Noun. Classes of nouns. Gender, number, case of nouns. Classification of nouns by meaning. Lexico-grammatical category of nouns

Lexico-grammatical categories of nouns

Among nouns there are several large groups.

■ Common nouns are generalized names for homogeneous objects. For example, city not called a specific large locality, and anyone who is also administrative, commercial, industrial and cultural center no matter how big or small, old or new, built in the same or different architectural styles.

■ Proper nouns name singular, individual objects. These include: first names, patronymics, last names of people ( Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin)- , geographical names (Saint Petersburg, Cape of Good Hope); titles literary works, films, performances, paintings ( "Pit", "They fought for their homeland", "Burnt by the Sun", "Gull", "Morning in a pine forest"); names of historical events ( Battle of Kulikovo, battle of Borodino ); names of enterprises, institutions ( Publishing group "Yurist", Joint-Stock Company"Zlatoust"); animal names ( Kashtanka, Murka).

Nouns of both groups are not limited by an impenetrable partition, but can move from one to another. Thus, the group of common nouns can be replenished by mythological names (cf.: Aurora- goddess of the dawn and Aurora- dawn; Amur- deity of love and Amur- a sculptural or pictorial image of the deity of love; a handsome boy), names of scientists (cf.: Ampere — French physicist And ampere- unit of force electric current; Faraday- English physicist and faraday- non-systemic unit electric charge), names of literary and fairy-tale heroes(cf.: Harlequin- a character in a comedy of masks and harlequin- jester, clown; Baba Yaga — fairy tale character And Baba Yaga- ugly evil old woman), names of cities and their parts (cf.: Broadway- a street in New York and Broadway— the central street of the city; Babylon — ancient city in Mesopotamia and Babylon- about turmoil, disorder, noise), etc.

The group of proper names can be replenished by: names of buildings (cf.: acropolis- fortress in ancient cities and Acropolis in Athens as an architectural monument, Kremlin- a fortress in old Russian cities and Kremlin in Moscow as a government residence), names of objects (cf.: anthracite- coal and Anthracite- city; birch- tree and Birch- village); names of persons ( apostle- disciple of Christ; follower of some idea and Apostle- Christian liturgical book; twins- children born at the same time of the same mother and Twins- constellation and zodiac sign), etc.

A large number of examples of the mutual transition of common and proper nouns are presented in the "Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language. Uppercase or lowercase?" (1999).

Proper names are written with a capital letter. Titles of books, names of magazines, paintings, films, factories, ships, etc. are placed in quotation marks.

■ Personal nouns denote a person, a person: animator, sponsor, Czech, Yalta resident Many male names have parallel female names: dissertation candidate, Czech — Czekh etc. Personal nouns with suffixes -sh (A) And -their (A) type doctor, engineer, doctor They usually have a conversational character, even a disparaging tone. Many names for male persons are also used in relation to female persons, especially in the official sphere of communication: president, prime minister, professor, associate professor, technician ( the president spoke, the prime minister said, the technician didn't show up).

■ Concrete nouns name objects (persons), which, as a rule, can be considered: answering machine, auditor, Afghan. Such nouns have singular forms. and many more h.

■ Abstract nouns have an abstract (abstract) meaning, they name some characteristic or some action that is not associated with specific objects (persons): regionalism, egalitarianism, farming; modernization, acceleration, farming. Abstract nouns in their direct lexical meaning cannot have a cardinal number and are usually used in the form of only one number - singular. ( evolution) or plural ( elections). Some abstract nouns that have the singular form can be used in the plural form when their direct lexical meaning changes. ( The beauty of nature, which, living in the city, hard to imagine. Beauty here they mean “beautiful places”).

■ Collective nouns denote a collection of similar objects or persons as a single whole. Here we mean the actual objects ( video equipment, weapon), faces ( underground, elite), animals ( beast, livestock). Collective nouns have forms of one number - usually singular. and rarely plural, are not able to be combined with cardinal numerals, do not have an animation category when denoting a collection of homogeneous living beings ( greet the generals). According to their structure, collective nouns are of two types: a) containing suffixes of collective meaning: -V-, -j-, -n-, -stv-, -atnik, -uj- (foliage, crow, relatives, students, chicken coop, partocracy); b) not containing formal signs of collectivity, expressing it only by lexical meaning ( furniture, limit, elite). Collective nouns are not collective nouns that denote such collections of homogeneous objects that occur along with other similar collections and therefore can be counted, i.e. have forms of both numbers: people — peoples, herd — herds, squad — squads.

. Real nouns denote a substance, a homogeneous mass ( milk, cement, perfume), which can be divided into parts, measured, but not counted. They are used in the form of only one number - singular. ( oil, sugar) or plural ( shavings, sawdust); they cannot have a numeral attached to them. Some real nouns m.r. may be used to indicate measures and quantities in R.p. units not just the main ending -A, -I, but also variant -y, -yu: cement color A — ton of cement, weight cha I — glass of tea Yu. If material nouns are used in a special meaning, they can receive plural forms: Distinguished by chemical composition carbon and alloy become , by appointment — structural and instrumental become; The store sells a variety of mineral water.

A noun is a special part of speech that designates an object and expresses given value in such inflectional categories as case and number, as well as with the help of gender, which is a constant category.

This article discusses the classification of nouns by meaning. We will describe each of them and give examples.

A noun denotes objects in the broadest sense of the word: names of things ( sleigh, scissors, window, wall, table), persons ( man, woman, youth, girl, child), substances ( cream, sugar, flour), living organisms and creatures ( microbe, pike, woodpecker, cat), phenomena, events, facts ( performance, fire, vacation, conversation, fear, sadness), as well as procedural and non-procedural features, named as independent independent substances - properties, qualities, states, actions ( hustle, decision, running, blue, stupidity, kindness).

Basic lexical and grammatical categories of nouns

There are the following main categories into which nouns are divided: 1) common and proper nouns; 2) real; 3) collective; 4) abstract and concrete; 5) inanimate and animate. These categories of nouns overlap in meaning. Proper names, for example, can include the names of both inanimate and animate objects. Real nouns that denote the mass of a substance can have a collective meaning ( sugar, grapes, cranberries). Concrete (as a lexical-grammatical category) unites animate and inanimate, called countable names of objects. Other examples can be given. However, words included in certain categories of nouns by meaning have common morphological and sometimes word-formation characteristics, which unites them.

Common and proper nouns

This division occurs on the basis of the name of the object as a representative of a class or as an individual. Proper as a lexical and grammatical category of nouns (in other words, “proper names”) are words that name individual objects that are included in the class of homogeneous ones, but do not themselves carry a special indication of this affiliation.

