III. Human morphology as a branch of anthropology Human morphology. Basic morphological features
The main morphological features underlying the definition of the external shape of the human body include:
total (general) signs,
body proportions,
body type
1. Total (general) morphological features.
These include the largest dimensional features of the body, which are important features physical development: body length (height), perimeter (girth) of the chest and weight.
Body length (height). Growth reveals gender, age, group and intragroup variability. In the first years of life, children grow rapidly. The final length of the body of girls reaches an average of 16-17, and boys by 18-19 years. Approximately up to 55 years - a period of stable body length. In older people, there is a gradual decrease in body length, due to the flattening of the intervertebral cartilage discs due to the loss of their elasticity and elasticity. The average body length for men is 170 cm, for women - 158 cm (1).
Perimeter (girth) of the chest. For applied purposes, they are measured at the level of the most protruding points of the mammary glands and nipple points in men. In the process of growth, the girth of the chest continuously increases and only slightly decreases with age. The increase in breast circumference in girls ends by 16-17, in boys - 17-20 years. Stability in the circumference of the chest in adults is not observed, since it gradually increases with age.
Body mass. During the entire growth period, body weight continuously increases. Constant body weight is observed at the age of 25-40 years. After 60 years of age, body weight decreases as a result of dehydration. The annual change in body weight reveals large group and individual fluctuations due to changes in nutrition, temperature conditions, etc.
2. Body proportions
The proportions of the body are the ratios of the sizes of its individual parts. Proportions vary depending on age, sex; they are different in people even within the same sex and age group.
There are three main types of body proportions:
dolichomorphic - with relatively long limbs and a narrow short body;
brachymorphic - with relatively short limbs and a long, wide body;
mesomorphic - occupies an intermediate position between dolichomorphic and brachymorphic types.
3. Physique
Determined by a combination of row external signs and, above all, the degree of development of muscles and fat deposits, the variability of which entails a change in other features of the physique: the shape of the chest, abdomen, back. There are the following variants of these signs.
Muscle development: weak, medium, strong.
Fat development: weak, medium, strong.
Chest shape: flat, cylindrical, conical.
The shape of the abdomen: sunken, straight, rounded-convex.
Back shape: normal (with moderate curves of the spine), stooped (with increased thoracic kyphosis), straight (with smoothed small curves of the spine).
Under the posture understand the individual features of the configuration of the human body in the sagittal plane in a natural calm vertical state, requiring a minimum expenditure of muscle energy to maintain body balance. Each posture is characterized by a certain shape of the spine and torso, the position of the head and lower extremities.
There are three types of posture in the sewing industry:
normal
kinky
To establish whether a figure belongs to one or another type of posture, a parameter is used that determines the bending of the upper body - the position of the PC body.
Human musculoskeletal system
The musculoskeletal system is formed by the skeleton and muscles. The human skeleton forms the basis of the body, determines its size and shape, and together with the muscles forms cavities in which the internal organs are located. The skeleton consists of about 200 bones. Bones act as levers driven by muscles and protect organs from injury. Bones are involved in the exchange of phosphorus and calcium.
The human skeleton includes six sections:
spine (axial skeleton),
upper limb belt
lower limb belt,
upper limbs,
lower limbs.
Composition, structure and growth of bones. The composition of bone tissue includes inorganic and organic substances. The elasticity of the bone is given by the organic substance collagen, and the hardness - mineral salts. Outside, the bones are covered with periosteum, which provides nutrition and growth of bones in thickness. The compact substance of the bone is formed by microscopic cells and tubules, through which numerous blood vessels and nerves penetrate from the periosteum into the bone.
There are tubular, spongy, flat and mixed bones.
Tubular bones (humerus, femur) look like a tube with a cavity filled with yellow bone marrow. The ends of these bones are thickened and filled with spongy tissue containing red bone marrow. Tubular bones are able to withstand heavy loads. Flat bones (shoulder blades, ribs, pelvis, cranial) consist of two plates of dense substance and a thin layer of spongy substance between them.
Bone connections. The movable connection of the bones is provided by the joints, which are formed by a cavity at the end of one of the articulating bones and a head at the end of the other. The joints are strengthened by intra-articular ligaments, and the articular surfaces are covered with cartilage and enclosed in the articular bag. The synovial fluid inside the joint acts as a lubricant that reduces friction.
The semi-movable connection is provided by cartilaginous layers between the bones. For example, there are cartilage discs between the vertebrae. The ribs are also connected to the sternum through cartilage. These connections provide relative mobility.
