What countries are included in Europe? Chapter vii northwestern Europe in the early Middle Ages

Western Europe is the name given to a group of European states united along certain political, cultural and geographical lines. In the years Cold War The division was established based on participation in the NATO bloc. After the collapse of the Warsaw Pact, a new division of countries took hold. The region of Western Europe now includes Belgium, Monaco, and according to some sources, according to others, this includes as many as 26 countries.

The countries of Western Europe are united not only by geographical location, but also by close economic and political ties. According to the form of government, about half of the countries are still monarchies, the rest are republics.

Geographical position

Western Europe occupies the western part of the Eurasian continent, washed mainly by the waters of the Atlantic Ocean and only in the north Scandinavian Peninsula- the waters of the Arctic Ocean. Despite the “mosaic” nature of the relief of the territory of Western Europe, the borders between individual countries, as well as the border dividing Western Europe and Eastern Europe, passes mainly along natural boundaries that do not create serious obstacles to transport links.

The economic and geopolitical situation of the region is very favorable. This is due to the fact that,

• firstly, the countries of the subregion either access the sea or are located at a short distance from it (no further than 480 km), which contributes to the development of economic ties.
• secondly, the neighboring position of these countries in relation to each other is very important.
• thirdly, the natural conditions of the region are generally favorable for the development of both industry and agriculture.

Natural conditions and resources

The territory of Western Europe lies within tectonic structures of different ages: Precambrian, Caledonian, Hercynian and the youngest - Cenozoic. As a result of complex geological history During the formation of Europe, four large orographic belts were formed within the subregion, successively replacing each other in the direction from north to south (the plateaus and highlands of Fennoscandia, the Central European Plain, the middle mountains of Central Europe and the alpine highlands and middle mountains occupying its southern part). Accordingly, the composition of minerals in the northern (platform) and southern (folded) parts of the region differs significantly.

The region plays a very prominent role in the world economy and world politics; it has become one of the centers of world civilization, the homeland of great geographical discoveries, industrial revolution, urban agglomerations. Western Europe is a dynamic region of the world economy, characterized by the specifics of international economic relations.

The hydropower resources of Western Europe are quite large, but are concentrated mainly in the Alps, Scandinavian and Dinaric mountains.

In the past, Western Europe was almost entirely covered with a variety of forests: taiga, mixed, deciduous and subtropical forests. But centuries-old economic use territory has led to the destruction of natural forests, and in their place secondary forests have grown in some countries. Sweden and Finland have the greatest natural prerequisites for forestry, where typical forest landscapes predominate.

Western Europe. Population

In general, Western Europe (like Eastern Europe) is distinguished by a complex and unfavorable demographic situation. Firstly, this is explained by the low birth rate and, accordingly, low level natural growth. The lowest birth rates are in Greece, Italy, and Germany (up to 10%). In Germany there is even a population decline. At the same time, the age composition of the population is changing towards a decrease in the proportion of children and an increase in the proportion of older people. New for Europe is the influx of so-called refugees from Syria, Iraq and other countries affected by ISIS.

Before this, the national composition of the population was quite homogeneous, since the vast majority of the 62 peoples of the region belong to the Indo-European language family.

In all countries of Western Europe, the dominant religion is Christianity.

Western Europe is one of the most densely populated regions of the world; the distribution of its population is primarily determined by the geography of its cities. Urbanization level - 70-90%

The interwar years were a relatively calm time for Britain. The obvious movement of all nations towards peace and economic depression reduced interest in the small British army protecting the interests of the empire and forced them to further reduce the cost of its maintenance. And although the late 1920s and 1930s. Often considered a period of stagnation, in reality it was a time when the army was laying the foundations for future development. Despite a very limited budget, she nevertheless developed not only new weapons and equipment, but also new uniforms. Much of this work was undoubtedly dictated by the lack of available funds and the consequent need to reorganize available resources to make the most efficient use of both men and materials.

At the outbreak of the war in September 1939, the British infantry was short of numbers rather than the quality of available equipment. When the Munich Agreements were signed in 1938, Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain may not have been as wrong as his critics imagined. In fact, the treaty gave the Allies additional months to increase readiness for a second conflict with Germany - time that was well used to prepare mass production weapons and equipment for new army, including items that were developed but not produced due to lack of finance. Unfortunately, most of this equipment was abandoned in France and Belgium when the British Expeditionary Force and the French armies retreated to the Germans in May and June 1940.

This defeat was a consequence of tactical innovations by the German senior leadership, but any serious comparison will show that the British soldier of 1940, unlike his senior officers, could fight his German opponent on equal terms. The enemy's "huge numerical superiority" was, in reality, a product of superior Nazi propaganda and the gullibility of the Allied leadership. The huge French army alone was superior to the Wehrmacht in tanks and artillery. Remarkable German victories were achieved through concentrated effort, inventive, aggressive ground and air tactics, the achievement of local superiority and multiple breakthroughs. The Allied Commander-in-Chief, French General Gamelin, was unable to resist these blitzkrieg tactics. The Allied armies were doomed by inflexible defensive tactics, and once their front lines were broken through by mobile German formations, they quickly found themselves disoriented and, in some cases, demoralized. The German armored units at the forefront of the attack took serious risks and sometimes paid a heavy price - their commanders left records in which they spoke very highly of the British troops opposing them; but their speed and confidence usually blinded the Allies, and the complete dominance of German tactical air power led to collapse.

Infantryman with light machine gun"Bren" serving in the 44th Infantry Brigade of the 15th (Scottish) Division, autumn 1944. Note the standard engineer's shovel tucked into the belt: it provided additional protection for the abdomen and lower chest (hereinafter in parentheses are given numbers of storage of photographic documents in the archives of the Imperial War Museum - Imperial War Museum; IWM B11563).