Common nouns are names that name an object based on its inclusion in a certain class. This lexical-grammatical category of nouns designates a name, accordingly, as a carrier of characteristics characteristic of objects of this class.

The boundary between common nouns and proper names is mobile and unstable: common nouns often become proper names (nicknames and nicknames). Proper ones are often used to denote homogeneous objects as a whole, and thus become common nouns: Don Quixote, Derzhimorda, Don Juan.

Proper names in the narrow sense

Among proper names, nouns such as proper nouns in the narrow sense and names are distinguished. The first are astronomical and geographical names and the names of animals and people. This is a slowly expanding, lexically limited circle, consisting of names that are assigned to one subject. Repetitions and coincidences are possible here (names of towns, villages, rivers), they are also high-frequency relative to the system of proper names of various persons and animals.

Names

For names, various common nouns or combinations of words are used. In this case, the common noun does not lose its lexical meaning, but only changes its function. For example: newspaper "Izvestia", perfume "Lilac". Proper names can also serve as names: steamship "Ukraine", hotel "Moscow".

Collective nouns

Collective nouns constitute a separate category (lexico-grammatical) among them. These include words that name a collection of some homogeneous objects, and also express this meaning using various suffixes: -stv(o) ( youth, students); -and I ( aristocracy, pioneers); -from(a) ( poor) and others. Collective nouns, broadly understood, can also include names that denote a collection of objects: furniture, trash, small fry, tops. Such words express collectiveness lexically, not word-formatively. Distinctive feature these nouns are what they don't have

Real nouns

They name various substances: materials ( cement, gypsum), food products ( sugar, flour, cereal, fat), types of fabrics ( chintz, velvet), metals, fossils (jasper, emerald, steel, tin, coal, iron), medicines, chemical elements ( aspirin, pyramidon, uranium), crops ( wheat, potatoes, oats), as well as other divisible homogeneous masses.

Real nouns, unlike collective nouns, do not, as a rule, have suffixes to denote their real meaning. It is expressed only lexically.

Material nouns are usually used either only in the singular or in the plural: cream, perfume, yeast; tin, flour, tea, honey. A real noun that is usually used in the singular, taking the form plural, is lexically separated from the corresponding form: cereal(cracked or whole plant grains), but cereals(cereal varieties).

and concrete nouns

Among the names, the following categories of nouns are distinguished by meaning: abstract and concrete. Concrete are words that name facts, persons, things, phenomena of reality that can be counted and presented separately: war, duel, engineer, ring, pencil.
This lexico-grammatical category of nouns, in other words, represents singular objects and their plural forms.

With the exception of nouns that do not have a singular number (pluralia tantum), all concrete nouns have plural and singular forms. But concrete nouns are not only opposed to abstract ones. They are also opposed to the material and collective categories of nouns, pluralia tantum; and their meanings are also different.

Abstract (abstract) - words that denote abstract concepts, qualities, properties, states and actions: movement, running, agility, intimacy, kindness, captivity, good, laughter, glory. Most Of these, nouns motivated by verbs and adjectives are formed using the zero suffix ( replacement, removal, illness, bitterness), suffix -ost ( cowardice, beauty b), -stvo(o) ( majority, insignificance, boasting, primacy), -chin(a)/-chin(a) ( piecework), -ism ( humanism, realism), -from (a) ( hoarseness, kindness, acid) and others. The minority consists of various unmotivated words: essence, sadness, comfort, grief, passion, sadness, torment, fear, disposition, mind, trouble.

Usually there are no plural forms for abstract nouns.

Animate and inanimate nouns

Nouns are divided into two categories: - names of animals and people: insect, pike, starling, cat, student, teacher, son, man.

Inanimate - names of all other phenomena and objects: book, table, wall, window, nature, institute, steppe, forest, kindness, depth, trip, movement, incident.

These words have different roles and meanings. The categories of nouns have their own meanings specific features. Animated words are often word-formatively and morphologically different from inanimate ones. These are names of various persons, as well as female animals, which are often motivated by a word naming an animal or person without indicating gender or male: student-student, teacher-teacher, schoolboy-schoolgirl, grandson-granddaughter, Muscovite-Muscovite, lion-lioness, cat-cat and etc.

As a rule, animate nouns have a morphological meaning of feminine or masculine gender, and only some have a neuter gender, while the belonging to one or another gender of the noun is determined semantically (except for the neuter one, which are called living beings without regard to gender: the name of a non-adult person (child), or type name creature, person, insect, mammal, animal). Inanimate nouns are divided into three morphological genders - neuter, feminine and masculine.

Paradigms of inanimate and animate nouns

The paradigms of inanimate and animate consistently differ in the plural: animate have a form coinciding with the genitive. Example: no animals, no sisters and brothers(R.p.), saw animals, saw sisters and brothers(V. p). Inanimate nouns in the plural have the accusative case form, which coincides with the nominative case. Example: there are apples, pears and peaches on the table(I.p.); bought apples, pears and peaches(V.p.).

We examined the noun as a part of speech, the categories of nouns. We hope you found this article helpful. If there is not enough information, we recommend that you familiarize yourself with the works that O.N. Kochanova wrote on this topic. The categories of nouns by meaning are discussed in some detail in her articles.

“Within each significant part of speech, lexical and grammatical categories of words are distinguished. These are subclasses of a given part of speech that have a common semantic feature that affects the ability of words to express certain morphological meanings or enter into opposition within morphological categories” [Russian Grammar – 1980, vol. 1, p. 459].

Nouns are divided into the following lexical and grammatical categories: 1) proper and common nouns; 2) animate and inanimate; 3) concrete (actually concrete, material, collective) and abstract (abstract). These categories overlap in some cases; for example, proper and common nouns are divided into animate and inanimate.

Proper and common nouns

Proper nouns include words denoting individual, single objects included in a class of homogeneous objects.

Among proper names there are: a) proper names in the narrow sense of the term; b) names.

Proper names in the narrow sense of the term include:

personal names, surnames, pseudonyms, nicknames ( Nina, Andrey, Mikhail Kuzmich, Fedorov, Mironova);

animal names ( Bug, Ball);

geographical names ( Simferopol, Salgir, Crimea);

names of states, organizations ( Canada, England);

astronomical names ( Orion, Vega, Sirius) etc.