Fixed joints are formed due to the fusion of bones and the formation of bone sutures (skull bones).
Skin covering
The skin is the largest organ of the animal body in terms of area, for example, in humans, its area is about 1.7 m². The skin consists of three layers, the epidermis (outer layer), the dermis, and the subcutaneous fat of the hypodermis.
The epidermis includes five layers of epidermal cells. The lowest layer - the basal - is located on the basement membrane and represents 1 row of prismatic epithelium. Immediately above it lies the prickly layer (3-8 rows of cells with cytoplasmic outgrowths), then follows the granular layer (1-5 rows of flattened cells), shiny (2-4 rows of non-nuclear cells, distinguishable on the palms and feet) and the stratum corneum, consisting from keratinized stratified epithelium. The epidermis also contains melanin, which colors the skin and causes a tanning effect.
The dermis, or the skin itself, is a connective tissue and consists of 2 layers - the papillary layer, on which there are numerous outgrowths containing loops of capillaries and nerve endings, and a reticular layer containing blood and lymphatic vessels, nerve endings, follicles hair, glands, as well as elastic, collagen and smooth muscle fibers that give the skin strength and elasticity.
Subcutaneous fat consists of bundles of connective tissue and fat accumulations, penetrated by blood vessels and nerve fibers. The physiological function of adipose tissue is to accumulate and store nutrients. In addition, it serves for thermoregulation and additional protection of the genitals.
In addition to the skin itself, the body has its anatomical derivatives - formations that develop from the skin and its rudiments. Various secretions of glands located in the skin are also part of the body's outer covering.
Skin derivatives
Main articles: Hair, wool, feathers, claws, slime
Hair - component protective cover, mainly in mammals, phylogenetically are derivatives of the epidermis of the skin. In animals, thick hair is called fur or wool. So-called "hairs" (trichomes) are also found on various plant organs.
Mane - long hair covering the neck and back of some mammals. It is often one of the hallmarks of males in the presence of sexual dimorphism. May have varied form, from lush and surrounding the entire head to a neat standing strip along the spine.
Fur is the hairline of mammals. Unlike wool, the concept of fur applies only to the families of mustelids and hares, as well as to certain types of rodents (beaver) and canines (foxes), as well as felines - lynx, leopard, and so on.
Wool is the hairline of the skin of mammals other than humans.
Undercoat (lat. Pili lanei) is a type of hair in mammals. They are thin, twisted and do not contain cortex (lat. Cortex pilii). Arranged tightly as secondary hairs around the hairs of the wool proper (primary hairs). The main purpose of the undercoat is thermal insulation. The hair of the undercoat has only one sebaceous gland.
Feather - skin horn formation of birds, as well as some groups of dinosaurs. Feathers grow from rows of depressions in the skin called pterylia. Only in a few flightless birds, for example, in penguins, pterylia are not expressed, and feathers grow evenly throughout the body. Feathers do not evenly cover the entire body, but leave bare spots (apterylia, or apteria). The following parts are distinguished: a rod (lat. rachis), with a lower thick part - a chin (calamus), and a fan (vexillam); inside the hole is dried keratinized tissue (darling).
Down - a feather with a soft core and a weak development of the fan. The usual down feather is a short rod with a bunch of beards on top and has the shape of a brush. The length of the chin is small - less than 1 mm. The length of the vane part with the rod can reach 10-20 mm. The barbs extend symmetrically from the shaft, but their number per 1 mm of the length of the shaft is greater than on the feather, and they are much longer. The beards of fluffs have rays, the length of which is about 1 mm; the thickness of the down beards is about 5-7 microns, they are strong, flexible, resilient.
Claw (lat. ungues) - a horny formation of skin origin on the terminal phalanx of the finger in terrestrial vertebrates: most reptiles, all birds, many mammals and some amphibians. The main functions of the claw are to facilitate movement, defense and attack. The claws of mammals are especially different: in climbing species they are sharp, in cats they are relatively thin and retractable, in burrowing species they are large and flattened.
Nails are horny plates (modified claws) on the back surface of the ends of the fingers of the upper and lower extremities of most primates. Nails are derivatives of the epidermis. The science that deals with the diagnosis of the condition of the nails is called Onychology.
A hoof is a hard, horny formation around the distal digital phalanges of ungulate mammals. For artiodactyls, the term hoof is adopted. In anatomical terms, the hooves correspond to the nails in humans. The hoof is a modified skin that lacks the bottom layer and the epidermis is turned into a callus.
