specified 101 days]. They differ in a high degree of closeness to each other, which is found in the structure of the word, the use of grammatical categories, the structure of the sentence, semantics, the system of regular sound correspondences, and morphonological alternations. This proximity is explained by the unity of the origin of the Slavic languages and their long and intense contacts with each other at the level of literary languages and dialects.

The long independent development of the Slavic peoples in different ethnic, geographical, historical and cultural conditions, their contacts with various ethnic groups led to the emergence of differences in material, functional, etc. The Slavic languages within the Indo-European family are closest to the Baltic languages. The similarity between the two groups served as the basis for the theory of the "Balto-Slavic proto-language", according to which the Balto-Slavic proto-language first emerged from the Indo-European proto-language, later splitting into Proto-Baltic and Proto-Slavic. However, many scientists explain their special closeness by the long contact of the ancient Balts and Slavs, and deny the existence of the Balto-Slavic language. It has not been established in which territory the separation of the Slavic language continuum from the Indo-European / Balto-Slavic took place. It can be assumed that it took place to the south of those territories that, according to various theories, belong to the territory of the Slavic ancestral homelands. From one of the Indo-European dialects (Proto-Slavic), the Proto-Slavic language was formed, which is the ancestor of all modern Slavic languages. The history of the Proto-Slavic language was longer than the history of individual Slavic languages. For a long time it developed as a single dialect with an identical structure. Dialect variants arose later. The process of transition of the Proto-Slavic language into independent languages took place most actively in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium AD. e., during the formation of the early Slavic states in the territory of South-Eastern and Eastern Europe. During this period, the territory of Slavic settlements increased significantly. Areas of various geographical zones with different natural and climatic conditions were mastered, the Slavs entered into relationships with the population of these territories, standing at different stages of cultural development. All this was reflected in the history of the Slavic languages.

Eastern subgroup

1. Russian

2. Ukrainian

3. Belarusian

Southern subgroup

1. Bulgarian - Bulgaria (Sofia)

2. Macedonian - Macedonia (Skopje)

3. Serbo-Croatian - Serbia (Belgrade), Croatia (Zagreb)

4. Slovenian - Slovenia (Ljubljana)

Western subgroup

1. Czech - Czech Republic (Prague)

2. Slovak - Slovakia (Bratislava)

3. Polish - Poland (Warsaw)

4. Kashubian - a dialect of Polish

5. Lusatian - Germany

Dead: Old Church Slavonic, Polabian, Pomeranian

Baltic group. Baltic languages - language a group representing a special branch of the Indo-European group of languages.

The total number of speakers is over 4.5 million people. Distribution - Latvia, Lithuania, earlier territories of (modern) north-east of Poland, Russia (Kaliningrad region) and north-west of Belarus; even earlier (before the 7th-9th, in some places the 12th centuries) up to the upper reaches of the Volga, the Oka basin, the middle Dnieper and Pripyat.

1. Lithuanian - Lithuania (Vilnius)

2. Latvian - Latvia (Riga)

3. Latgalian - Latvia

Dead: Prussian, Yatvyazhsky, Kurzhsky, etc.

German group. The history of the development of the Germanic languages is usually divided into 3 periods:

Ancient (from the emergence of writing to the XI century) - the formation of individual languages;

middle (XII-XV centuries) - the development of writing in the Germanic languages and the expansion of their social functions;

new (from the 16th century to the present) - the formation and normalization of national languages.

Inside the West Germanic area in the 1st century AD. e. 3 groups of tribal dialects were distinguished: Ingveon, Istveon and Erminon. The migration in the 5th-6th centuries of part of the Ingvaeonic tribes (Angles, Saxons, Jutes) to the British Isles predetermined the further development of the English language. The complex interaction of West Germanic dialects on the continent created the prerequisites for the formation of Old Frisian, Old Saxon, Old Low Frankish and Old High German languages. Scandinavian dialects after their isolation in the 5th century. from the continental group they were divided into eastern and western subgroups, on the basis of the first Swedish, Danish and Old Gutnish languages were later formed, on the basis of the second - Norwegian, as well as insular languages - Icelandic, Faroese and Norn.

The formation of national literary languages was completed in England in the 16th-17th centuries, in the Scandinavian countries in the 16th century, in Germany in the 18th century. The spread of the English language outside of England led to the creation of its variants in the USA, Canada, and Australia. The German language in Austria is represented by its Austrian variant.

North German subgroup.

1. Danish - Denmark (Copenhagen), northern Germany

2. Swedish - Sweden (Stockholm), Finland (Helsinki) - contact subgroup

3. Norwegian - Norway (Oslo) - continental subgroup

4. Icelandic - Iceland (Reykjavik), Denmark

5. Faroese - Denmark

West German subgroup

1. English - UK, USA, India, Australia (Canberra), Canada (Ottawa), Ireland (Dublin), New Zealand (Wellington)

2. Dutch - Netherlands (Amsterdam), Belgium (Brussels), Suriname (Paramaribo), Aruba

3. Frisian - Netherlands, Denmark, Germany

4. German - Low German and High German - Germany, Austria (Vienna), Switzerland (Bern), Liechtenstein (Vaduz), Belgium, Italy, Luxembourg