A soldier of the 7th Battalion of the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders, part of the 154th Brigade of the 51st (Highland) Division of General Victor Fortune. This 'big guy' in a twill field uniform and Mk II steel helmet was photographed at Millebosch, France, on 7 June 1940. The 51st Division appears to have been the only British Expeditionary Force unit to employ a complete scheme of brigade color insignia. . According to the recollections of veterans, the divisional insignia in the form of the St. Andrew's Cross in purple and green colors was assigned to the divisional headquarters, red - to the 152nd and brown - to the 154th brigades. The color of the 153rd Brigade could not be determined. At the level of the battalions that were part of the brigades, various combinations of the number and location of stripes of corresponding colors were used. For example, the 7th Battalion wore one horizontal brown patch, while the 8th Battalion wore a vertical one. The junior battalion of the 152nd Brigade, the 4th Cameron Highlanders, was identified by three red horizontal stripes (IWM F4736).

The British Army paid a terrible price for training in modern mobile warfare, but it learned its lesson. When it returned to the continent in June 1944 - hardened by years of fighting in the African desert, Sicily, Italy and supported by the industrial might of its American allies - it was a very different army, capable of confronting the Wehrmacht on equal terms. Casualties during the last eleven months of the war were inevitably very high, especially after Germany went on the defensive. Historians most often explain the terrible loss of life by the fact that the best SS and army units took part in the battles, who fought almost to the last, as well as by the actions of allied aviation; but this should not hide other reasons.

It should be emphasized that veteran infantrymen of this last campaign noted in their notes that most of the German troops they encountered showed less aggressiveness and initiative than Tommy. Privately published memoirs of Lieutenant Sidney Jary, a young platoon commander of the 43rd (Essex) infantry division, which went through heavy fighting from the Norman bocages until the victory, contained the following statement:

“The men in my 18th Platoon were better than anyone we ever fought. The same could be said of D Company and the whole of the 4th Battalion Somerset Light Infantry... In many attacks we took more prisoners than there were attackers, and there were only a few German units that resisted at close quarters. Unlike us, they rarely fought at night, and if they did, they were extremely nervous and unsure of themselves. Where we patrolled heavily, they avoided it... [German soldiers] encouraged the spread of the theory and myth that they were superior fighters, and could only be defeated by superior forces and overwhelming firepower. My experience shows that this was not the case."

"Strange War"

Following the declaration of war on 3 September 1939, Britain hastily transported the British Expeditionary Force (British Expeditionary Force- BEF) to Northern France. It was originally 160,000 men, divided into two corps, each of two divisions: General Barker's I Corps - General Alexander's 1st Division, General Lloyd's 2nd Division; General Brooke's II Corps—General Montgomery's 3rd Division, General Johnson's 4th Division; plus auxiliary troops. The reader will note that three of these generals later became senior commanders of the British Army. In December 1939, the 5th Division joined the British Expeditionary Force. Soon these troops were reinforced by units of the “first line” territorial divisions (they were formed mainly from volunteer units of the provisional Territorial Army) at the rate of a regular battalion per brigade. From January 1940, the 48th (South Midlands), 50th (Northumberland) and 51st (Highland) divisions arrived in France. The 51st Division was sent to the Maginot Line in the Saarland and placed under French command. The remaining units were stationed along the Belgian border, part of the French army group, headed by General Gaston Billot, commander of the North-Eastern Front. In April 1940, the 42nd, 44th and 46th “first line” divisions arrived, as well as the 12th and part of the 23rd “second line” territorial division. In May, the 1st Armored Division was added to them, although this unit was understaffed and not ready for combat.

Europe is the part of the world that lies in the western part of the Eurasian continent in the Northern Hemisphere, and together with Asia forms a single continent. Its area is 10 million km 2, about 20% of the total population of the Earth (743 million people) lives here. Europe is the largest economic, historical and political center of great importance throughout the world.

Geographical position

Europe is washed by the Atlantic and Arctic Oceans, its coastline is significantly rugged, the area of ​​its islands is 730 thousand km 2, ¼ of the total area is occupied by peninsulas: the Kola, Apennine, Balkan, Iberian, Scandinavian, etc. The border between Europe and Asia is conventionally along the eastern coast of the Ural Mountains, the Emba River, and the Caspian Sea. Kuma-Manych depression and the mouth of the Don.

Main geographical characteristics

The average surface height is 300 meters, highest point- Mount Elbrus (5642 m, Caucasus Mountains in Russia), the lowest - -27 m (Caspian Sea). Most of the territory is occupied by plains (East European, Lower and Middle Danube, Central European), 17% of the surface is mountains and plateaus (Urals, Carpathians, Pyrenees, Alps, Scandinavian mountains, Crimean mountains, mountains of the Balkan Peninsula), Iceland and the Mediterranean islands are in a zone of seismic activity.

The climate of most of the territory is temperate (the western part is temperate oceanic, the eastern part is temperate continental), the northern islands lie in the Arctic and subarctic climate zones, Southern Europe has a Mediterranean climate, and the Caspian lowland is semi-desert.

The amount of water flow in Europe is about 295 mm, this is the second largest in the world after South America, however, due to the significantly smaller area of ​​the territory, the volume of water flow (2850 km 3) exceeds the readings of Africa and Antarctica. Water resources are distributed unevenly across Europe, the flow of inland waters decreases from north to south and from west to east. Most of the rivers belong to the Atlantic Ocean basin, a smaller part to the Arctic Ocean basin and the internal drainage basin of the Caspian Sea. The largest rivers in Europe are located mainly in Russia and Eastern Europe; there are also large rivers in Western Europe. Largest rivers: Volga, Kama, Oka, Danube, Ural, Dnieper, Don, Dniester, Rhine, Elbe, Vistula, Tagus, Loire, Oder, Neman. The lakes of Europe have a tectonic origin, which determines their significant depth, elongated shape and highly indented coastline; these are the flat lakes Ladoga, Onega, Vättern, Imandra, Balaton, and the mountain lakes Geneva, Como, Garda.

In accordance with the laws of latitudinal zoning, the entire territory of Europe is located in different natural areas: extreme north - zone arctic deserts, then comes the tundra and forest-tundra, the zone of deciduous and mixed forests, forest-steppe, steppe, subtropical Mediterranean forest vegetation and shrubs, extreme south - semi-desert zone.