Osteoderms, or secondary dermal ossifications, are ossifications located in the mesodermal layer of the skin in some vertebrates. Osteoderms are usually small and plate-like. Skin ossifications have evolved repeatedly and independently in different groups of tetrapods in the course of evolution and are not homologues of the bony scales of fish.
Scales - the outer cover of some living beings, formed by horny or bone plates. Most fish are covered with scales, although in some it is reduced. Their scales are a protective bony formation in the skin, sometimes with a complex structure. Fish scales are combined with the presence of mucous glands in the skin.
Mucus is a product of cell secretion; in multicellular organisms, it is predominantly the epithelial tissue of the mucous membranes. This viscous substance most often consists of glycosaminoglycans, also often contains some antiseptics (for example, lysozyme) and immunoglobulins, which serve to protect the epithelial cells of the lungs, gastrointestinal tract, genitourinary system, vision and hearing in mammals; epidermis in amphibians, gills in fish. Snails, slugs and some invertebrates also produce mucus which, in addition to protective function(both mucosal and predatory due to unpleasant taste) can facilitate locomotion and play a role in communication.
Exoskeleton
Main article: Exoskeleton (biology)
For most invertebrates, in particular for mollusks and arthropods, the exoskeleton acts as an integumentary system. In mollusks, it is represented by a shell, and in arthropods, by a chitinous shell.
The shell consists of three layers:
Periostracum - outer layer
Ostracum - middle layer of the shell
Hypostracum - inner pearly layer.
Respiratory system
Respiratory system (lat. systema respiratoria) - a system of organs of humans and other animals, which serves for gas exchange of the body with environment(provides the supply of oxygen and the removal of carbon dioxide). Organisms can obtain oxygen from the air (air respiration), or consume oxygen dissolved in water (water respiration). Respiratory organs are present only in aerobic organisms, in anaerobic they are absent. In humans, other mammals, and birds, the anatomical features of the respiratory system include the airways, lungs, and special muscles. In some animals (in particular, amphibians, fish, and a number of crustaceans), skin respiration plays a vital role in gas exchange when oxygen enters through the surface of the body. Skin respiration is often referred to as intestinal respiration, when the function of gas exchange is performed by the intestinal membrane (in intestinal cavities). In fish and other aquatic animals, the main respiratory organ is gills - outgrowths covered with blood vessels. Insects have a very simple respiratory system- trachea (thin air tubes). Plants also have a respiratory system, but the direction of gas exchange is opposite to that of animals. In the simplest and lower multicellular organisms (protozoa, sponges, coelenterates, many worms), there are no respiratory organs, and gas exchange is carried out only through diffuse respiration (through the surface of the body).
The respiratory organs of animals were formed in connection with an increase in the area of \u200b\u200bthe respiratory surface: protrusion or protrusion of the skin. Most primary aquatic animals have protrusions of the outer integument that perform a respiratory function: gills of fish and crustaceans, ctenidia of molluscs, gill books of horseshoe crabs, skin gills of echinoderms. Some aquatic animals have developed internal respiratory surfaces: the aquatic lungs of holothurians, the anal respiratory system of aquatic dragonfly larvae, and the plastrons of some water bugs.
Morphological and physiological features a person, i.e., his constitution and functional activity have long been of general interest, which dates back to the distant past. Even the great physician of antiquity, Hippocrates, distinguished between a strong, dense, moist and fatty constitution of a person, and he believed that people of different constitutional types are prone to various diseases.
Later, Claudius Galen (130-200) singled out four constitutional types of people, associating each type with a certain nature of the movement of "juices" in the body. In particular, he distinguished such "juices" as sangua - (blood), phlegma (cold mucus), chole (bile), melan chole (black bile). The predominance of one or another "juice" in the body determined the type of people's temperament. Therefore, according to the type of temperament, Galen distinguished between sanguine (cheerful, mobile, constantly striving for change), phlegmatic (slow, restrained, remaining calm in any situation, but inert), choleric (assertive, energetic, but angry and biased) and melancholic (irritable, indecisive, but capable of great systematic work). I. P. Pavlov also adhered to this classification of constitutional types.
At the beginning of the XX century. The French physician Seago, based on the nature of nutrition, respiration, movement and nervous reactions, proposed to distinguish four constitutional types - cerebral, digestive, muscular and respiratory.
He attributed to the cerebral type people with a relatively large head and an elongated chest. People with a large belly, a short and wide chest, and developed jaws were assigned to the digestive type. The muscular type included people with well-developed muscles, broad shoulders, and long limbs. Finally, the respiratory type according to this classification was represented by people with a developed chest and nasal cavity, with a long chest and long limbs.