5. Yiddish - Israel (Jerusalem)

East German subgroup

1. Gothic - Visigothic and Ostrogothic

2. Burgundian, Vandal, Gepid, Herulian

Roman group. Romance languages (lat. Roma "Rome") - a group of languages and dialects that are part of the Italic branch of the Indo-European language family and genetically ascend to a common ancestor - Latin. The name Romanesque comes from the Latin word romanus (Roman). The science that studies Romance languages, their origin, development, classification, etc. is called romance and is one of the subsections of linguistics (linguistics). The peoples who speak them are also called Romance. The Romance languages developed as a result of the divergent (centrifugal) development of the oral tradition of different geographical dialects of the once single folk Latin language and gradually became isolated from the source language and from each other as a result of various demographic, historical and geographical processes. This epoch-making process was initiated by Roman colonists who settled regions (provinces) of the Roman Empire remote from the capital - the city of Rome - in the course of a complex ethnographic process called ancient Romanization in the period of the 3rd century BC. BC e. - 5 in. n. e. During this period, the various dialects of Latin are influenced by the substrate. For a long time, the Romance languages were perceived only as vernacular dialects of the classical Latin language, and therefore were practically not used in writing. The formation of the literary forms of the Romance languages was largely based on the traditions of classical Latin, which allowed them to converge again in lexical and semantic terms already in modern times.

1. French - France (Paris), Canada, Belgium (Brussels), Switzerland, Lebanon (Beirut), Luxembourg, Monaco, Morocco (Rabat).

2. Provencal - France, Italy, Spain, Monaco

3. Italian – Italy, San Marino, Vatican, Switzerland

4. Sardinian - Sardinia (Greece)

5. Spanish - Spain, Argentina (Buenos Aires), Cuba (Havana), Mexico (Mexico City), Chile (Santiago), Honduras (Tegucigalpa)

6. Galician - Spain, Portugal (Lisbon)

7. Catalan - Spain, France, Italy, Andorra (Andorra la Vella)

8. Portuguese - Portugal, Brazil (Brazilia), Angola (Luanda), Mozambique (Maputo)

9. Romanian - Romania (Bucharest), Moldova (Chisinau)

10. Moldavian - Moldova

11. Macedonian-Romanian - Greece, Albania (Tirana), Macedonia (Skopje), Romania, Bulgarian

12. Romansh - Switzerland

13. Creole languages are crossed Romance languages with local languages

Italian:

1. Latin

2. Medieval Vulgar Latin

3. Oscan, Umbrian, Saber

Celtic group. The Celtic languages are one of the western groups of the Indo-European family, close, in particular, to the Italic and Germanic languages. Nevertheless, the Celtic languages, apparently, did not form a specific unity with other groups, as was sometimes believed earlier (in particular, the hypothesis of Celto-Italic unity, defended by A. Meie, is most likely incorrect).

The spread of the Celtic languages, as well as the Celtic peoples, in Europe is associated with the spread of the Hallstatt (VI-V centuries BC), and then the La Tene (2nd half of the 1st millennium BC) archaeological cultures. The ancestral home of the Celts is probably located in Central Europe, between the Rhine and the Danube, but they settled very widely: in the 1st half of the 1st millennium BC. e. they penetrated the British Isles, around the 7th century. BC e. - in Gaul, in the VI century. BC e. - to the Iberian Peninsula, in the V century. BC e. they spread to the south, cross the Alps and come to northern Italy, finally, by the 3rd century. BC e. they reach Greece and Asia Minor. We know relatively little about the ancient stages of the development of the Celtic languages: the monuments of that era are very scarce and not always easy to interpret; nevertheless, data from the Celtic languages (especially Old Irish) play an important role in the reconstruction of the Indo-European parent language.

Goidel subgroup

1. Irish - Ireland

2. Scottish - Scotland (Edinburgh)

3. Manx - dead - the language of the Isle of Man (in the Irish Sea)

Brythonic subgroup

1. Breton - Brittany (France)

2. Welsh - Wales (Cardiff)

3. Cornish - dead - in Cornwall - peninsula southwest of England

Gallic subgroup

1. Gaulish - extinct since the formation of the French language; was distributed in Gaul, Northern Italy, the Balkans and Asia Minor

Greek group. The Greek group is currently one of the most peculiar and relatively small language groups (families) in the Indo-European languages. At the same time, the Greek group is one of the most ancient and well-studied since antiquity. Currently, the main representative of the group with a full set of language features is the Greek language of Greece and Cyprus, which has a long and complex history. The presence of a single full-fledged representative today brings the Greek group closer to the Albanian and Armenian, which are also actually represented by one language each.

At the same time, other Greek languages and extremely isolated dialects existed earlier, which either died out or are on the verge of extinction as a result of assimilation.

1. modern Greek - Greece (Athens), Cyprus (Nicosia)

2. ancient Greek

3. Middle Greek, or Byzantine

Albanian group.

Armenian group.