Countries of Europe

The territory of Europe is divided between 43 independent states officially recognized by the UN, there are also 6 officially unrecognized republics (Kosovo, Abkhazia, South Ossetia, Transnistria, LPR, DPR) and 7 dependent territories(in the Arctic and Atlantic oceans). Due to their very small size, 6 states are classified as so-called microstates: Vatican City, Andorra, Liechtenstein, Malta, Monaco, San Marino. Partially in Europe there are territories of such states as Russia - 22%, Kazakhstan - 14%, Azerbaijan - 10%, Georgia - 5%, Turkey - 4%. 28 European countries are united in the national union European Union (EU), have a common currency, the euro, and common economic and political views. According to cultural, geographical and political characteristics, the entire territory of Europe is conventionally divided into Western, Eastern, Northern, Southern and Central.

List of countries in Europe

Major European countries:

(with detailed description)

Nature

Nature, plants and animals of Europe

The presence of several natural and climatic zones on the territory of Europe determines a rich and diverse flora and fauna, which, under the influence economic activity humans have undergone a number of changes, which has led to a decrease in their biodiversity and even to the complete disappearance of some species...

In the Far North, in the Arctic climate, mosses, lichens, polar buttercups, and poppies grow. Dwarf birches, willows, and alders appear in the tundra. To the south of the tundra there are vast expanses of taiga, which is characterized by the growth of such typical coniferous trees as cedar, spruce, fir, and larch. Due to the temperate climate zone prevailing in most of Europe, significant areas are occupied by huge forests of deciduous and mixed species (aspen, birch, maple, oak, fir, hornbeam). In the zone of steppes and forest-steppes grow oak forests, steppe grasses, cereals, and shrubs: feather grass, irises, steppe hyacinths, blackthorn, steppe cherry, and wolfberry. The Black Sea subtropics are characterized by the predominance of forests of fluffy oak, juniper, boxwood, and black alder. For southern Europe Subtropical vegetation is typical, palm trees and vines are found, olives, grapes, citrus fruits, magnolias, and cypresses grow.

The foothills of the mountains (Alps, Caucasus, Crimea) are characterized by the growth of coniferous trees, for example, relict Caucasian plants: boxwood, chestnut, Eldar and Pitsunda pines. In the Alps, pine and spruce trees give way to subalpine tall grass meadows; on the peaks there are alpine meadows, striking in the beauty of their emerald greenery.

In the northern latitudes (subarctic, tundra, taiga), where human influence on the environment is less pronounced, there are more predators: polar bears, wolves, arctic foxes. They live there reindeer, polar hares, walruses, seals. In the Russian taiga you can still find wapiti, brown bears, lynxes and wolverines, sables and ermines; wood grouse, hazel grouse, black grouse, woodpeckers, and nutcrackers live here.

Europe is a highly urbanized and industrialized region, so large mammals are practically absent here; the largest inhabitants of European forests are deer and fallow deer. They still live in the Alps, Carpathians and the Iberian Peninsula wild boars, chamois, mouflons are found on the islands of Sardinia and Corsica, Poland and Belarus are famous for their relict animals from the bison genus, bison, which are listed in the Red Book and live exclusively in nature reserves. The lower tiers of deciduous and mixed forests are inhabited by foxes, hares, badgers, ferrets, weasels, and squirrels. Beavers, otters, muskrats and nutria live on the banks of rivers and reservoirs. Typical inhabitants of the semi-desert zone: goitered gazelles, jackals, a large number of small rodents, snakes.

Climatic conditions

Seasons, weather and climate of European countries

Europe is located in four climatic zones: arctic (low temperatures, in summer not higher than +5 C 0, precipitation - 400 mm/year), subarctic (mild maritime climate, t January - +1, -3°, July - +10°, predominance of cloudy days with fogs, precipitation - 1000 mm/year), moderate (sea - cool summers, mild winters, and continental - long winters, cool summers) and subtropical (hot summers, mild winters)...

The climate of most of Europe belongs to the temperate climate zone, the west is influenced by the Atlantic Ocean air masses, east - continental, south - Mediterranean air masses from the tropics, the north is invaded by arctic air. The territory of Europe has sufficient moisture, precipitation (mainly in the form of rain) is distributed unevenly, its maximum (1000-2000 mm) occurs in Scandinavia, the British Isles, the slopes of the Alps and Apennines, the minimum is 400 mm in the east of the Balkan Peninsula and the southeast of the Pyrenees .

Peoples of Europe: culture and traditions

The population living in Europe (770 million people) is diverse and has a variegated ethnic composition. In total there are 87 nationalities, of which 33 are the national majority in any given independent state, 54 are a minority (105 million or 14% of total number population of Europe)...

In Europe there are 8 groups of peoples, the number of which exceeds 30 million, together they represent 460 million people, which is 63% of the total European population:

• Russians of the European part (90 million);
• Germans (82 million);
• French (65 million);
• British (55-61 million);
• Italians (59 million);
• Spaniards (46 million);
• Ukrainians (46 million);
• Poles (38 million).

About 25 million European residents (3%) are members of the diaspora of non-European origin, the EU population (approximately 500 million people) accounts for 2/3 of the total population of Europe.

List of Nordic countries. Tourism: capitals, cities and resorts. Maps of foreign countries in the Northern Europe region.

• Tours for May Worldwide
• Last minute tours Worldwide

The land of ice and volcanoes, Vikings and fjords, Nobel Prize and Nilsa with Wild Geese, Northern Europe, also called Scandinavia, is a unique land in many ways. The standard of universalism - from the notorious Swedish families to the Ikea store, orderliness and truly Nordic fortitude, a region with one of the highest standards of living in the world, whose citizens demonstrate simply phenomenal examples of a happy, prosperous old age and the longevity resulting from it, a patrimony harsh northern nature in all its piercing icy glory, the homeland of real men and warlike women, as well modern queens and kings - all this is about the Scandinavian countries. To most clearly feel their soul, imagine a field of ripe wheat dozing in a milky fog under the morning frost: warmth, comfort, ice, abundance, majestic beauty and resilience - this is Scandinavia, the northernmost part of the Old World.