In the 20-30s. of our century, the German doctor Kretschmer identified three constitutional types - asthenic, picnic and athletic. Asthenic type - people with a thickened chest, narrow shoulders, lack of body fat, drastic changes moods. Picnic type - people with large head, chest and abdomen, a dense figure, a tendency to obesity, to a smooth change of mood. The athletic type is represented by people who are characterized by a massive thoracic skeleton, broad shoulders, well-developed muscles, and a slow (gradual) change of mood.
The allocation of constitutional types of people has not lost its significance in our time. Depending on the goals of typing, each of the above classifications is used. From a genetic point of view, we can say that the constitutional type of an individual is a phenotypic category, which is the result of the interaction of the genotype and the environment.
However, mankind is extremely settled around the globe, occupying areas that differ in climate, landscape, geochemical and other features. Meanwhile, action climatic features, as well as the influence of gravity, electromagnetic field, radiation, pathogenic organisms and other factors are accompanied by geographic variability in the morphological and physiological properties of people. The confinement of these properties to certain territories indicates the geographical (ecological) variability of modern man. In the context of this variability, arctic, high-mountain and tropical groups of people, as well as groups of people living in temperate climates, are distinguished.
The population of the Arctic groups (Eskimos, Chukchi, etc.) is represented by people of a mainly muscular type with increased body weight and a cylindrical chest. All members of these groups are also characterized by an increased level of basal metabolism, oxygen uptake, energy processes. Individuals from most Arctic groups have high blood cholesterol levels. However, the inhabitants of the continental regions of Siberia, in comparison with the natives of the Arctic, more often belong to the asthenic and pyknic body types. They are characterized by relatively short legs and long arms, a flatter chest, and an increase in the fat component of the body. They are characterized by a higher, compared with the inhabitants of temperate regions, heat production, but the same level of cholesterol in the blood.
People of high mountain groups (mountaineers of the Caucasus, Pamir and Tianypan, indigenous people of Ethiopia and India, Indians of Peru, etc.) are characterized by increased chest capacity and an increase in bone-muscular body mass. They are characterized by elevated levels of red blood cells (hemoglobin) and immunoglobulins, but low levels of cholesterol.
People tropical groups(indigenous people of Africa, Australia, Oceania, India and America) are characterized by an elongated body shape, underdeveloped muscles, elevated!,? the number of sweat glands (per 1 cm 2 of the body), increased heat transfer and a reduced level of energy processes. In addition, they are characterized by an increased level of immunoglobulins and a low level of cholesterol in the blood. Indigenous!-! tropical latitudes the protein transferrin, which regulates the temperature regime of the body, was found. The indigenous people of the deserts are characterized by a tall body type, lower blood pressure. elevated erythrocytes in the blood.
The population of temperate climate zones according to morphological and. functional properties occupies a middle position between the inhabitants of the arctic and tropical groups. Inhabitants temperate zones. influenced chemical properties soil, water and altitude. For example, the mineralization of their skeleton depends on the content of macro- and microelements in soil and water.
Based on the zonal dependence of morphofunctional variability different populations Humans suggest the existence of adaptive types that are independent of either race or ethnicity and are determined by the norm of reaction that ensures the balance of populations with the environment. Human adaptation to the environment is associated with a change in its morphological and physiological properties. Therefore, the same traits of adaptability to the conditions of tropical zones are characteristic of both the indigenous inhabitants of Africa (Negroids) and the Caucasoids of India and Australians. Common features of fitness are also characteristic of the inhabitants of the Far North (Nenets, Chukchi, Eskimos, Saami).
Human adaptability has a historical character. It is believed that in Australopithecus, adaptive reactions consisted in adapting them to the climate. tropical zone, and among the archantropes these reactions have developed in the direction of the formation of adaptability to humid tropical and high-mountain climates. The settlement of paleanthropes in Europe was accompanied by the formation of an adaptive type temperate zone(Middle Paleolithic). Arctic adaptive types probably arose; during the Upper Paleolithic.
It is believed that the physical type of a person has not changed over the past 35-40 thousand years. The human intellect has not changed much either. However, environmental factors now affect a person more than even in the last century. That's why current trend The physical appearance of a person has now become an acceleration and a secular trend.
Acceleration (from lat. acceleratio) is the acceleration of the growth of people and the manifestation of their physiological functions. The term was proposed in 1935 by the German physician E. Koch. Examples of acceleration are numerous.