Armenian is an Indo-European language, usually classified as a separate group, rarely combined with Greek and Phrygian. Among the Indo-European languages, it is one of the ancient written languages. The Armenian alphabet was created by Mesrop Mashtots in 405-406. n. e. (see Armenian script). The total number of speakers around the world is about 6.4 million people. During its long history, the Armenian language has been in contact with many languages. Being a branch of the Indo-European language, Armenian later came into contact with various Indo-European and non-Indo-European languages - both living and now dead, adopting from them and bringing to our days much of what direct written evidence could not preserve. At different times, Hittite and hieroglyphic Luwian, Hurrian and Urartian, Akkadian, Aramaic and Syriac, Parthian and Persian, Georgian and Zan, Greek and Latin came into contact with the Armenian language at different times. For the history of these languages and their speakers, the data of the Armenian language are in many cases of paramount importance. These data are especially important for urartologists, Iranianists, Kartvelists, who draw many facts of the history of the languages they study from Armenian.

Hitto-Luvian group. The Anatolian languages are a branch of the Indo-European languages (also known as the Hitto-Luvian languages). According to glottochronology, they separated quite early from other Indo-European languages. All languages of this group are dead. Their carriers lived in the II-I millennium BC. e. on the territory of Asia Minor (the Hittite kingdom and the small states that arose on its territory), were later conquered and assimilated by the Persians and / or Greeks.

The oldest monuments of the Anatolian languages are the Hittite cuneiform and Luvian hieroglyphics (there were also brief inscriptions in the Palai language, the most archaic of the Anatolian languages). Through the work of the Czech linguist Friedrich (Bedřich) the Terrible, these languages were identified as Indo-European, which contributed to their decipherment.

Later inscriptions in Lydian, Lycian, Sidetic, Carian, and other languages were written in Asia Minor alphabets (partially deciphered in the 20th century).

1. Hittite

2. Luuvian

3. Palai

4. Carian

5. Lydian

6. Lycian

Tocharian group. Tocharian languages - a group of Indo-European languages, consisting of the dead "Tocharian A" ("East Tocharian") and "Tocharian B" ("Western Tocharian"). They were spoken in the territory of modern Xinjiang. The monuments that have come down to us (the first of them were discovered at the beginning of the 20th century by the Hungarian traveler Aurel Stein) date back to the 6th-8th centuries. The self-name of the carriers is unknown, they are called “Tochars” conditionally: the Greeks called them Τοχάριοι, and the Turks - toxri.

1. Tocharian A - in Chinese Turkestan

2. Tocharsky V - ibid.

53. The main families of languages: Indo-European, Afro-Asiatic, Finno-Ugric, Turkic, Sino-Tibetan languages.

Indo-European languages. The first language family, established by means of a comparative historical method, was the so-called "Indo-European". After the discovery of Sanskrit, many European scientists - Danish, German, Italian, French, Russian - began to study the details of the relationship of various outwardly similar languages of Europe and Asia, using the method proposed by William Jones. German experts called this large grouping of languages "Indo-Germanic" and often continue to call it that to this day (in other countries this term is not used).

Separate language groups, or branches included in the Indo-European family from the very beginning, are indian, or Indo-Aryan; Iranian; Greek, represented by dialects of the Greek language alone (in the history of which the ancient Greek and modern Greek periods differ); Italian, which included the Latin language, whose numerous descendants form the modern Romanesque group; Celtic; Germanic; Baltic; Slavic; as well as isolated Indo-European languages - Armenian and Albanian. Between these groups there are generally recognized rapprochements, allowing us to speak of such groupings as the Balto-Slavic and Indo-Iranian languages.

At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. inscriptions in languages were discovered and deciphered Hitto-Luvian, or the Anatolian group, including the Hittite language, which shed light on the earliest stage in the history of the Indo-European languages (monuments of the 18-13th century BC). The involvement of materials from the Hittite and other Hittite-Luvian languages stimulated a significant revision of the systematizing statements about the structure of the Indo-European proto-language, and some scholars even began to use the term "Indo-Hittite" to denote the stage that preceded the separation of the Hittite-Luvian branch, and the term "Indo-European" is proposed to be retained for one or more later steps.

Also included among the Indo-European Tocharian a group that includes two dead languages spoken in Xinjiang in the 5th to 8th centuries. AD (texts in these languages were found at the end of the 19th century); Illyrian a group (two dead languages, Illyrian proper and Messapian); a number of other isolated dead languages common in the 1st millennium BC. in the Balkans, Phrygian, Thracian, Venetian and ancient Macedonian(the latter was under strong Greek influence); Pelasgian language of the pre-Greek population Ancient Greece. Without a doubt, there were other Indo-European languages, and possibly groups of languages that disappeared without a trace.

In terms of the total number of languages included in it, the Indo-European family is inferior to many other language families, but in terms of geographical distribution and the number of speakers it has no equal (even without taking into account those hundreds of millions of people almost all over the world who use English, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Russian , Hindi, to a lesser extent German and New Persian as the second).