Names - proper names - include a common noun or combinations of words. “In this case, the common noun does not lose its lexical meaning, but only changes its function” [Russian Grammar – 1980, vol. 1, p. 461]. Examples: newspaper "News", magazine "Youth" etc. If names are not presented in one word, but in combinations and sentences, then such proper names cannot be called nouns, because they are not part of speech at all. Therefore, many titles should not be considered proper nouns. works of art, critical articles, which are multi-structured, multi-word titles. It is customary to write proper names with a capital letter. As a rule, they have the form of only one number (singular or plural): Europe, Tatiana, Volga, Alps, Athens. In plural form. h. They are used if they denote different persons with the same first or last names ( there are five in the groupIrin , threeZhukov ); persons who are related ( sistersLebedevs , brothersGusakovs , spousesOrlovs ), as well as geographical and astronomical names when comparing territories, volumes, etc. ( fiveFrance , twoDnieper etc.).

Common nouns are nouns that denote general concepts, covering homogeneous objects, abstract concepts: crowd, tree, dog, creativity, youth, Monday, star, city. These nouns are mostly used in both singular and plural forms ( cake - cakes, book - books).

The boundaries between proper and common nouns are fluid, and mutual transition is possible between them. Proper names become common nouns if 1) a person’s name is transferred to his product, invention ( ohm, ampere, joule, volt, x-ray, Ford, Batiste, Browning, Colt, Mauser); 2) if the product is given the name of a person ( Katyusha, Maxim, Matryoshka); 3) if a person’s name has become a designation for a number of similar persons ( philanthropist, hercules).

Common nouns become proper nouns: Gemini, Libra(names of constellations), Oryol, Shakhty(names of cities), October(name of the October Revolution), "Sunrise", "Soyuz"(names of spaceships), Ball, Jack(dog names), etc.

Common nouns used in fables as characters become proper names: Wolf And Lamb, Crow, Cat And Cook.

The above examples of proper nouns are single-structural - they are represented by single-word units and reflect a narrow understanding of the term. In a broad sense, proper nouns include names that also include two or more words, sometimes sentences. Usually these are the titles of literary works, for example: “Who lives well in Rus'”, “The story of how Ivan Ivanovich quarreled with Ivan Nikiforovich” etc. Naturally, in the system of nouns in the “Morphology” section they are not considered.

Lexico-grammatical categories of nouns

Lexico-grammatical category is a subclass of words within one part of speech, characterized by a common semantic feature, morphological and often word-formation properties.

LGR noun

· animate/inanimate,

· proper/common nouns,

· vernacular=>specific/non-specific

· non-concrete => collective/material/abstract.

Common nouns name an object, action, event in a generalized manner, among homogeneous ones (person, book, tree, silence).

Proper names name individual objects (Russia, Oka, Kiev, Baikal, Carpathians) or represent an object from a class of homogeneous ones as an individual: these are first names, patronymics, surnames, people (Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin), names of animals (Belka, Rex, Fluff), names of newspapers , magazines, works of art, publishing houses (Izvestia, Volga, Life and Destiny, Science), institutions, shops, etc.

Proper and common nouns differ not only in meaning, the nature of the naming of the object, there are also morphological and orthographic features: proper names are used, as a rule, in the form of one number - singular (most often) or plural and are written with a capital letter, while common nouns are written with a lowercase letter. Since the boundaries between these types of names are fluid, the spelling makes it possible to distinguish homonyms: Ampere - surname and ampere - unit of measurement, Oblomov - literary hero and the Oblomovs are weak-willed, lazy people.

Common nouns are divided into concrete and non-specific. Concrete nouns denote individual items(living beings, things, phenomena), discretely existing realities that can be counted. That is why concrete nouns, unlike non-specific ones, can be combined with cardinal numerals (three boys, eight pens, five groups) and vary according to numbers (institute - institutions, hurricane - hurricanes, flock - flocks), with the exception of words used only in plural form (harp, glasses, day) and proper names.

Non-specific nouns are characterized by the absence of the idea of ​​counting; they include three categories: real, collective and abstract (abstract) nouns.

Real nouns denote a substance that is homogeneous in composition (solid, granular, liquid, gaseous). These are the names food products(cheese, flour, pasta), chemical elements(oxygen, sulfur, silicon), fabrics (velvet, chintz), metals (iron, copper), plants (rye, mint), etc. Most material nouns are used only in the singular form. numbers (milk), the smaller part is in plural form. numbers (cream).

You should pay attention to the peculiarities of the use of material nouns. Some words complete the paradigm by number, forming a plural form. numbers, while changing the basic meaning: they indicate the variety, type of substance (oil and vegetable oils - linseed, soybean, olive), the mass of the substance in a large space (play in the sand and in the sands of the Sahara), a product made from this substance (crystal and The table is filled with crystals ).

Collective nouns denote a collective set of living beings or objects and are used in singular form. numbers, with the exception of only some words (money, firewood, finance). The collective meaning, as a rule, is expressed suffixally (students, midges, poor people, mosquitoes, foliage).

Abstract (abstract) nouns name abstract concepts, properties, qualities, actions, states and are more often used only in singular form. numbers (idealism, freshness, whiteness, nobility, walking, welding, recognition, joy). Some of them form the plural form, developing new meanings: different manifestations of quality, properties, actions (high, low speeds), duration, intensity of the condition (frost, pain), repeated action (tapping, screaming).

All nouns are divided into animate and inanimate. Animate nouns name living beings - people and animals, inanimate nouns - inanimate objects. Grammatically, animate/inanimate is manifested in the coincidence of the shape of the wines. plural case including with the gender form in animate nouns (I see brothers, sisters, animals), with the form im. case for inanimate nouns (I see trees, benches, lanterns). In masculine words, animation is also expressed in units. including (I stopped the truck and asked the driver).

The animate/inanimate nature of words is also regularly expressed syntactically – by the plural form of the vin. case. number of compatible words. U indeclinable nouns this is the only means of expression: we met the arriving couturiers, adult cockatoos, huge chimpanzees; put on beautiful mufflers and fashionable coats.

The grammatical expression of animate/inanimate is all the more important because the idea of ​​living and inanimate in the human mind (this is precisely reflected in language) and in science, in reality, does not always coincide. For example, the names of plants and specific nouns that denote a collection of living beings (people, regiment, flock, herd) are inanimate. Inanimate words include all non-specific nouns, including collective nouns, denoting a collective set of persons (children, peasantry).

At the same time, animate nouns include words denoting inanimate objects: names of dolls (matryoshka, tumbler, parsley, marionette, aibolit), names mythical creatures(centaur, Jupiter), card terms (jack, king, ace), names of chess pieces (knight, bishop, queen, king), words dead, deceased, drowned (Cf.: corpses - an inanimate noun).