So, at the beginning of the century, the body length in men reached its usual size by the age of 25-26, at the present time - by the age of 18-19. The onset of the menstrual cycle in recent years has decreased from 14.5 years to 12.5 years. According to the data summarized in developed countries birth weight increased by 100-300 grams. Puberty of adolescents occurs 2 years earlier.
Explanations for the causes of acceleration are highly controversial. Some experts believe that the basis of acceleration is the improvement of living conditions and an increase in the level of medical care for the population. Others believe that the emergence of new combinations of genes contributes to acceleration. Neither of these explanations is convincing. The nature of acceleration remains unclear, but it is clear that acceleration also has negative features. For example, among the modern population, the frequency of myopia, caries, various neuroses, etc. has increased.
Secular trend (from Latin secular trend - secular trend) is an increase in body length, reproductive period, life expectancy and other important human properties in certain (long) intervals of time. For example, in our country, an increase in body length by 3.5 cm was noted in all those born in 1920-1935. compared to the last century. Like the nature of acceleration, the nature of the secular trend also does not have a satisfactory explanation.
In a broad sense - the doctrine of the structure human body in connection with its development and activity; includes human anatomy, embryology and histology. 2) In a narrow sense - a section of anthropology that studies variations in gender and age, ethnoterritorial, constitutional, professional and other features of the human body, as well as its individual parts and organs. Methods morphological study are used in ethnic anthropology and in the study of Anthropogenesis. Without morphological data, it is impossible, for example, to correctly determine the degree of similarity and difference between human races, to understand the history of their formation, it is impossible to assess the relationship between modern man and its fossil ancestors. M. hours are usually divided into two subsections: merology, or anatomical anthropology, which studies the variations and connections of individual organs and tissues, and somatology, which studies the variability and dependencies of structural features of the entire body of a living person. In merology, the integuments of the human body, the outer parts of the sense organs, the entrails, teeth, blood vessels, muscles, the skeleton and skull, and the brain are usually considered. The subject of somatology is the analysis of total body dimensions (body length and weight, chest circumference, body surface and volume) and their ratios, body proportions, external forms of its individual parts, sexual characteristics, some blood characteristics, constitution features, etc. In the 1960s-1970s. great development received age M. h., especially in connection with the problem of acceleration (See Acceleration). The introduction of methods of physical and chemical analysis into the practice of morphological research makes it possible to obtain data on the composition of the body, i.e. about the tissue components that make up the body of a living person. Relationships are also being explored. morphological features with biochemical, physiological, endocrinological characteristics, genetics of morphological features, influence of factors external environment on the human morphotype. Morphological data are widely used in anthropological standardization and ergonomics, for example, in the construction of size and height standards to maximize the satisfaction of the population with consumer goods, as well as for the rational arrangement of the workplace, etc.
Every living form, as we said, is an expression of an idea. Smooth, round shapes express that the creature to which they belong must move slowly; the forms are muscular and very bony, inspire the idea of \u200b\u200bstrength and power.
Anyone physical quality, expressed through the form, there corresponds at least one spiritual inclination, which introduces its features into the nature of a living being.
So, for example, a severe form means slowness of movements, but at the same time a meek disposition. You can't be excitable and fast if you don't have agility. An experienced observer will see speed and innate timidity in the swift form of the chamois.
He who can move easily and quickly finds his salvation in flight, especially since the tenderness of his body does not allow him to have another means of defense. If you look at the massive forms of the sea crab and its highly developed offensive weapons, it is easy to conclude that we have before us a creature that pays serious attention to defense. Fabulists read greatness in the imposing figure of a lion, cunning in the oblong shape of a fox.
In the pure lines of a trained athlete, physical strength is read, and since energy is needed to maintain muscle strength, moral strength can also be read in them.
In wavy and careless lines of lymphatic types, not only slow digestion and slow metabolism are read vital substances, but also mental relaxation, carelessness, a tendency to passive daydreaming and the need for in large numbers sleep.
The big belly and wide lower part of the butcher's face betray not only the love of meat food, his large liver and good digestion, a tendency to gluttony, but also the predominance of the sexual instinct in him.
He who saw the pampered appearance of the Persians invading Ancient Greece, would have predicted the result of their battle at Thermopylae under the pressure of 300 Spartans of King Leonidas, men with strong muscles and sun-scorched faces.
Bodily forms are so connected with general physical and mental health that everything that affects the body concerns both its vitality and spiritual harmony.