Afroasian languages. The Semitic language family has been recognized for a long time, the similarity between Hebrew and Arabic was already noticed in the Middle Ages. The comparative study of the Semitic languages began in the 19th century, and the archaeological finds of the 20th century. brought in a lot of important new information. The establishment of a relationship between the Semitic family and some languages of northeast Africa led to the postulation of the Semitic-Hamitic macrofamily; this term is still very common today. More detailed study African members of this group led to the rejection of the idea of a special “Hamitic” linguistic unity, opposed to the Semitic one, in connection with which the name “Afrasian” (or “Afroasiatic”) languages, now generally accepted among specialists, was proposed. The significant degree of divergence of the Afroasian languages and the very early estimated time of their divergence make this grouping a classic example of a macrofamily. It consists of five or, according to other classifications, six branches; besides Semitic, This Egyptian a branch consisting of the ancient Egyptian language and the successor to it Coptic, now the cult language of the Coptic Church; cushitic branch (the most famous languages are Somali and Oromo); formerly included in the Cushitic languages Omotian branch (a number of languages in the south-west of Ethiopia, the largest - Volamo and Kaffa); Chadian branch (the most significant language is Hausa); and Berber-Libyan the branch, also called the Berber-Libyan-Guanche, because, according to modern ideas, in addition to numerous languages and / or dialects of the nomads of North Africa, it also included the languages \u200b\u200bof the aborigines of the Canary Islands exterminated by Europeans. In terms of the number of languages included in it (more than 300), the Afroasian family is one of the largest; the number of Afroasian speakers exceeds 250 million people (mainly due to Arabic, Hausa and Amharic; Oromo, Somali and Hebrew are also quite large). The languages Arabic, Ancient Egyptian, Hebrew revived in the form of Hebrew, Ge'ez, as well as the dead Akkadian, Phoenician and Aramaic languages and a number of other Semitic languages play an outstanding cultural role at the present time or have played in history.

Sino-Tibetan languages. This language family, also called Sino-Tibetan, is the largest in the world in terms of the number of speakers of it as a mother tongue. Chinese language, which along with Dungan forms a separate branch in its composition; other languages, numbering from about 200 to 300 or more, are combined into the Tibeto-Burmese branch, the internal structure of which is interpreted by various researchers in different ways. With the greatest confidence in its composition, the Lolo-Burmese groups stand out (the largest language is Burmese), bodo-garo, kuki-chin (the largest language - meithei, or Manipuri in eastern India), Tibetan (the largest language - Tibetan, fragmented into very different dialects), Gurung and several groups of so-called "Himalayan" languages (the largest - newari in Nepal). The total number of speakers of the languages of the Tibeto-Burmese branch is over 60 million people, in Chinese - more than 1 billion, and due to it, the Sino-Tibetan family ranks second in the world in terms of the number of speakers after the Indo-European. Chinese, Tibetan and Burmese languages have long written traditions (since the second half of the 2nd millennium BC, 6th century AD and 12th century AD respectively) and great cultural significance, however, most of the Sino-Tibetan languages remain unwritten. According to numerous monuments discovered and deciphered in the 20th century, the dead Tangut the language of the Xi-Xia state (10th–13th centuries); there are monuments of a dead language drink(6th–12th centuries, Burma).

The Sino-Tibetan languages have such a structural characteristic as the use of tone (pitch) distinctions to distinguish usually monosyllabic morphemes; there is no or almost no inflection or any use of affixes at all; syntax relies on phrasal phonology and word order. Some of the Chinese and Tibeto-Burmese languages have been studied on a large scale, but a reconstruction similar to that made for the Indo-European languages has so far been carried out only to a small extent.

For quite a long time, with the Sino-Tibetan languages, specifically with Chinese, the Thai languages and the Miao-Yao languages \u200b\u200bare also brought together, combining them into a special Sinitic branch, opposed to the Tibeto-Burmese. At present, this hypothesis has practically no supporters left.

Turkic languages belong to the Altaic language family. Turkic languages: about 30 languages, and with dead languages and local varieties, whose status as languages is not always indisputable, more than 50; the largest are Turkish, Azerbaijani, Uzbek, Kazakh, Uighur, Tatar; total number speaking Turkic languages is about 120 million people. The center of the Turkic area is central Asia, from where, in the course of historical migrations, they also spread, on the one hand, to southern Russia, the Caucasus and Asia Minor, and on the other, to the northeast, to eastern Siberia up to Yakutia. The comparative historical study of the Altaic languages began as early as the 19th century. Nevertheless, there is no generally accepted reconstruction of the Altaic parent language, one of the reasons is the intensive contacts of the Altaic languages and numerous mutual borrowings, which make it difficult to apply standard comparative methods.

Uralic languages. This macrofamily consists of two families - Finno-Ugric and samoyed. Finno-Ugric family, to which belong, in particular, Finnish, Estonian, Izhorian, Karelian, Vepsian, Votic, Liv, Sami (Baltic-Finnish branch) and Hungarian (Ugric branch, which also includes Khanty and Mansi languages) languages, Was in in general terms described at the end of the 19th century; at the same time, the reconstruction of the proto-language was carried out; the Finno-Ugric family also includes the Volga (Mordovian (Erzya and Moksha) and Mari (mountain and meadow dialects) languages) and Permian (Udmurt, Komi-Permyak and Komi-Zyryan languages) branches. Later, a relationship was established with the Finno-Ugric Samoyedic languages \u200b\u200bdistributed in the north of Eurasia. The number of Uralic languages is more than 20 if Sami is considered a single language, and about 40 if the existence of separate Sami languages is recognized, and also dead languages are taken into account, known mainly only by names. The total number of peoples who speak the Uralic languages is about 25 million people (of which more than half are native speakers of the Hungarian language and over 20% of Finnish). The minor Baltic-Finnish languages (except for Vepsian) are on the verge of extinction, and Votic may have already disappeared; three of the four Samoyed languages (except Nenets) also die out.