Fluctuations in the definition of animate/inanimate are observed in the words: bacterium, bacillus, pupa, microbe, larva (Green fly larvae contain bacteria, study bacteria.

adverb, preposition, conjunction, particle, interjection), which are divided into 3 groups: independent parts of speech, auxiliary parts of speech, interjection. In the latest editions of complex 1, 13 parts of speech are distinguished: the participle and the gerund are declared independent parts of speech, and the category of state is also highlighted.

The order of studying parts of speech and the distribution of material by class in complex 1 is as follows:

class: noun (property / common noun, animation, gender, declension), adjective (completeness / brevity, inflection), verb ( initial form, type, conjugation);

class: noun (indeclinable and indeclinable nouns), adjective (categories of meaning, degrees of comparison), numeral, pronoun, verb (transitivity, reflexivity, impersonal verbs);

class: participle, gerund, adverb, state category, auxiliary parts of speech, interjection.

Complex 2 identifies 12 parts of speech: 8 independent (the participle and gerund are independent parts of speech here), 3 auxiliary parts and an interjection, to which “onomatopoeic words are attached.”

The order of study is as follows:

class: noun;

class: verb, adjective, numeral, adverb, pronoun;

class: participle and gerund, auxiliary parts of speech, interjection. The pronoun in this complex is expanded to include

non-nominal words grammatically correlated with adverbs (there, why, never and etc.).

The state category words in complex 2 are called "state words". Their status is not clearly defined: on the one hand, their description completes the “Adverb” section, on the other hand, it is said about the condition words that they “are similar in form to adverbs”, from which, apparently, it should follow that they are not adverbs .

Complex 3 distinguishes 11 parts of speech: 6 independent (participle and gerund in this complex are forms of the verb), 3 auxiliary and 2 parts of speech outside this classification: interjections and onomatopoeic words.

The order of studying parts of speech and the distribution of material by class in complex 3 is as follows:

class: verb, noun, adjective;

class: participle and gerund as special forms of the verb, numeral, pronoun;

class: adverb, functional parts of speech, interjections and onomatopoeic words.

316 Noun as part of speech

Noun- this is an independent significant part of the stove, combining words that:

have a generalized meaning of objectivity and answer the questions who? or what?;

they can be proper or common nouns, animate or inanimate, have a constant sign of gender and inconsistent (for most nouns) signs of number and case;

in a sentence they most often act as subjects or objects, but can be any other members of the sentence.

All three complexes define a noun (and all other independent parts of speech) according to the same scheme: generalized meaning, constant and unstable morphological features, basic syntactic functions.

The most difficult thing is to determine the general categorical meaning of a noun. A noun is a part of speech, when highlighted, the grammatical features of words come to the fore. As for the meaning of nouns, this is the only part of speech that can mean anything: subject (table), face (boy), animal (cow), sign (depth), abstract concept (conscience), action (singing), attitude (equality), quantity (a hundred). Sometimes they talk about the “objectification” of these meanings in a noun, but this objectification really consists only in the fact that the noun is able to name an action or sign in abstraction from its bearer, to act as the subject of a speech message; This, in fact, is the objectivity of the noun.

When determining the meaning of a noun, complexes take different paths.

Complex 1 states that a noun denotes an object, but precedes the definition of the noun with an exercise in which groups of nouns are given that denote objects of the surrounding world, natural phenomena, events, people. Students are asked to answer the question what we mean by the word item.

Complex 2 also talks about the meaning of the subject of a noun, but stipulates that this is a special, grammatical subject: “The subject in grammar is everything that can be asked about: who is this? or what's this?".

Complex 3 speaks of “an object in the broad sense of the word,” and about words with an abstract meaning it says that they do not denote an object, but answer the question what?.

All of these explanations seem convincing.

Classification of nouns by meaning

Within words different parts it is customary to highlight speeches ranks by value- groups of words united by a lexical meaning that influences their morphological characteristics. The belonging of a word to a certain category by meaning (lexico-grammatical category) is determined on the basis of its lexical meaning, expressed by the stem of this word.

Nouns have two groups of digits according to meaning:

ownership / household name;

concreteness/abstractness/materiality/collectivity. Common nouns nouns denote objects, not

distinguishing them from the class of the same type (city, river, girl, newspaper).

Own nouns designate objects, distinguishing them from the class of homogeneous objects, individualizing them (Moscow,Volga, Masha, Izvestia). It is necessary to distinguish proper names from proper names - ambiguous names of individualized objects (“Evening Moscow”). Proper names do not necessarily include a proper name (Moscow Statemilitary university).

Specific nouns name sensory objects - things (table), faces (Marina), which can be perceived by sight and touch.

Abstract (abstract) nouns denote abstract concepts (conscience), signs (white), actions (drawing).

Real nouns denote substances (milk,cream, sand).

Collective nouns denote collections of homogeneous objects (foliage) or persons (children).

The meaning of the morphological identification of these particular groups of nouns by meaning is that the belonging of a noun to these categories affects the morphological attribute of the number of a given noun. Thus, both numbers have the form of common concrete nouns (house- Houses). Words of other groups often have the form of only one of the numbers (mostly only a single one), for example:

All three complexes are indicated as a rank by value ownpopularity / household name, which is absolutely true, but complexes 2 and 3 do not distinguish between proper nouns (Mikhail, Yuryevich, Lermontov) and proper names (Mikhail Yurievich Lermontov)", as examples of proper nouns complex 3 gives phrases cat Fluffy And March 8, and complex 2 in this paragraph talks about quoted names, for example "Uncle Fyodor, dog and cat" which leads to the incorrect recognition of these phrases as proper names.

The selection of concrete, abstract, material and collective nouns occurs only in complex 2.

Animacy as morphological feature noun

Nouns have a constant morphological sign of animate/inanimate.

The sign of animacy of nouns is closely related to the concept of living / inanimate. Nevertheless, animacy is not a category of meaning, as it is presented in all three educational complexes, but a morphological characteristic itself.

All morphological features are characterized by the fact that they have a typified formal expression and can be expressed intra-wordly - by formative morphemes of the word itself (became- tables) and extra-wordly - formative morphemes of agreed words (new coat- newcoat). Both of these means of expression can be presented together. In e in that case one grammatical meaning expressed in a sentence several times - both intra-wordly and extra-wordly (new table- new tables).