When the form of a living being is normal, it is endowed with innate, soulful qualities inherent in it, it has all the advantages that nature has endowed it with. If some changes in life modify this form, then in parallel with morphological changes there are changes in the health and in the abilities of this living being.
Intense "sport", which is forced to engage in wild animals to find their food or avoid their enemies, retains their physical form brilliantly and maintains an active and awake disposition.
Domestic life, on the contrary, worsens the forms of animals, suppresses their resistance to disease, and also changes their character. Ruminants are serviceable homebodies, their forms are often hypertrophied. They are lazy and prone to tuberculosis. The wild horse in the steppes has a magnificent form and an indomitably violent disposition. Compare it with the pitiful lethargy of some "Rossinante" who pulls a wagon or a phaeton and is disfigured by 20 years of life in a barn.
“Wild animals placed in cages undergo such degeneration as a result of an involuntary sedentary lifestyle that their life is almost halved. They quickly fall into an inert state, from which they emerge only to fall into another state of feverish excitement, accompanied by great trembling" (Dr. Gaston Durville. "La Cure Naturiste").
Restore freedom to the poor gouty dog that our elegant ladies keep in a closed warm room, and you will see how the natural refinement of her legs and the normally elongated line of the abdomen return, how she regains a lively look and natural cheerfulness and courage.
Gouty knots and accumulations of fat mean for a person not only an inability to move, but they mean for those who can read by these signs, and an inability to think sensibly.
Only movements consistent with the purpose of a living being are able to preserve the natural shape of the body. Nutrition also plays a major role. And verily, as soon as a being deviates from the laws of its nutrition, it harms both its health and its form. Eating more than necessary for fear of weakening, eating very concentrated foods (meat, alcohol, sugar) under the pretext that they support the body better, a person violates not only his gastro-hepato-intestinal functions, that is, the functions of the stomach, liver and intestines, but also its natural beauty and optimism.
Have you noted the bodily form of chronic neurasthenics? Not only do they have poor digestion, but they are also degenerate in form. Their shoulders are lowered and poorly attached to the chest, the stomach is not surrounded by that natural belt of muscles that preserves it and maintains elasticity.
Fullness often masks the degeneration of form, but do not think that the prophetic physiognomist can be deceived by this. The free contour of fullness does not prevent the trained eye from seeing bad muscles underneath. Bulging muscles, demarcated by beautiful grooves, look very different from flaccid fat layers.
What are the main anatomical elements that form the natural shape of the spine? This is known: the skeleton and the muscles that cover it. Excluding animals northern countries and animals that sleep in winter, normally developed vertebrates usually have little fat. A small amount of adipose tissue is located only in the intermuscular grooves. The normal lines of the human body are formed by the skin covering the musculoskeletal substrate.
A normal human being has a well-developed musculature. He has very little adipose tissue. Our statement is so true that it would be possible to restore health to the body and balance to the spirit only by the revival of the form.
How many discouraged people, having undergone our natural method of treatment, could return their mental strength and would restore the normal shape of their body by following a healthy naturopathy regimen.
The muscle is not only a tool for the animal, it is also one of the workers of health. Without muscles there is no sustainable health, no true beauty, no true happiness.
“For more than a thousand years, Greece has been able to maintain its superiority in the world thanks to a brilliant understanding of how a person should be educated. Gladiator, disco thrower, i.e. discus throwers, admirable for their strong strength and optimism, were the ideals of beauty.
It is a pity that the correct understanding of beauty was replaced by another understanding, which assumed as a model a dead, crucified, self-denying Christ, a symbol of passive contemplation and alienation from life. If church Christianity had borrowed from paganism not only its altars, but also the love of beauty, the Middle Ages would have been a bright era.
There is a parallel between the strength of a muscle and the beauty of its line, because nature is essentially logical. Beauty and health (in body and spirit) are two sides of the same coin, more precisely beauty- this is the outer side of the coin, and health is its inner content. (Dr. Gaston d'Urville. "Course of naturology")
For the manufacture of high-quality and comfortable clothing for a person, you need to know well anatomical structure and features external form human body, the regularity of body size variability and the principles of constructing dimensional standards. Therefore, we will analyze in detail the main morphological features of the shape of the human body.
Plastic anatomy (the anatomy of external forms or the science of the artist) studies the external form of the human body. In the process of studying the external form, large sections are usually distinguished: head, neck, torso, upper and lower limbs.
Each department distinguishes between the anterior, posterior and lateral surfaces.
It also analyzes the shape of the shoulders, back, chest, abdomen, mutual arrangement arms relative to the body and their relationship with the shape and tone of the muscles, the development of fat deposition is analyzed.