54. Typology, morphological classification of languages: flexion and agglutination.

Typology is a linguistic discipline that classifies languages according to external grammatical features. Typologists of the 20th century: Sapir, Uspensky, Polivanov, Khrakovsky.

The Romantics were the first to raise the question of the "type of language". Their thought was this: "the spirit of the people" can manifest itself in myths, in art, in literature and in language. Hence the natural conclusion that through the language you can know the "spirit of the people."

Friedrich Schlegel. All languages can be divided into two types - inflectional and affixing. Language is born and remains in the same type.

August Wilhelm Schlegel. Defined 3 types: inflectional, affixing and amorphous. Inflectional languages: synthetic and analytic.

Wilhelm von Humboldt. He proved that the Chinese language is not amorphous, but isolating. In addition to the three types of languages noted by the Schlegel brothers, Humboldt described a fourth type; the most accepted term for this type is incorporating (the sentence is built as a compound word, i.e. unformed word roots are agglutinated into one common whole, which will be both a word and a sentence - Chukchi -ty-atakaa-nmy-rkyn "I am fat deer kill").

August Schleicher. Specifies three types of languages in two possibilities: synthetic and analytic. Isolating, agglutinating, inflectional. Isolating - archaic, agglutinating - transitional, inflectional synthetic - the heyday, inflectional - analytical - the era of decline.

Of particular note is the morphological classification of Fortunatov. He takes as a starting point the structure of the word form and the correlation of its morphological parts. Four types of languages.

The forms of individual words are formed by means of such a selection in the words of the stem and affix, in which the stem either does not represent the so-called inflection (internal inflection) at all, or it does not constitute a necessary accessory of word forms and serves to form forms separate from those formed by affixes . agglutinative languages.

Semitic languages - the stems of words themselves have the necessary forms formed by the inflection of stems, although the relation between stem and affix in Semitic languages is the same as in agglutinative languages. Inflectional-agglutative.

Indo-European languages - there is an inflection of the bases in the formation of the very forms of words that are formed by affixes, as a result of which the parts of words in the forms of words represent here by meaning such a connection between themselves in the forms of words that they do not have in the two above mentioned types. inflectional languages.

Chinese, Siamese, etc. - there are no forms of individual words. These languages in the morphological classification are called root languages. The root is not part of the word, but the word itself.

Comparison of fusion and agglutination:

The root can change in phonemic composition / the root does not change in its composition

Affixes are not unambiguous / unambiguous

Affixes are non-standard/standard

Affixes are attached to a stem that is usually not used without these affixes / affixes are attached to what, in addition to this affix, is a separate independent word

The connection of affixes with roots and stems has the character of a close interlacing or alloy / mechanical attachment

55. Morphological classification of languages: synthetism and analyticism.

August-Wilhelm Schlegel showed two possibilities of grammatical structure in inflectional languages: synthetic and analytical.

Synthetic ways- ways that express grammar within a word (internal inflection, affixation, repetitions, additions, stress, supletivism).

Analytical methods are methods that express grammar outside the word (functional words, word order, intonation).

With the synthetic tendency of grammar, the grammatical meaning is synthesized, combined with lexical meanings within the word, which, given the unity of the word, is a strong indicator of the whole. With an analytical trend grammatical meanings separated from the expression of lexical meanings.

The word of synthetic languages is independent, fully-fledged both lexically and grammatically, and requires, first of all, morphological analysis, from which its syntactic properties arise by themselves.

The word of analytic languages expresses one lexical meaning and, being taken out of the sentence, is limited only by its nominative possibilities, while it acquires a grammatical characteristic only as part of the sentence.

Synthetic languages: Latin, Russian, Sanskrit, Ancient Greek, Gothic, Old Church Slavonic, Lithuanian, German.

Analytical: English, Romanesque, Danish, Modern Greek, New Persian, New Indian, Bulgarian.

56. Typology: universals.

Universality in linguistics is one of the most important concepts of typology, a property inherent in all or the vast majority of natural languages. The development of the theory of universals is often associated with the name of Joseph Greenberg, although similar ideas were put forward in linguistics long before him.

Classification of universals is made on several grounds.

· Absolute universals (characteristic of all known languages, for example: every natural language has vowels and consonants) and statistical universals (trends) are opposed. An example of a statistical universal: almost all languages have nasal consonants (however, in some West African languages, nasal consonants are not separate phonemes, but are allophones of oral stops in the context of nasal consonants). Statistical universals are adjoined by the so-called frequentals - phenomena that occur quite often in the languages of the world (with a probability exceeding random).

· Absolute universals are also opposed to implicative (complex), that is, those that assert a connection between two classes of phenomena. For example, if a language has a dual number, it also has plural. A special case of implicative universals are hierarchies, which can be represented as a set of "binomial" implicative universals. Such, for example, is the Keenan-Comrie hierarchy (the accessibility hierarchy of noun phrases, which regulates, among other things, the availability of arguments for relativization:

Subject > Direct Object > Indirect Object > Indirect Object > Possessed > Object of Comparison

According to Keenan and Comrie, the set of elements available for relativization in some way covers a continuous stretch of this hierarchy.