Animacy as a morphological feature also has formal means of expression. Firstly, animateness/inanimateness is expressed by the endings of the noun itself:

animate nouns have the same plural endings. numbers V. p. and R. p., and for nouns husband. kind of II declension this also applies to singular. number;

inanimate nouns have the same plural endings. numbers V. p. and I. p., and for nouns husband. kind of II declension, this also applies to singular. number.

Nouns are represented in the Russian language with fluctuations in animation: their V. p. can coincide with both I. p. and R. p. for example: (I see) mzhrob-s / mtrob-s, describe the character-i / person-press, creatures-a / creatures-0.

In feminine and neuter nouns that have only singular forms, animation is not formally expressed (youthdezh, students), they are not formally characterized by their animation.

Animacy has non-verbal expression: the ending of an adjective or participle that agrees with a noun in V. p. differs depending on the animate or inanimate nature of the noun, cf.: (I see) new students, But new tables.

The extra-verbal expression of the animation of nouns is more universal than the intra-word one: it expresses animation even in the case of the immutability of the noun: (I see) beautiful madam, But beautiful coats.

The animacy of most nouns reflects a certain state of affairs in extra-linguistic reality: animate nouns mainly name living beings, and inanimate nouns name inanimate objects, but there are cases of violation of this pattern:

nouns denoting living things, but framed as inanimate; they can mean: a) collections of living beings: (I see) armies, crowds, peoples; b) plants, mushrooms: (collect) chanterelles;

nouns denoting inanimate things, but framed as animate; they can mean: a) toys in the form of a person: (I see) dolls, nesting dolls, tumblers; b) pieces of some games: (play) kings, queens; c) dead: (I see) dead, hanged, drownednicknames(but noun dead body inanimate: (I see) corpses); d) fictional creatures: (I see) mermaids, goblins, brownies.

Animacy, as already mentioned, is a constant feature of a noun. It must be borne in mind that different meanings one word can be differently shaped according to animation, for example: I see genius(person) - I appreciate it genius-ٱ (mind).

All three educational complexes, as already mentioned, consider animacy as a category of meaning, and complex 3 places this material before the paragraph devoted to property / nativism.

Complex 1 tells only that animate nouns answer the question Who?, inanimate - to the question What?, that is, he proposes to define animacy by the lexical meaning of the word.

Complex 2 reports that animate designate objects of living nature, a question is asked to them Who?, and inanimate people name objects inanimate nature, a question is asked to them What?. Animate and inanimate nouns differ not only in meaning, but also in the form of the accusative case: in animate nouns the form is B in the plural. h. is the same as the form of R. p. pl. h., and in inanimate - with the form I. p. pl. h. Further, students are informed that “in works of fiction, objects of inanimate nature can be endowed with the properties of living beings, for example: Suddenly from my mother'sbedroom, bow-legged and lame, runs out of the washbasin and shakes his head. In this noun clause wash basin ask a question Who?". In other words, on the one hand, the authors talk about the grammatical expression of animacy, but, on the other hand, they propose to define animacy by lexical meaning(grammatically word wash basin inanimate and in the given context: we will not say *saw this washbasin).

Complex 3 provides an even stranger solution to the problem of animacy status. It literally says the following: “Inanimate nouns denote phenomena and objects of inanimate nature and answer the question What?. Animate nouns denote people and various living things and answer the question Who?. The division into animate and inanimate nouns does not always coincide with the division of everything that exists in nature into living and living things. For example, plant names are considered inanimate nouns, and words doll, dead man, dead man, ace, jack, kozyr are considered animate. Inanimate words also include words people, crowd, platoon, pack, kids and etc.". In the absence of a provision on the grammatical expression of animacy, the information that some words naming inanimate objects are “considered animate” and vice versa can cause nothing but bewilderment and has no cognitive value.

Thus, as we see, when working on any of the educational complexes, this material needs the teacher’s comments.

Gender as a morphological feature of a noun

Nouns have a constant morphological gender marker and are classified as masculine, feminine or neuter.

The main way of expressing morphological gender is the endings consistent with noun adjectives, participles in the position of the attribute and words with an inconstant gender marker in the position of the predicate, primarily a verb in the past tense or conditional mood, as well as short adjective or participles.

Masculine, feminine and neuter gender include words with the following compatibility:

male a new student has arrived-ٱ female new student has arrived average the big window is open

Some nouns ending -A, denoting persons by their characteristics, properties, in I. p. have a double characterization by gender depending on the gender of the designated person:

is yours- ٱ the ignoramus came- ٱ ,

your ignoramus came.

Such nouns are called words general kind.

There are nouns in the Russian language that name persons by profession, which, when denoting a male person, act as words of the masculine gender, that is, they attach agreed words with masculine endings; when they denote a female person, the definition is used in the masculine gender, and the predicate in the feminine gender (mainly in colloquial speech):

the new doctor has arrived- ٱ (man),

a new doctor has arrived(woman).

These words are “candidates” for the general gender; their gender is sometimes called transitional to the general, but in dictionaries they are characterized as words of the masculine gender.

There are about 150 words in the Russian language that vary in gender, for example: coffee- masculine/neuter gender, shampoo- masculine/feminine.

Nouns that have only plural forms (cream, scissors), do not belong to any of the genders, since in the plural the formal differences between nouns of different genders are not expressed (cf.: desks- tables).

As already mentioned, the main expression of gender is non-verbal. Internally, gender is consistently expressed only in nouns - substantivized adjectives and participles: sentry, ice cream, dining room: in singular forms these words have endings that clearly indicate their gender. For nouns of the 2nd declension masculine and 3rd declension feminine, the entire system of their endings is specific; as for the endings of individual case forms, they may not be indicative, cf. became ٱ - night ٱ .

It is somewhat difficult to determine the gender of compound words (abbreviations) and indeclinable nouns. The following rules apply to them.

Generic characteristics abbreviations depends on what type the given compound word belongs to.

A type of abbreviation formed by adding the initial parts (supply manager), the initial part of the first word with the second unabridged (Sberbank) and the beginning of the first word with the beginning and/or end of the second (trade mission -> trade mission), is determined by the gender of the main word in the original phrase: good organizational work, Russian trade mission, new Sberbank,

A type of abbreviation consisting of initial sounds (GUM) or letters (MSU), as well as mixed abbreviations in which the initial part of the first word is combined with the first letters or sounds of other words (glavk), is defined ambiguously. Initially, they also acquire the gender of the main word in the original phrase, for example, Bratsk hydroelectric power station. However, during the process of use, the original generic characteristic is consistently retained only by abbreviations from the first letters of the original phrase. Abbreviations consisting of the first sounds behave differently. Some of them acquire a generic characteristic in accordance with the appearance of the word. Yes, words BAM, university, MFA, NEP, registry office and some others became masculine words and acquired the ability to decline in the second declension, like nouns like house. Other abbreviations ending with a consonant with a neuter and feminine stem word may have hesitation: they may have a gender characteristic in accordance with the gender of the main word and not be declined (in our housing office) or, when inclined, used as masculine words (in our housing office). Abbreviations ending in a vowel are not inflected and are predominantly neuter (our RONO- district department of public education).