Previous photo 1/ 1 Next photo

In short, to Northern Europe it is customary to attribute European countries cold seas - the Baltic, Norwegian and North (as opposed to the warm southern “Mediterranean” and western Atlantic). These are Norway and Sweden, dividing between themselves the territory of the Scandinavian Peninsula (poetically speaking, the body of a “tiger” coupled with its front paws), Finland (its ham and hind paws - well, how can you not remember the famous film!), as well as Denmark and “torn off” from the continent of Iceland. These states are close not only geographically, but also boast a common and rather long history, dating back to the times when the Goths and Vikings, knowing no borders, roamed the harsh expanses of the peninsula.

Speaking strictly within the framework of geography, several archipelagos are also included here: the Faroe, Shetland and Orkney Islands, as well as the Hebrides, so “island” tourism is also present in Scandinavia.

Across Northern Europe by bike

The tourist attractions of Northern Europe are magnificent nature (for example, the geysers of Iceland and the notorious volcano with a hair-raising name, as well as fields of solidified lava and hydrogen sulfide thawed patches with the corresponding aroma), a sufficient number of interesting historical attractions - from the sites of primitive people to medieval town halls and cathedrals and futuristic creations of modern architects, as well as a remarkable “ski” - without the Franco-Italian golden flair, but with northern good quality, generosity and cordiality. As for the ways to travel around Scandinavia, bus tours are extremely common in the region - fortunately, the “bus operators” have the immediate proximity to St. Petersburg and excellent roads. Cruises along the Norwegian fjords are also popular - narrow picturesque bays with crystal clear water and almost vertical slopes covered with forests. Well, for those who cannot imagine life without expanses of water, we recommend going on a multi-day cruise in the Baltic, calling at Scandinavian ports and visiting Northern European capitals.

Well, in winter Northern Europe is a balm for the soul of those yearning for real winter- with fluffy snowdrifts higher than your head, spreading spruce trees under snow caps, indispensable evening lanterns under snow-covered roofs and other joys of comfort in the middle of January, such as downy socks, a purring cat and mulled wine with your favorite book.

Chapter VII

NORTHWESTERN EUROPE IN THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES

The North-West region consists of two subregions or historical-territorial communities: Britain, uniting England, Scotland, Ireland, and Northern Europe - the Scandinavian countries and Finland. In addition to Sweden and Norway located on the Scandinavian Peninsula, according to historical and cultural tradition, the Scandinavian countries also include Denmark, which occupies the Jutland Peninsula and adjacent islands, as well as the island of Iceland. Not only the two subregions included in Northwestern Europe, but also the 8 countries that comprised them were largely historically independent; at the same time, they had many common features.

The Scandinavian countries were distinguished by a generally homogeneous ethnocultural composition. By the beginning of the Middle Ages, they were inhabited mainly by northern Germans (Scandinavians), who had a common language, economic activities, material culture, beliefs, and methods of settlement. Britain is a different matter. Its main population at the beginning of the Middle Ages were Celts, who underwent a certain Romanization in the southeastern part of the country. From the middle of the 5th to the middle of the 11th century. the subregion was the subject of almost continuous invasion and colonization by the North Germans.

The common features characteristic of the entire North-Western region were similar living conditions, partly economic life, but most importantly, all countries in this region were characterized by a basically non-synthetic path of development of feudalism (a noticeable Romanesque influence took place only in the South-East of England, in Kente). This path of development gave rise to similarities in the social system, political organization, and spiritual culture. It is no coincidence that the Scandinavian epic “Elder Edda” reflects the realities of the entire North German barbarian world, and the Anglo-Saxon “Beowulf Saga” and the Icelandic sagas are valuable sources on the history of the entire North-Western region in early Middle Ages.

Feudalism in the North-West region developed relatively slowly. Pre-class barbarian structures persisted for a long time, primarily the free (to varying degrees) peasantry, the large family, the tribal organization, the neighborhood community, small landed property and patriarchal slavery.

In the first period of the early Middle Ages (VI-VIII centuries), both subregions went through a barbarian stage with the initial elements of feudalization. In the second (IX-XI centuries) the feudal structure was formed more actively, and in England by the 11th century. became the leader.

Because of the warm sea ​​currents The climate of the region, excluding the northern regions, is predominantly humid and temperate. The territories of the Scandinavian Peninsula, Jutland, and Britain are strongly elongated from north to south, which led to a significant diversity of climate in all these areas, as well as soils and vegetation cover. The topography, influenced by advancing and retreating glaciers, comes in three forms: mountains, rolling plains, and lowlands. Low mountains cover almost the entire territory of Norway; only on the Atlantic coast lies a narrow strip of hilly plain. The territory of central Sweden and the Skåne Peninsula is dominated by low plateaus and rolling fertile plains. The Jutland Peninsula and the Danish Archipelago are flat lowlands. In Britain, also, the mountainous regions of Scotland, Northern England, Cornwall and Wales are gradually turning into the plains of the south and south-east of the country, which are quite suitable for agriculture. Predominantly flat Ireland - the "Green Isle".

The natural conditions of most of the Scandinavian subregion are characterized by a predominance of poor rocky soils, dense forest cover, low temperatures, a short growing season for plants, and a limited area of ​​lowlands. These conditions were not conducive to agriculture. Favorable conditions for arable farming existed in lowland Denmark and in most of the future England. At the same time, the conditions of the region contributed to the practice of cattle breeding, in particular sheep breeding.

An important common feature of the nature of the North-West region is its proximity to the sea. The north of the region is the coast of the Arctic Ocean, which does not freeze here, and Barents Sea. The west and southwest through the Norwegian and North Seas, like the British Isles, are washed by the waters of the endless Atlantic. The sea played a prominent role in political life, occupations, economic, cultural ties of the population of the countries of the North-West region. The longest coastlines, indented by many kilometers of narrow bays-fjords, provided a lot of convenient ports and parking lots. Marine trades, navigation and shipbuilding, and maritime trade occupied the most important place in the occupations of the population. The sea contributed to political unification northern countries, internal consolidation of each of them. At the same time, the sea and straits - the English Channel, Sound (Oresund), Kattegat, Skagerrak - contributed to the early development of contacts, including trade between the countries of the North-West region. It is also necessary to note the abundance of inland waters in the region - lakes (especially in Scandinavia) and rivers, which connected all the internal regions of the region with each other and with the sea.