Other examples of hierarchy are the Silverstein hierarchy (the animacy hierarchy), the hierarchy of argument types available for reflection

Implicative universals can be either one-sided (X > Y) or two-sided (X<=>Y). For example, SOV word order is usually associated with the presence of postpositions in the language, and vice versa, most postpositional languages have SOV word order.

· Deductive (obligatory for all languages) and inductive (common for all known languages) universals are also opposed.

Universals are distinguished at all levels of the language. Thus, in phonology a certain number of absolute universals are known (often relating to a set of segments), a number of universal properties are also distinguished in morphology. The study of universals has received the greatest distribution in syntax and semantics.

The study of syntactic universals is primarily associated with the name of Joseph Greenberg, who identified a number of essential properties associated with word order. In addition, the existence of universals in the framework of many linguistic theories is considered as confirmation of the existence of a universal grammar; the theory of principles and parameters was engaged in the study of universals.

As part of semantic research The theory of universals led, in particular, to the creation of various directions based on the concept of a universal semantic metalanguage, primarily in the framework of the works of Anna Vezhbitskaya.

Linguistics also deals with the study of universals within the framework of diachronic studies. So, for example, it is known that the historical transition → is possible, but the reverse is not. Many universal properties associated with historical development semantics of morphological categories (in particular, within the framework of the method of semantic maps).

Within the framework of generative grammar, the existence of universals is often considered as proof of the existence of a special universal grammar, but the functional directions connect them rather with the general features of the human cognitive apparatus. So, for example, in famous work J. Hawkins shows the relationship between the so-called "branching parameter" and the characteristics of human perception.

The Indo-European language family is the most widespread in the world. Its related languages are spoken by more than 2.5 billion people. It includes modern Slavic, Romance, Germanic, Celtic, Baltic, Indo-Aryan, Iranian, Armenian, Greek and Albanian language groups.

Many ancient Indo-Europeans (Indo-Iranians, for example) were nomads and could graze their herds over vast areas, passing on their language to local tribes. After all, it is known that the language of nomads often becomes a kind of Koine in the places of their nomads.

Slavic peoples

The largest ethno-linguistic community in Europe Indo-European origin- Slavs. Archaeological evidence points to the formation of the early Slavs in the area between the Upper Dniester and the basin of the left tributaries of the Middle Dnieper. In this region, the earliest monuments (III-IV centuries) were found, which were recognized as authentically Slavic. The first references to the Slavs are found in Byzantine sources of the 6th century. Retrospectively, these sources mention the Slavs in the 4th century. When the Proto-Slavic people stood out from the common Indo-European (or intermediate Balto-Slavic) people is not known for certain. According to various sources, this could happen in a very wide time range - from the 2nd millennium BC. until the first centuries A.D. As a result of migrations, wars and other kinds of interactions with neighboring peoples and tribes, the Slavic linguistic community broke up into eastern, western and southern ones. Mostly Eastern Slavs are represented in Russia: Russians, Belarusians, Ukrainians, Rusyns. At the same time, Russians make up the absolute majority of the population of the Russian Federation, Ukrainians are the third largest people in the country.

Eastern Slavs were the main population of medieval Kievan Rus and Ladoga-Novgorod land. On the basis of the East Slavic (Old Russian) nationality by the 17th century. formed the Russian and Ukrainian peoples. The formation of the Belarusian people was completed by the beginning of the 20th century. The question of the status of the Rusyns as a separate people is still controversial. Some researchers (especially in Ukraine) consider Rusyns to be an ethnic group of Ukrainians, and the word "Rusyns" itself is an outdated name for Ukrainians used in Austria-Hungary.

The economic basis on which the East Slavic peoples historically formed and developed over the centuries was agricultural production and trade. In the pre-industrial period, these peoples developed an economic and cultural type, which was dominated by arable agriculture with the cultivation of cereals (rye, barley, oats, wheat). Other economic activities (domestic animal husbandry, beekeeping, gardening, gardening, hunting, fishing, collecting wild plants) were important, but not of paramount importance in ensuring life. Until the 20th century almost everything necessary in the peasant economy of Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians was produced independently - from houses to clothes and kitchen utensils. Commodity orientation in the agricultural sector accumulated gradually, and primarily at the expense of landowners. Crafts existed both in the form of ancillary household crafts and in the form of specialized industries (iron-making, blacksmithing, pottery, salt-working, cooperage, charcoal, spinning, weaving, lace, etc.).

A very important element of the economic culture of the East Slavic peoples was traditionally otkhodnichestvo - the earnings of peasants in a foreign land, far from their native village: it could be work in large landowner farms, in craftsmen's artels, in mines, in logging, work as wandering stove-makers, tinkers, tailors and etc. It was from otkhodniks that the human resources of urban industrial production were gradually formed. With the development of capitalism in the late XIX - early XX century. and further, in the process of Soviet industrialization, the outflow of people from the village to the city increased, the role of industrial production, non-productive spheres of activity, and the national intelligentsia grew.