The main morphological features that determine the basis of the external shape of the human body include:
- total (or general signs),
- body proportions,
- body type,
- posture.
These signs are characterized by variability. They depend on factors such as age, gender, social environment etc.
Total (general) morphological features
The total signs include the largest dimensional signs of the human body. They are the most important signs of the physical development of a person: body length (height), perimeter (chest girth), and also weight.
Body length (Height)
The value of this feature varies depending on gender and age. In the first years of a person's life, there is an increased growth of the body. The final body length in girls reaches about 16-17 years, and in boys by 18-19. On average, up to 55 years, the body length remains constant. After 55 years, there is a gradual decrease in the length of the human body by about 0.5 - 0.7 cm every 5 years. This is due to the fact that the intervertebral cartilage discs are compacted as a result of the loss of their elasticity and resilience.
During the day, growth does not remain constant. The greatest length of the human body is observed in the morning, by the evening due to fatigue, it decreases by 1.5 - 3 cm.
Perimeter (bust)
The value of this feature is measured at the level of the mammary glands in women and the nipple points in men. In the course of a person's life, the girth of the chest gradually increases. The increase in chest girth as a result of human growth ends in girls at the age of 16-17, in boys at 17-20. But the size of the chest in adults is not stable. With age, the girth of the chest gradually increases.
Body mass
During the growth of a person, the body weight of a person constantly increases. At the age of 25 - 40 years, a relatively constant body weight is observed. As a result of dehydration, after 60 years of age, body weight may decrease. Body weight in a person's life can have large fluctuations, which are associated with the way of eating, the activity of a person's lifestyle, temperature conditions etc.
body proportions
The proportions of the human body is the ratio of its size. separate parts body.
Changes in proportions depend on age and sex. The proportions of the body are individual and they differ in people even in the same sex and age group.
There are three main types of body proportions that are often found among both men and women.
- Dolichomorphic- with relatively long limbs and a narrow short body.
- brachymorphic- with relatively short limbs and a long torso.
- mesomorphic- average. Occupies an intermediate position between dolichomorphic and brachymorphic types.
The difference in the height of people mainly depends on the length of the lower limbs. Therefore, the dolichomorphic type is characteristic of people with high stature, and low people brachymorph type.
The proportions of the human body change significantly depending on the age of the person. Changes in proportions are mainly due to changes in the size of the head and torso, and an increase in the length of the limbs. Therefore, clothing for children cannot be a reduced copy of clothing for adults.
Body type
The physique is determined by a combination of a number of signs and, above all, by the development of muscles and fat deposition. A change in these signs entails changes in a number of other signs of physique: the shape of the chest, abdomen, and back. There are the following variants of these signs:
- Muscular development: weak, medium, strong.
- The development of fat deposits: weak, medium, abundant.
In a woman, the subcutaneous fat layer is mainly located mainly in the region of the mammary glands, in the upper thighs, on the buttocks and in the shoulder part.
In men, a typical place of fat deposits is the anterior part of the abdominal cavity.
- Chest shape: flat, cylindrical, conical.
- The shape of the abdomen: sunken, straight, rounded-convex.
- Back shape: normal (with moderate curves in the shape of the spine), stooped (with increased curves in the shape of the spine and protruding shoulder blades), straight (with slight curves in all parts of the spine).
Posture
Under the posture understand the features of the configuration of the human body in the natural vertical position of the body. Each type of posture is characterized certain form spine and torso, the position of the head and lower extremities. The main factor determining the type of posture is considered primarily the shape of the spine.
When creating clothes, there are 3 types of human posture: stooped, normal and kinky.
The concept of human age
Biological community of hominids. Morphological signs of hominization.
* Upright walking (bipedia or orthogradity).
* A hand adapted for fine manipulation with an opposing thumb.
* Highly developed relatively large brain.
All these characters make up the so-called "hominid triad", but they arose chronologically unevenly.
Climbing trees and sometimes descending to the ground, prone to a straightened position of the body and occasionally moving on its hind limbs, a form with a brain volume of 450-500 cm3, close in size and strength to a chimpanzee, which did not have extremely pronounced specializations, stands at the origins of anthropogenesis and forms the initial form for the formation of the family of hominids. The transition from this form to Australopithecus refers to the end of the Pliocene or the very beginning of the Pleistocene, about 2-3 million years ago. The beginning of anthropogenesis (Greek anthropos - man, genesis - emergence) - the process of the emergence of man is dated back to 2.5-3 million years.