In the early Middle Ages, the population density of the North-West region was still quite low. The most densely populated areas were Danish territories, South-East England, East Coast Scandinavia, the islands of Elaid and Gotland. At the beginning of the Middle Ages (5th-6th centuries), mainly movements of North Germanic tribes took place in the region. Tribes, as well as unions of related tribes, usually fragile, were the main political associations there, and were the supreme owner-manager and guardian of the occupied territory.

Central Sweden was already occupied by the Svei at this time, divided into eastern, southern and northern. To the south were the Ets (Geats, Geats, later Guts); some of them inhabited the island of Gotland. The settlement of these main tribal groups is reflected in the later names of the territory: Svealand (Land of the Svei), Ötaland (Land of the Jöts), Gotland (Land of the Guts). In the V - first half of the VI century. In the territories of the Svei and Ets, large communities arose, which apparently became the first barbarian kingdoms: Svitjod and Gautiod, led by kings, or rather, king-leaders, chosen from the noble family of Ynglings. According to legend, the Swedish and Norwegian kings descended from this family.

In Western Scandinavia there were small tribes of Ranriki (modern Östfold region), Raum (in the area of ​​modern Oslo), Trends (Trondheim) and others - up to 30 German- and Finnish-speaking tribes in total. In the second half of the 1st millennium, four tribal unions formed in Norway. The Skåne Peninsula was inhabited by tribal associations of Danes, who also lived on the islands of the Danish Archipelago and in Northern Jutland. In the V-VI centuries. The Jutes and Angles settled in Jutland, and the Saxons and neighboring Frisians partially infiltrated there. Simultaneously with the Yngling kingdoms in Sweden and Norway, the Skvoldung kingdom arose in Denmark.

Since ancient times, the region of modern Finland was inhabited by Lapp Sami (Laplanders) who roamed in the north, Finns who occupied the south of the country, and Karelians in its southeast. In the middle of the 1st millennium, among disunited local tribes, tribal unions Häme (Tavasts) and Finns (Suomi), as well as Karelians.

In Britain at the beginning of the Middle Ages, tribes and tribal unions of the Celts dominated - Gaels, Belgs, Britons, Picts, Scots, etc. After the departure of the Roman legions in 407, from the middle of the century, invasions of Britain by the Germans began: Angles, Saxons and Jutes from Jutland and from the coast North Sea. First, German warriors appeared on the island, hired by Celtic tribal leaders who fought among themselves. Then began the massive (entire tribes) resettlement of Germans to Britain. The Germanic conquerors formed seven barbarian kingdoms on the territory of future England: Kent - the kingdom of the Jutes in the extreme southeast of modern England; the Saxon kingdoms of Wessex, Sussex in the south of the country, Essex in the east north of Kent, the kingdoms of the Angles - Northumbria in the north and Mercia - in the center of the country; East Anglia - north of Essex. These kingdoms entered into a fierce struggle among themselves. The priority of Kent (late 6th and 7th centuries) was replaced by the leadership of Northumbria (from the middle of the 7th century), Mercia (8th century). The ruler of the dominant kingdom - Britvalda ("Lord of Britain") - had the right to receive tribute and military assistance from other kings.

Celts by the beginning of the 7th century. mostly pushed back to the northern and western outskirts of Britain, partially exterminated, some of the Britons moved to the Armorica peninsula (future Brittany). A small part of the Celts, who remained to live interspersed with the Germans as their slaves and tributaries, subsequently assimilated with the conquerors. The Celts retained their independence and tribal system only in the mountainous regions - on the peninsulas of Wales and Cornwall (Britons), as well as in Scotland (Picts, Gaels, Scotts) and Ireland (Scotts).

The economy of the North-West region in the early Middle Ages was extensive. But economic life varied significantly depending on local conditions. In the far north of Norway and Sweden, the main occupations were reindeer herding and hunting. Back in the 9th-10th centuries. Livestock farming was the mainstay of the economy here, as it was in Fennoscania (the future Finland), the mountainous regions of Britain, as well as in Scotland and Ireland. Shepherding was combined with agriculture, and the prominent role of trades (fishing and hunting) remained sea ​​beast). Plow farming was the main occupation on the plains of England, Denmark, Skåne, Southern and Eastern Sweden, and Southeastern Norway. The rest of the Scandinavians did not know the correct crop rotation for a long time. Developed agriculture was also universally combined with livestock breeding, especially since bulls served as draft power, and a lot of manure was required to fertilize the soil. According to later monuments, 6-12 cows constituted the average norm for a farm big family in Norway. With relatively small arable plots, laboriously conquered from stones and forests, in Scandinavia, abundant manure made it possible to leave the land fallow less frequently. Among the Anglo-Saxons and Danes, already in the 1st millennium, a two-field system prevailed, which only gradually spread to the agricultural regions of the Scandinavian Peninsula, replacing the slash-and-burn system.

In Britain, the Celts, and later the Anglo-Saxons, used a wheeled plow with a moldboard, harnessed to 4-8 oxen, on heavy soils; the land for it was cut into long strips (“long fields”). Then the wheeled plow and the “long field” system were borrowed from Denmark, and through it to the Scandinavian Peninsula. But the wooden plow with an iron plowshare prevailed here for a long time; it is more convenient to cultivate rocky soils. In addition, in both subregions a lightweight moldless plow with a team of two oxen was used.

Since the end of the 1st millennium, due to population growth, internal colonization has intensified due to the clearing of forests and drainage of swamps. New settlements were founded. In general, internal colonization was associated with economic progress and population dynamics. But important factors here were also changes in the social and political system: the growth and isolation of the nobility, the development of relations of land dependence, the formation of barbarian kingdoms.

The peoples of the entire region were excellent sailors and shipbuilders. The oar-sailing ships of the Scandinavians, stable and maneuverable, were especially famous. Owning a ship was also a sign of power. Pagan kings of the Viking Age were usually buried in a ship, and such burials have been found in East Anglia and the kingdom of Swyjod. During long sea voyages, a special type of brave, warlike and enterprising northern navigator emerged.