The predominant type of traditional dwelling among the Eastern Slavs varied depending on the locality. For Russian, Belorussian, North Ukrainian dwellings, the main material was wood (logs), and the type of building was a log cabin ground five-walled hut. In the north of Russia, log houses were often found: courtyards in which various residential and outbuildings were combined under one roof. The combination of wood and clay is typical for South Russian and Ukrainian rural dwellings. A common type of building was a hut: a mud hut - made of wattle, smeared with clay and whitewashed.

The family structure of the East Slavic peoples until the beginning of the 20th century. characterized by the spread of two types of families - large and small, with a partial predominance of one or the other in different areas in different historical eras. Since the 1930s there is almost universal disintegration of the extended family.

An important element social structure The Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian peoples during their stay in the Russian Empire had a class division. Estates differed in specializations, privileges, duties, property status.

And although in some periods there was a certain inter-class mobility, in the general case, staying in the estate was hereditary and lifelong. Some estates (for example, the Cossacks) became the basis for the emergence of ethnic groups, among which now only the memory of the estate of their ancestors is preserved.

The spiritual life of Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians and Rusyns is rich and varied. Orthodoxy with elements of folk rituals plays a special role. Catholicism is also widespread (mainly of the Greek rite - among Ukrainians and Rusyns), Protestantism, etc.

The southern Slavs were formed mainly on the Balkan Peninsula, closely interacting with the Roman Byzantines, then with the Turks. The current Bulgarians are the result of a mixture of Slavic and Turkic tribes. The modern South Slavs also include Macedonians, Serbs, Montenegrins, Croats, Bosnians, Slovenes, Gorans.

The religion of the majority of the South Slavs is Orthodoxy. Croats are predominantly Catholic. Most of the Bosnians (Muslims, Bosniaks), Gorani, as well as Pomaks (ethnic group) and Torbeshi Allegory of Russia (ethnic group) are Muslims.

The area of modern residence of the southern Slavs is separated from the main Slavic area by non-Slavic Hungary, Romania and Moldova. In Russia at present (according to the 2002 census), Bulgarians, Serbs, Croats, Montenegrins live from the southern Slavs.

Western Slavs are Kashubians, Lusatian Sorbs, Poles, Slovaks and Czechs. Their homeland is in Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and certain regions of Germany. Some linguists also refer to the West Slavic dialect of the Pannonian Rusyns living in the Serbian region of Vojvodina.

The majority of believing Western Slavs are Catholics. There are also Orthodox, Protestants.

Poles, Czechs, Slovaks live in Russia from the Western Slavs. There are quite large Polish communities in the Kaliningrad region, St. Petersburg, Moscow, the Komi Republic, and the Krasnodar Territory.

Armenians and Hemshils

The Armenian language stands apart in the Indo-European family of languages: only it and several of its dialects are included in the Armenian language group. The formation of the Armenian language and, accordingly, the Armenian people, took place in the 9th-6th centuries. BC. within the state of Urartu.

The Armenian language is spoken in Russia by two peoples: the Armenians and the kindred Hemshils (Hamshens). The latter come from the Armenian city of Hamshen (Khemshin) in the Pontic Mountains.

Hemshils are often called Muslim Armenians, but the northern Hamshens, who settled in the territory of the present Krasnodar Territory and Adygea before the Islamization of their fellow tribesmen, belong, like most Armenians, to the Christian (pre-Chalcedonian) Armenian Apostolic Church. The rest of the Hemshils are Sunni Muslims. There are Catholics among the Armenians.

Germanic peoples

The peoples of the Germanic language group in Russia include Germans, Jews (conditionally) and Englishmen. Inside the West German area in the 1st century. AD three groups of tribal dialects were distinguished: Ingveon, Istveon and Erminon. Migration in the V-VI centuries. parts of the Ingvaeonic tribes to the British Isles predetermined the further development of the English language.

German dialects continued to form on the continent. The formation of literary languages was completed in England in the 16th–17th centuries, in Germany in the 18th century. The emergence of the American version of the English language is associated with the colonization of North America. Yiddish originated as the language of Ashkenazi Jews in Central and Eastern Europe in the 10th-14th centuries. based on Middle German dialects with extensive borrowings from Hebrew, Aramaic, as well as from Romance and Slavic languages.

Religiously, Protestants and Catholics predominate among Russian Germans. Most Jews are Judaists.

Iranian peoples

The Iranian group includes at least thirty languages spoken by dozens of peoples. At least eleven Iranian peoples are represented in Russia. All the languages of the Iranian group in one way or another go back to the ancient Iranian language or a group of dialects spoken by the Prairanian tribes. About 3–2.5 thousand years BC dialects of the Iranian branch began to separate from the common Indo-Iranian root. The pra-Iranians in the era of pan-Iranian unity lived in the space from modern Iran to, probably, the south and southeast of the present European part of Russia. So, the Scythians, Sarmatians and Alans spoke the Iranian languages of the Scythian-Sarmatian group. Today, the only living language of the Scythian subgroup is spoken by the Ossetians. This language has retained certain features of the ancient Iranian dialects. The Persian and Tajik languages belong to the Persian-Tajik subgroup proper. Kurdish language and Kurmanji (Yazidi language) - to the Kurdish subgroup. Pashto - the language of the Pashtun Afghans - is closer to the Indian languages. The Tats language and the Dzhugurdi language (a dialect of Mountain Jews) are very similar to each other. In the process of formation, they were significantly influenced by the Kumyk and Azerbaijani languages. The Talysh language was also influenced by Azerbaijani. Actually, the Talysh language goes back to Azeri - the Iranian language, which was spoken in Azerbaijan before its capture by the Seljuk Turks, after which most of the Azerbaijanis switched to the Turkic language, which is now called Azerbaijani.