Indeclinable nouns, getting into the Russian language or being formed in it, must acquire a generic characteristic, which will manifest itself only when choosing adjectives, participles and verbs that agree with the noun.

There are the following patterns in the choice of gender characteristics by such nouns: gender depends either on the meaning of the word or on the gender of another Russian word, which is considered as a synonym or as a generic name for a given unchangeable word. For different groups of nouns, different criteria are leading.

If a noun denotes an object, then it usually has a neuter characteristic: coat, muffler, metro. However, there are exceptions: feminine words Avenue(as well as street), kohlrabi(as well as cabbage), word coffee with variations by gender (male/neuter),

Unchangeable nouns have masculine characteristics penalty, euro

If a noun denotes an animal, it is usually masculine: chimpanzee, cockatoo. Exceptions: Iwasi, Tsetse--feminine (same as herring, fly).

If a noun denotes a person, then its gender depends on the gender of this person: words Monsieur, couturier masculine, as they denote men; words madam, mademoiselle feminine, since they denote women, and the words counterpart, incognito of a general gender, since they can designate both men and women.

If a noun denotes a geographical object, then its gender is determined by the gender of the Russian word that denotes the type of object: Tbilisi masculine, since it is city(masculine), MiesSissipi feminine, as it is river, Lesotho neuter, since it is state. Everything that has been said applies only to inflexible words, therefore Moscow- a noun is not masculine, but feminine, although it is a city, since it is inflected.

Complex 1 considers the issue of gender as follows. Material about the genus is studied in both 5th and 6th grades. In grade 5, students are not offered new theoretical material compared to elementary school: a noun has three gender characteristics - masculine, feminine and neuter. In two exercises, students are asked to agree adjectives and verbs in the past tense with the noun and indicate the gender characteristics of the nouns, but attention to the fact that it is the endings of the attribute and predicate that express the gender characteristics of nouns is not fixed. In grade 6, the topics “Gender of indeclinable nouns and compound words” and “Nouns of general gender” are studied. Indeclinable nouns are reported to be predominantly neuter (exceptions: penalty, coffee- male, Avenue, Kohlrabi- female); if a foreign noun denotes a female person, it is feminine (elderly madam) if a noun denotes a male person or animal, it is masculine (English bourgeois, gray kangaroo). Regarding the gender of compound abbreviated words, it is reported that for abbreviations consisting of initial letters, the gender is determined by the gender of the main word in the original phrase (The UN was founded...), for abbreviations of initial sounds, the gender may not coincide with the gender of the main word and be guided by appearance words: words with a stem ending in a consonant can be masculine (university, MFA, TASS, BAM), with a stem on a vowel - middle (fleece- district department of public education). Words with the endings belong to the general gender -and I),

denoting qualities of people. These words are masculine when they refer to males, and feminine when they refer to females. (Andryusha is such a bully, Tanya is such a bully). Some masculine nouns that name persons by profession designate both men and women. The adjective attribute with them is always put in the masculine gender, and the predicate verb in the past tense is put in the masculine gender if we're talking about about a man, and in the feminine gender if we are talking about a woman (Duty doctor Ivanov youwrote the recipe. The doctor on duty Ivanova wrote out a prescription).

Complex

Nouns have three genders: masculine, feminine and neuter. The noun does not change by gender. The gender of a noun can be determined by adding to the noun my(m.r.), my(f.r.), my(cf. r.). In addition, for some nouns, gender can be determined by the meaning of the word, since some words name male people and animals, while others - female. A special group is formed by common nouns, which can denote both male and female people. In a sentence they appear either as masculine nouns or as feminine nouns (What a slob you are!- What a slob you are!). Some indeclinable nouns in modern speech experience fluctuations in gender: wide avenue- fifth avenue, hot coffee- hot coffee.

Complex 3 discusses this topic in the paragraphs “Gender of nouns. Why are there three genders in the Russian language” and “General nouns. Gender of indeclinable nouns”, where the following is said. Gender is a constant attribute of every noun. There are three genders in the Russian language - masculine, neuter and feminine. At first, only animate nouns were distinguished as masculine and feminine words, but later inanimate nouns began to behave as masculine and feminine words. And “the neuter (no) gender includes those words that, during the development of the language, did not have time to become words of the masculine or feminine gender” (the theoretical and practical significance of these arguments is questionable). It is not difficult to correctly determine the gender of nouns, but there is a group of tricky words: under the influence of dialects, vernacular, and outdated variants, their gender is determined incorrectly and therefore mistakes are made in agreeing these words with adjectives and past tense verbs. In the Russian language there are nouns of the general gender (in the process of performing several exercises, students should come to the following conclusions: nouns of the general gender are formed from verbs and have the meaning “person who performs the action”, adjective

and the verb with them can be in the masculine and feminine form; this material requires generalization by the teacher, since it is not described theoretically in the textbook). Some masculine nouns denoting profession, occupation, social position, rank, can be used to designate both male and female persons (the theoretical material presented below fully corresponds to the material of complex 1). The gender of foreign language indeclinable nouns is determined as follows. The masculine gender includes nouns that name male persons or animals. To the feminine - naming female persons. Towards the average

naming inanimate objects. The gender of foreign-language geographical names and journals is determined by the gender of those common nouns with which these names can be replaced (Tbilisi- city- m.r.).

When studying the genus for any of the complexes, it is important to draw students’ attention to the following points.

Gender is a constant attribute of a noun, inherent in all nouns, except for words that are only plural; nouns - substantivized adjectives or participles (painNoah And patient, manager And manager) are not forms of one word, but different words;

The gender of a noun is consistently expressed by the endings of words that agree with the noun - adjective, participle, pronominal adjective, verb in the past tense and conditional mood; such a non-word expression of the gender of a noun is universal for both mutable and unchangeable nouns, but the endings of the noun itself cannot be used to determine the gender (with the exception of nouns inflected like adjectives);

The gender characteristic of most nouns is conditional and does not reflect anything in extra-linguistic reality; this is the gender not only of inanimate nouns, but also of animate nouns of the neuter gender (child, animal) many animal names (dragonfly, crocodile), as well as words like person, person and names of persons by profession (doctor, teacher). When determining gender, one must be especially careful in the case when the grammatical sign of gender and the extralinguistic sign of a person’s gender do not coincide. Yes, in a sentence He's just a pig noun pig feminine, although it characterizes a man, since one can say He's such a pig and you can't say *He's such a pig. It is especially important to pay attention to the latter, since a typical mistake for a schoolchild is the failure to distinguish between information about extralinguistic reality and the grammatical form of a word.