The particular wealth of the region was metal ores, on the basis of which several crafts emerged early on: ore mining, foundry, blacksmithing, weapons and jewelry. In Britain, in particular, the Forest of Dean was famous for iron, Cornwall for lead and tin; the territory of Central Sweden - reserves of iron and copper. Other crafts include shipbuilding and stone-cutting, pottery (except for Norway, where they did not have their own clays and ceramics were imported), spinning and making fabrics from flax and wool. In Britain and Sweden, coarse wool weaving and cloth making were developed; in the south of the Jutland Peninsula and in some areas of England, fine cloth was produced. Salt making was widespread in England. Crafts were mainly of a domestic nature. At the same time, already in the V-VI centuries. There is a tendency to concentrate craft activities (especially blacksmithing) and exchange in some points.

The greatest successes were achieved in the early Middle Ages by material culture and trade in England. In its southeastern regions, the Romans built many beautiful roads, harbors, and fortifications; they taught the British how to use coins, develop deposits of metal ores and salt, stone construction, and introduced them to some agricultural crops. Finally, under the influence of the Romans, the largest Celtic settlements turned into Roman-type cities: Londinium (London), Camulodunum (Colchester), Verulamium (St. Albans). Many cities grew up around former Roman military camps (as evidenced by the names in -chester and -caster).

And after the departure of the Romans, the villas of the Celtic nobility, based on the exploitation of slaves and coloni, remained for some time in South-Eastern and Central Britain. However, in other parts of the country, a primitive clan system dominated. In general, the Romanization of Britain was not nearly as deep as in Gaul. The Anglo-Saxons brought a more primitive social system to Britain and, in the course of their conquest, destroyed much of the Roman heritage, including in the southeast of the country. But even these weak elements of the Romano-Germanic synthesis had great importance. The influence of Anglo-Saxon institutions, and later also contacts with the more developed society of the Frankish kingdom, in the presence of such a basic factor as the predominance of agriculture here, led to greater dynamism in the development of England than other areas of the region. Next place Denmark ranked in terms of development level, followed by Norway and Sweden. Ireland, Scotland and Fennoscania were the furthest behind. From the end of the 4th century. trade ties of the North-Western region with the Mediterranean world were disrupted, but internal ties between the subregions increased, as well as contacts of the Scandinavians with the Western Slavs, Baltic and Finnish tribes, and England with the Frankish state.

At the beginning of the Middle Ages, the peoples of Northwestern Europe lived in a tribal society at the stage of military democracy. Natural conditions and the peripheral position slowed down the decomposition of primitive communal relations in this region. Monuments of the Old Scandinavian epic, legal books (“truths”) of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, as well as data from archaeology, toponymy, and historical linguistics unanimously indicate that the majority of the population of the region at the beginning of the Middle Ages were free, full-fledged community members: the Curls of the Anglo-Saxons, the Karls or Bonds of the Scandinavians. Curl or bond was primarily a farmer, a peasant, who was sometimes also involved in cattle breeding and crafts. They were usually the heads of large families, which usually included three generations - up to several dozen relatives and kept several slaves. The head of such a related group managed property and households, judged his household and performed pagan rituals. Small individual families began to predominate in England no earlier than the middle of the 7th century, and among other peoples of the region much later. At the same time, traces of clan ties and a large family were preserved for a long time and everywhere (the right to wergeld of relatives, the collective right of the clan to inherited land, the right of blood feud).

Free community members - heads of families - participated in a national gathering: a mote (or large gathering - hemote) of the Saxons, a mete or ting of the Scandinavians. There, tribal affairs related to war and peace, payment of tribute and election of a leader were decided, courts were held, and economic issues were discussed. Free community members had the right and obligation to bear arms and participate in the militia: the fyrd of the Anglo-Saxons, the hirda and ledung of the Scandinavians. All this testified to their full rights.

The narrow upper stratum of society was made up of the clan nobility: the earls of the Anglo-Saxons, the jarls and chiefs of the Scandinavians. A noble member of the tribe had several dozen large estates, which were personally serviced by dependent people: slaves-trails and colons. Military servicemen also belonged to the privileged part of society: the bodyguards of the king and the nobility (huskerls of the Anglo-Saxons, huscarls of the Scandinavians), as well as other warriors and ministerials (gesits of the Anglo-Saxons, guards of the Scandinavians).

A noticeable layer was a more or less personally dependent population, sharply separated from the free one. In the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, these were years close to the Roman colons, and similar to the slaves Sue and Huili (apparently part of the local Celts who lost their land and freedom). Among the Scandinavians, the layer of trails and columns in the period under review was formed mainly by captives. In the households of ordinary community members, as a rule, household slaves (servants) were used, probably performing auxiliary functions. Slaves, unfree and semi-free people also worked on the estates of the nobility. The role of slaves in the formation of feudal relations in Scandinavia and Britain was very significant.

The different social status of individual layers was reflected in the size of the weregelds. According to the Kentish Truth (VI century), for the murder of a curl they paid 200 shillings, an earl - 400 shillings, for a gezita (from the end of the 7th century) - 600 shillings; and for leta, ulu, uila - from 40 to 80 shillings.

Slowly (in England no earlier than the middle of the 7th century, in Scandinavia later) the transition from a large family to a neighboring community took place. In Scandinavia, due to the peculiarities of natural conditions, occupations and the method of settlement, such a community often took on looser forms. In Jutland and the Danish Islands, where village settlements have been recorded since the beginning of the new era, the classic neighborhood community - the mark - developed. A community of this type also developed in Britain, gradually destroying the family community. The territory occupied during the settlement process became the common land of the conquerors - folkland. Its supreme manager was the king, who allocated land to the family nobility and warriors. The territories of individual communities were considered part of the folkland. Arable lands were distributed for hereditary use among free family groups.

The land of the neighboring community consisted of many scattered plots, lying in stripes in accordance with the system of fields adopted here - in two (less often in three) fields. The totality of such plots received by the curl (with his large or small family) in each field constituted his inalienable allotment. Usually it was equal to a guide - on average about 50 hectares (an area that could be cultivated by a team of eight oxen). However, the earls had estates of 40 hyd, the Gesits - 3-20 hyd. Royal entourage sometimes received hundreds of guides - entire regions. The land was shared by community members; cattle were grazed in fallows (the “open fields” system) and forced crop rotation. The property of a curl could not be alienated without the consent of the community and the closest relatives - members of the extended family.