There is almost no need to talk about common features in the traditional economic complex, customs and spiritual life of different Iranian peoples: they have been living far from each other for too long, they have experienced too many very different influences.

Romance peoples

The Romance languages are called so because they go back to Latin, the language of the Roman Empire. From Romanesque in Russia most widespread has Romanian, or rather, its Moldovan dialect, which is considered an independent language. Romanian is the language of the inhabitants of ancient Dacia, on the lands of which modern Romania and Moldova are located. Before the Romanization of Dacia, tribes of the Getae, Dacians, and Illyrians lived there. Then for 175 years this area was under Roman rule and was subjected to intensive colonization. The Romans went there from all over the empire: someone dreamed of retiring and occupying free lands, someone was sent to Dacia as an exile - away from Rome. Soon, almost all of Dacia spoke the local vernacular Latin. But from the seventh century most Balkan Peninsula occupied by the Slavs, and for the Vlachs, the ancestors of the Romanians and Moldavians, the period of Slavic-Romance bilingualism begins. Under the influence of the Bulgarian kingdom, the Vlachs adopted Old Church Slavonic as the main written language and used it until the 16th century, when the proper Romanian writing finally appeared based on the Cyrillic alphabet. The Romanian alphabet based on the Latin alphabet was introduced only in 1860.

Residents of Bessarabia, which was part of the Russian Empire, continued to write in Cyrillic. Until the end of the XX century. the Moldavian language was strongly influenced by Russian.

The main traditional occupations of Moldovans and Romanians - until the 19th century. cattle breeding, then arable farming (corn, wheat, barley), viticulture and winemaking. Believing Moldovans and Romanians are mostly Orthodox. There are Catholics and Protestants.

The homeland of other Romance-speaking peoples, whose representatives are found in Russia, is far abroad. Spanish (also called Castilian) is spoken by the Spaniards and Cubans, French by the French, and Italian by the Italians. Spanish, French and Italian were formed on the basis of vernacular Latin in Western Europe. In Cuba (as in other countries of Latin America), the Spanish language was entrenched in the process of Spanish colonization. Most of the believers among the representatives of these peoples are Catholics.

Indo-Aryan peoples

Indo-Aryan is a language that goes back to ancient Indian. Most of these are the languages of the peoples of Hindustan. The so-called Chib novels, the language of Western gypsies, also belong to this group of languages. Gypsies (Roma) are natives of India, but their language developed in isolation from the main Indo-Aryan area and today differs significantly from the Hindustani languages proper. In terms of their way of life, the gypsies are closer not to their linguistically related Indians, but rather to the Central Asian gypsies. The latter include the ethnic groups Lyuli (Jugi, Mugat), Sogutarosh, Parya, Chistoni and Kavol. They speak dialects of Tajik in half with "lavzi mugat" (a special slang based on Arabic and Uzbek languages interspersed with Indo-Aryan vocabulary). The Parya group, in addition, retains its own Indo-Aryan language for internal communication, which differs significantly from both the Hindustani languages and the Gypsy. Historical data suggests that the Lyuli probably came to Central Asia and Persia from India during the time of Tamerlane or earlier. Part of the Lyuli moved directly to Russia in the 1990s. Western gypsies from India ended up in Egypt, then for a long time were subjects of Byzantium and lived in the Balkans, and came to Russia in the 16th century. through Moldova, Romania, Germany and Poland. Roma, Lyuli, Sogutarosh, Parya, Chistoni and Kavol do not consider each other to be kindred peoples.

Greeks

A separate group within the Indo-European family is the Greek language, it is spoken by the Greeks, but conventionally the Greek group also includes the Pontic Greeks, many of whom are Russian-speaking, and the Azov and Tsalk Greeks-Urums, who speak the languages of the Turkic group. The heirs of the great ancient civilization and the Byzantine Empire, the Greeks got into the Russian Empire in different ways. Some of them are the descendants of the Byzantine colonists, others emigrated to Russia from the Ottoman Empire (this emigration was almost continuous from the 17th to the 19th centuries), others became Russian subjects when some lands that previously belonged to Turkey went to Russia.

Baltic peoples

The Baltic (Letto-Lithuanian) group of Indo-European languages is related to the Slavic and at one time, probably, formed a Balto-Slavic unity with it. There are two living Baltic languages: Latvian (with a Latgalian dialect) and Lithuanian. Differentiation between the Lithuanian and Latvian languages began in the 9th century, however, they remained dialects of the same language for a long time. Transitional dialects existed at least until the 14th-15th centuries. Latvians migrated to Russian lands for a long time, fleeing the German feudal lords. From 1722 Latvia was part of the Russian Empire. From 1722 to 1915, Lithuania was also part of Russia. From 1940 to 1991, both of these territories were part of the USSR.

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