Causes of anthropogenesis.
1. Transition to upright posture.
3. Brain development.
4. Social factor, namely labor activity.
The question of the ancestral home of man is a very difficult one. Undoubtedly, at least three continents can be excluded from the desired territory - both Americas and Australia, separated by vast sea spaces (the isolation of Australia before the appearance of higher mammals, evolutionary development did not go further than marsupials, in America there are no close people narrow-nosed monkeys, broad-nosed monkeys South America another, far from the human evolutionary line). Some scholars place the ancestral home where it was found the largest number the remains of human ancestors. There are at least two points of view on the issue of the ancestral home:
1. Asian ancestral home (remains of Pithecanthropus and Sinanthropus, finds in India).
2. African ancestral home (explained by the similarity of man with African great apes).
Biological characteristic and commercial value ramming Yeysk estuary
ram rutilus rutilus heckeli (Nordmann 1840) Maximum body length up to 35 cm, weight up to 1.8 kg, but prevailing from 100 to 400 g. The ram has a high, laterally compressed body. The height of the body is on average 34 - 36% of its length. Dorsal fin with 9-11 rays, anal fin with 11 rays...
Biology of the quail in the Blagoveshchensk region
Birds of dense build with relatively short limbs and tail. The wing is sharper than that of other chickens, often the distal primaries are the longest ...
Biosphere. Stages of evolution of the biosphere
The first hominids appeared at the end of the Miocene (5-6 million years ago) in the territory East Africa. In earlier years, it was believed that hominids stood apart from other great apes much earlier, in the middle Miocene (12-15 million years ago), and not in Africa ...
The relationship and regulation of the metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins in the human body
All biochemical processes occurring in the body are closely related to each other. The relationship between protein metabolism and redox processes is carried out in various ways. Separate biochemical reactions...
View and speciation
The example refers to a complex of sibling species formerly grouped under the name "malarial mosquito" (Anopheles maculipennis). In some regions, he prefers to feed on a person ...
The causative agent of anthrax
The dependence of the space-time structure of an open system and its statistical properties on time
A common process for any systems existing in the frequency range from 1024 (proton) to 10-17 (Universe) Hz is a 1/f type process, for which the value of the parameter of the observed event is inversely proportional to the frequency of the event ...
Complex characteristic red noctule (Nyctalus noctula) fauna North Caucasus
DIMENSIONS: Weight 1840g, body length 60 82mm, tail length 46 54mm, forearm length 48 58mm, wingspan 32 40cm. DESCRIPTION: The ears are short and wide. The coloration of the back is fawn, brownish brown, chocolate brown, reddish brown, the belly is lighter than the back ...
Concepts of modern natural science
Traits inherited with the X and Y sex chromosomes are called sex-linked. In humans, on the Y-chromosome, there are a number of genes that regulate spermatogenesis, the manifestation of histocompatibility antigens that affect the size of the teeth, etc...
Morphological constitution of a person. Communication problem with psychological characteristics personalities
The constitutional features include morphological, physiological and psychological. There are significant differences between people in terms of body shape ...
Lifestyle, meaning of the white hare and bison. Measures to prevent the death of animals from diseases
Order artiodactyls - Artiodatyla Family bovids - Bovidae Species European bison - Bison bonasus Bison belongs to the order artiodactyls, family bovids, species - European bison. II category of protection. International Conservation Significance...
Features of apoptosis of working mammalian cardiomyocytes
As repeatedly shown by different groups of researchers, apoptosis of cardiomyocytes (as well as other cells) proceeds in two stages: initial (slow) and final (fast). At the initial stage of apoptosis, the cell loses part of the cytoplasm ...
The role of mitochondria in apoptosis
The integrity of the plasma membrane during apoptosis is not violated, although its protrusion and "bubble" occurs due to changes in the cytoskeleton. During apoptosis, the cytoplasm of the cell thickens, chromatin condenses ...
horseflies nature reserve"Kamyshanova meadow"
The external structure of adult horseflies (Appendix A, Figure A.1) is described in detail in a number of monographs and reviews [Olsufiev, 1937, 1977; Violovich, 1968], larvae and pupae - in the works of K.V. Skufina and others. Among the bloodsuckers belonging to the "gnus" complex...
Siberian pine
Siberian cedar (Pinus sibirica) - a tree up to 40 meters high, trunk diameter up to 1.5 - 2 m. It is difficult to establish the age limit for cedar, since its very old trees are usually affected by core rot. It is considered...