As the individual family and large landholdings developed, the original equality of the Curls was broken down. Some of them began to fall into land and personal dependence. Royal power strongly contributed to the growth of large landownership. Already in the VII-VIII centuries. English kings began to distribute separate territories they served their people and churches under special charters (sides) for a term, for life, less often in hereditary management (under their judicial power) and in “feeding” (receiving part of the royal levies and fines). The holders of such land (bockland) were called glafords (later lords), which means lord, lord. People performing military and other service to the king, clergy and church institutions - holders of Bockland - began to be exempt from taxes. At first, Buckland was not their land property, but a kind of immune district. But, having broad judicial and fiscal rights in it, Glaford gradually made the curls, especially the impoverished ones, into land dependence. They were given land for use - for the payment of corvee labor and dues. The distribution of Bocklands became one of the main ways of establishing large feudal landownership in England. But a strong community slowed down the decomposition of the free peasantry and the process of feudalization. Essentially in Britain until the 9th century. Neither the allod nor the precarious worked out. State exploitation prevailed until the 10th century.

These processes were slowed down to an even greater extent on the Scandinavian Peninsula. The natural conditions of the European North, unfavorable for the development of agriculture, contributed to the long preservation there of the North German tradition of isolated single-yard or farm settlements, owned by a large family that also owned slaves. Initially, the union of several large families - patronymy - apparently represented a clan - ett among the Northern Scandinavians. Such lineages probably inhabited the "great" or "long" houses that covered Scandinavia in the first centuries AD. and remained in Sweden until the 6th century, and in Norway until the 7th century. Villages in Northern Europe arose no later than the 1st millennium, but remained scattered and small in size - from 3 to 8 courtyards.

The possession of a karl or bond - odal (“property”) was the inalienable collective property of a large family. Even in the conditions of feudal relations, the Norwegians retained the concept of “inherited land from ancient times.” Swedish laws distinguished the so-called arv as part of real estate - land inherited in the family for at least two generations. The supreme right of land ownership here also initially belonged to the tribe, and then passed to the kings. Owning an odal gave the bond full civil rights, which distinguished him from the aliens, slaves, and freedmen who settled on the territory of the farm or village. Odahl, like the English folkland, could not be alienated without the consent of a certain circle of relatives, but he was less dependent on the neighboring community. The Scandinavian community was generally less clearly defined; it did not know the system of “open fields”, striping and forced crop rotation, but its collective property had common lands - almennings (“possessions of all people”), which it disposed of. To a certain extent, the neighboring community also regulated the ownership of arable land, since plots of arable land were cut out of the almenning for those community members who did not have enough of it, land for newcomers, etc. With the help of neighboring communities, defensive structures were built for entire regions; neighbors gathered for gatherings and to perform religious rites, and went on campaigns together.

Bonds formed the backbone, the support of Old Norse society. But along with them, there were already dozens of personally dependent people who served every estate of a noble man, and often the households of simple bonds. In addition, among the free Scandinavians there were land-poor and landless poor people - Husmans. Already by virtue of their lack of land, they were doomed to lack full rights in the community. At the other pole of society was the clan nobility. The power and wealth of the Scandinavian family nobility, especially the kings, is evidenced by the “large mounds” in Swedish Upland and in South-Eastern Norway. The composition of this upper stratum is already beginning to expand to include military service people.

In the process of settlement, inter-tribal struggle and conquest, the tribal homogeneity of the Germans of the North-Western region was destroyed. A territorial administrative structure emerged. Several communities united into districts - hundreds (English hundert, Scand. hund, later hundari), each with its own gathering. The centenary division had a direct connection with the military organization of the population - the military militia of community members. Hundreds united into larger areas that occupied the lands of former tribal associations. In Sweden these were lands, in England - shires (future counties), in Norway - counties. The affairs of the region, accordingly, were decided at its people's assembly - the Volksmot of the Anglo-Saxons, the Volksmet or the Folketing of the Scandinavians. The elected guardian who headed the regional gathering - lagman (“guardian of the law”) of the Scandinavians and ealdorman (“senior man”) of the Anglo-Saxons had significant powers and authority.

Supreme power, in particular the right of the highest court, belonged to the kings. They also performed, apparently, sacred functions. And although the crown was inherited by the royal family, succession to the throne was formalized through elections, and its order was often violated. In the North German epic, the king (rig, herm, rigr) is the recognized son of God, who received from him his power, property and, as it were, “creating society” power.

Under the Anglo-Saxon kings, a council of magnates was assembled, the so-called “council of the wise” (uitenagemot), which also participated in the election of kings. A similar body - the council of nobles (family) arose among the Scandinavians.

In return for guarantees of peace and protection, the performance of military and sacred functions, kings begin to receive the first, earliest tax from their fellow tribesmen. First there is a crowd, gifts, feeding - a feast; in Scandinavia - skatt and weitzla, respectively, in England - firm or “money” (geld). Tributes and all other taxes were delivered to tax collection points or to the king's residence. In each estate, the king lived for a certain time along with the court and a certain number of warriors, consuming what was collected. In England, a company in the 7th century. All free peasants paid. The unit of taxation was the usual allotment of the curl - guide. Nobles and church institutions, receiving bokland, enjoyed fiscal privileges. State levies dominated the exploitation of peasants. The kings, in addition, received income in the form of duties from foreign trade, as well as tribute - “gifts” from the leaders of the subject tribes. But the most stable and regular income of the kings was from the emerging domain and his own (family) estates, which the rulers expanded in every way.

Thus, by the VII-VIII centuries. the main features of the tribal system among the peoples of the North-Western region have already disappeared. The independence and equality of all members of the tribe were violated, and early statehood began to take shape. However, vestiges of military democracy persisted in the region much longer than in continental Europe.