Number as a morphological featurenoun

Most nouns have singular and plural forms, that is, they change according to number. Some nouns have only singular or only plural forms, that is, number is a constant feature for them.

The morphological feature of the number has the following expression:

intraword - endings of the noun itself; these endings indicate the form of number and in nouns that have singular and plural forms (Mother- moms), and for nouns that have only singular forms (foliage) or only plural (scissors);

non-verbal - endings of an agreed definition and predicate; All nouns, including immutable ones, have non-verbal expressions of number. (new / new coats).

In addition to this, some nouns use the following techniques:

formation of singular and plural forms from different stems - suppletivism (man®-people, child- children),

foundation extension: sheetAbout-leaves,

base truncation: nobleman- nobles,

alternation of suffixes: tel-enokO- tel-yat-a.

Number is a morphological feature associated with indicating the number of objects. For nouns that have both number forms, the singular form denotes one thing (table), and the plural form is a set of objects, each of which is called the singular form (tables- many items, each of which table).

Form singular and plural have the following groups of nouns:

most concrete common nouns: house- Houses;

abstract nouns (to a lesser extent): thought- thoughts, sound- sounds;

3) some collective nouns: army- army. For these nouns, number is an unstable feature; they change according to numbers.

However, in Russian there are also only singular or only plural nouns. The number for them is a constant sign.

Form only singular have the following groups of words:

1) most abstract nouns: depth, conscience,

singing",

most real nouns: water, sand, gasoline;

most collective nouns: youth, leafwow, kids;

specific nouns denoting unique, singular realities: Moscow, Luna(Earth satellite).

Form plural only have the following groups

some abstract nouns: hassle, fees;

some real nouns: cream, perfume, cabbage soup;

some collective nouns: finance, shoots;

concrete nouns like sled, in which the plural form is used both in relation to one object and in relation to many objects: aloneneither- many sleighs;

some concrete nouns are proper nouns like Sokolniki, in which the plural form does not mean many objects and denotes one object;

specific common nouns denoting realities, including several objects, each of which has its own name: spouses meaning "married couple" (spouse +spouse, but not spouse + spouse or spouse + wife).

For some of these nouns, the morphological feature of number is conditional, is not motivated by anything and has no quantitative meaning (cf. milk- cream), For some nouns, the number form reflects information about the number of objects (Moscow), for some it contradicts it (one glasses, Sokolniki).

Some only singular nouns can have plural nouns associated with them, but they have shift in value:

1) for real ones:

a) different varieties: wine- guilt,

b) large spaces occupied by this substance: snow- snow;

2) for abstract ones - concrete manifestations of an abstract attribute: beauty of the landscape- the beauty of the landscape;

3) for own - type of people: Khlestakov- Khlestakovs. Such cases are described as different words.

Different meanings of the same word can have different plural forms, for example: sheetAbout-leaves, leaf/s.

Different meanings of the same word can be characterized differently in terms of number. Yes, word forest in the meaning of “a set of trees” it changes in numbers, and in the meaning of “building material” ([is a word of only singular number.

The singular form can be used to denote not a specific object, but a whole class of objects, for example: un iga - best gift(non-referential use of name).

Complex 1 considers this issue as follows.

The authors assume that from elementary school students know about 5M, that nouns are inflected by number. The study of the morphological feature of number is carried out in grade 5 and includes the topics “Nouns that have only a plural form” and “Nouns that have only a singular form.” The study of this topic begins with an analysis of language material: students are asked to look at pictures showing one glasses and several pairs of glasses, one pair of scissors and several pairs of scissors. Students are asked the question: “Do nouns have scissors, glasses Are there different forms for the singular and for the plural?”

Students learn about groups of words that have only plural forms from the task: they are asked to continue listing only plural nouns denoting 1) tools (rakes, pliers...), 2) games (burners, blind man's buff...), 3) substances (yeast, ink...).

About nouns that have only singular forms, a similar exercise tells us that they can denote 1) groups of people (youth, humanity...), 2) substances (iron,milk...), 3) qualities, actions (darkness, flight...).

Complex 2 offers the following theoretical material on this topic.

Nouns have two numbers - singular and plural. Concrete nouns change according to numbers. Changes in numbers are conveyed using endings. Real, abstract, collective nouns and some others do not change in number. They have one form: singular or plural.

They only have the singular form:

real nouns (milk);

distracted (Love);

collective (teaching, foliage);

own (Caucasus, “Enlightenment”).

They only have the plural form:

real (ink)",

distracted (holidays);

words denoting paired objects (glasses);

own (Alps, "The Three Musketeers").

For nouns that have only a plural form, gender and type of declension are not determined.

Complex 3 proposes to consider this topic as follows.

A noun can be in singular or plural form. The main meaning of number forms in nouns is to indicate the number of objects. However, there are other meanings for number forms. For example, in the phrase Wolf- predatory animal word wolf is in singular form, but speech situation contains an indication not of the number of objects, but of the type of object as a representative of a whole class. There is no indication of number in words denoting objects that cannot be counted at all: love, health, development, pain, oil etc. These words usually have only the singular form. If the plural form is formed from these nouns, then it means something else: or different types of substance (cereals), or large spaces filled with matter (sands), or duration, recurrence of phenomena (frost, pain). Number forms not in their meaning are widely used in fiction to create imagery (Swedish, Russian- stabs, chops, cuts).

In the exercises, through analysis of language material, students are asked to identify groups of words by meaning that have only singular or only plural forms. For this, the following series of nouns are proposed.

Plural only:

glasses, reins, scissors,

curls, beads, jungle,

perfumes, canned food, pasta,

elections, blind man's buff, negotiations,

vacations, days, weekdays,

Athens, Bermuda, Kuril Islands.

Students are asked to answer an incorrect question about what caused their lack of singular forms.

Only singular nouns are given by the following list:

wisdom, beauty, admiration,

peasantry, children,

sand, cereals, fat.

When studying the topic “Number of a noun” for any of the complexes, the teacher needs to pay attention to the following:

number is a morphological feature that is not constant for most nouns, but constant for a minority;

the number of a noun is expressed by the endings of both the noun itself (if it is inflected) and the words that agree with the noun; for unchangeable nouns, it is possible to determine its number by the endings of words that agree with it (new coat);

the number in most nouns carries information about the number of objects, but in a number of words it is uninformative (milk, cream) or contradicts information about the number of objects of extra-linguistic reality (glasses- when pointing to one object, Carpathians).

It is especially important to pay attention to the latter, since a typical mistake for a schoolchild is the failure to distinguish between information about extra-linguistic reality and the grammatical form of a word. This non-discrimination is also supported by some textbook formulations. Thus, the example proposed in complex 2 is puzzling. "Threemusketeer", given among words of only plural form. Firstly, this is not a word, but a phrase, and secondly, it does not contain a single word in the plural: the numeral does not have a number sign, and the noun is in the R. p. singular. numbers.

Case as a morphological featurenoun

Nouns change according to cases, that is, I have! inconsistent morphological sign of case.

There are 6 cases in Russian: nominative (I. p.), genitive (R. p.), ! dative (D. p.), accusative (V. p.), instrumental (T. p.), prepositional (P. p.). These case forms are identified in the following contexts (diagnostic contexts may be different): I. p. who is this? What? R. p. no one? what? D. p. happy for whom? what? V. p. see who? What? etc. proud of whom? how? P. p. I'm thinking about who? how?

The case of a noun is expressed both intra-wordly - by the endings of the noun itself, and extra-wordly - by the endings of the agreed definition. For unchangeable nouns, the extra-word indicator is the only formal case indicator, cf.: new coat, new coat, new coat etc.

The endings of different cases are different depending on which declension the noun belongs to (see declension of nouns).

There are also other descriptions of the Russian case system, according to which Russian nouns can have additional case forms, such as genitive and locative, but these are not taught in school grammar.

Declension of nouns

The term “declension” is used in linguistics in two meanings. Firstly, this is the process of nominal inflection. Secondly, this is a class of names with the same or similar case endings.

For nouns, declension is a change in cases.

Nouns can have such sets of endings that are inherent mainly in this part of speech and only sometimes occur in others (substantive declensions).

TOIdeclination include nouns husband. and wives kind with ending I. p. unit. numbers -and I), including words ending in -ia: mom-a, dad-a, earth-ya, lecture-ya (lektsiTs-a\). Words with a stem ending in a hard consonant (hard version), a soft consonant (soft version) and with a stem ending in -And] have some differences in endings, for example:

Co. IIdeclination include nouns husband. gender with zero ending I. p., including words in -no, and nouns husband. and Wed kind with ending -o(-e), including words in -not: steel, geniuses,town-o, window-o, half-e, peni-e (peni).

TOIIIdeclination include nouns female. kind with zero ending in I. p.: dust, night O.

This material is mainly studied in elementary school, so attention is focused on the spelling of endings with an emphasis on the declension of nouns into -ii, -ii And -ies. In connection with their study, it is necessary to draw students' attention to the fact that these segments are not the endings of nouns: in words with -th this segment is included in the base, and words like army, singing are divided as follows: army-i, peni-e(in complex 2 - armshch-ya, penshch-e). It is advisable to compare the spelling of words in oblique cases for pairs such as in silence- in silence.

In addition to nouns that have endings in only one of the three declensions, there are words that have part of the endings from one declension, and part from the other. They are called divergent. That's 10 words per -mya (burden, time, stirrup, tribe, seed, name, flame, banner,udder, crown) And path. Words on -me combine the endings of the 1st declination (I. p., V. p.), III declination (R. p., D. p., P. p.) and II declination (T. p.). Word path has endings of the third declension in all cases, except T. p., where the ending of the second declension is represented.

Declension of nouns in plural unified.

In the plural, all nouns have the same endings in the following cases:

D. p.: -am/-yam: wall-om, table-am, window-am, door-am,

T.p.: -ami/s, -mi: walls, tables, windows, doors/doors,

P. p.: -ah/-ah: walls-ah, table-ah, window-ah, door-ah.

The exception is I. p. and R. p.

In the I. plural form, nouns of substantive inflection have the following endings:

In R. p., nouns can have the following endings:

null: country, little house, stocking;

-ov: sock-ov,

-ey: candle-ey, sea-ey.

Material about endings I. p. and R. p. pl. numbers are studied in the aspect of speech development: in complexes the words in which errors are most often made are given, for example: I. p. director, But engineers, R. p. pasta, But tomatoes

If any noun is declined according to the substantive declension, but has only plural forms. number, it is impossible to determine which of the varieties of substantive declension it is inclined to. About words like sleigh, cream we can say that they are declined according to the substantive declension, but in school grammar the type of declension of words only in the plural is not determined.

Some nouns have endings characteristic of adjectives; these are substantivized adjectives, participles and ordinal numbers, for example: guard, ice cream, second, manager, tips. This declination is called adjectival. However, unlike adjectives, such nouns do not change by gender, and some of them do not change by number.

Some nouns combine the endings of the substantive declensions with the endings of the adjectival ones when declining; a declension that combines the features of these two types of declension is called mixed. This is how surnames tend to -s And -in (Ivanov, Nikitin), as well as words draw, third. For example, forms I. p. units. numbers have a zero ending, like husband nouns. the gender of the second substantive declension, and the forms T. p. units. numbers - ending -y/-im, like adjectives. School grammar does not pay attention to words of the adjectival and mixed declension.

Geographical names of type Kashin and foreign surnames like Herzen are declined according to the II substantive declension, that is, they form T. p. "singular number, with the ending -om, compare: with Ivan Kashin- the city of Kashin;with Petya Borodin- battle of Borodino, with Herzen, Darwin.

In Russian there is immutable(so called reluctantwashed) nouns These include

many common nouns and proper borrowings (coffee, Dumas),

some abbreviations (MSU, GES),

Russian and Ukrainian surnames -yh, -them, -in, -ko (Petrovykh,Dolgikh, Durnovo, Kovalenko).

These words are usually described as words without endings. However, one should not think that these words cannot be in the form of a specific

number and case. The number and case of these nouns is expressed extra-verbally; it can be determined by the ending of the definitions consistent with this noun: beautiful coat(R. p. unit number), beautiful coats(plural numbers). Indeclinable nouns in some of their uses do not allow us to draw a conclusion about the form of the number they are in. Yes, in a sentence In the store he became a primerip coat there is no extra-word information to determine the number of a noun coat(cf.: In the store he began to try on graycoat And In the store he began to try on all the gray coats).