The beliefs, morals and ideology of the pagan Scandinavians until the end of the 1st millennium retained the features of a warlike and free barbarian world. The custom of blood feud was strictly observed. The Supreme God Odin, as well as the gods Thor, Frey and Freya, the Ases (later goddesses of fertility) and other gods personified the supreme power over the world; they protected the family hearth and the weak, and patronized the brave. Like the clan nobility, they spent their time in wars and robberies. Only those who fell on the battlefield were allowed into Odin's abode, Valhalla - the desired afterlife of the Scandinavians. Great importance was attached to the burial ritual. For reasons of prestige, a king or a noble person was buried in a boat (for they imitated it with stones laid in the ground) or in high mounds. In Scandinavia, godi priests usually belonged to the nobility, and the power of kings was also sacred in nature.

Only in England in the early Middle Ages was Christianity already known, although even here it was introduced with difficulty: the Christianization of the Anglo-Saxons, which began in 597, was basically completed only by the end of the 7th century. The earlier Christianization of this subregion corresponded to a more rapid development of early feudal relations and, in turn, as in other regions, contributed to this process and the strengthening of the early feudal state in England.

VIKING AGE (END OF VIII - FIRST HALF OF XI CENTURY)

From the middle of the 8th century. the process of class formation in Scandinavia led to an outbreak of activity and a new “outburst” of the population of the subregion beyond its borders. The Viking Age (793-1066) was characterized by widespread Scandinavian expansion in Europe. The Scandinavians, who in Europe were usually called Normans (and in Rus' also Varangians), settled the large islands of the North Atlantic, created their colonies and principalities in Britain, Northern France, Southern Italy and Sicily, founded a settlement in North America, served as combatants and warriors in Rus' and Byzantium, reaching the Volga region and the Baghdad Caliphate. In the history of the North-West region, the Viking Age was characterized by the acceleration of the genesis of feudal relations, more effective in England, then in Denmark, less so in Sweden, Norway, Ireland, and Scotland.

The decomposition of the tribal system, the development of the individual family and the formation of statehood sharply intensified the struggle between individual layers of Scandinavian society. But above all, they gave rise to relative overpopulation and an acute shortage of the means of subsistence, the stable source of which was the land. The possibilities of internal colonization, which began in Northern Europe in the 8th century, were greatly limited natural conditions. This stimulated the desire to “expand” beyond its territory. The Norwegians organized their military-trade expeditions against their northern neighbors - the Sami (Lapps), imposing tribute on them or directly seizing their lands. The Swedes operated mainly on the Finnish coast and in the Baltic states, receiving tribute from the local population in furs, skins, and whalebone, which the Vikings sold “overseas.”

In search of places suitable for settlement, especially for peasant colonization, the Scandinavians turned their attention to the richer territories of Europe. Fishermen, sea hunters, brave sailors and skilled shipbuilders were not embarrassed by long voyages.

At the core military organization The Vikings had two components: the militia (ledung) and the ship. The Scandinavians built maneuverable single-masted ships (drakens) with oars and sails, up to 23 m or more in length and 5 m in width, with a sculpture of a dragon on the bow. Often tens and hundreds of ships gathered on a voyage. The Vikings were well armed; everyone had long sword and a knife, a battle ax and a pike, an iron helmet, metal chain mail and a shield.

The outfitting of ships was carried out by bonds united into ship districts. The bonds formed a team-detachment - up to 60-100 adult warriors. The ships were loaded with riding horses (for movement on land), supplies of fresh water and food, including live cattle. The warriors hung their shields along the sides of the ship and sat on the oars. The teams were usually led by a noble person - a jarl, and the big ledung - by the king or members of his family. Noble Scandinavians had their own ships and went on campaigns with their retinue.

From the end of the 8th century. episodic Viking pirate raids on ships and villages of the nearest coasts are replaced by regular massive and organized campaigns, sometimes with the aim of capturing new territories. At the beginning of the 10th century. The activity of Viking expansion declines due to the need to master what was already captured, as well as due to resistance from the consolidated European states. The last outbreak of Viking military activity occurred at the end of the 10th - beginning of the 11th century.

Most ledungs ​​were attended by representatives of various North Germanic tribes. But still, the Danes and Norwegians went mainly to Western Europe, the Swedes - to Eastern Europe. The most important for the local population were the Viking conquests in Britain, where the Danes and Norwegians played the main role, but the Swedes and Gotlanders also participated. In 793, the Danes, as all Vikings were called in Britain, destroyed a monastery on the island of Lindisfarne off the coast of Northumbria. Without encountering serious resistance from the Anglo-Saxons, in 866 they took York, Rochester, London and other cities, destroyed many settlements, while destroying the Christian clergy and reviving paganism. Most of the country was in the hands of the Danes: half of Northumbria and Mercia, East Anglia and Essex. Northwestern Northumbria at the same time fell into the hands of the Norwegians, who invaded there from Ireland, where in the 30s of the 9th century. Viking prince Olav created a kingdom centered in Dublin. Now the Vikings began to settle in the occupied territories, bringing families and settling especially in the eastern and northern regions of England, which became the “Area of ​​Danish Law” (English: Denloe, Scand: Danelaw).

Similarly, the Vikings colonized the east coast of Ireland and East and West Scotland. They established their own rules on the conquered lands, imposed local population tribute - “Danish money”, with which it paid off new raids of the Scandinavians. Among the Anglo-Saxons, the Danes quickly assimilated, which was facilitated by the adoption of Christianity by the Scandinavians Denlo. But their dominance left a significant imprint on the development of Denlo; Eastern and North-Eastern England remained more backward throughout most of the Middle Ages, with a larger stratum of free peasantry.

Under King Alfred the Great (871-899 or 900), the Anglo-Saxons, having created a strong fleet, a fortification system and a land army, stopped the Norman advances in the liberation struggle and began to recapture England. By the 70s of the 10th century. England was united again, including Denlo. Since the 90s, under the English king Ethelred the Undecided (978-1016), the Vikings, strengthened by the formation of three large, united kingdoms in Scandinavia, resumed attacks on England. After the death of Ethelred, the Danish king Cnut the Great became king of England (1016-1035), made it his support and the center of a huge power, which also included Denmark and Schleswig (1018-1035), Norway (1030-1035), the southern part of the Scandinavian Peninsula (Skåne, Halland, Blekinge). However, after the death of King Canute, his empire fell apart. In England, his sons Harald ruled for some time, then Hardacnut, but then the nobility elected his son Ethelred Edward (1042-1066) as king. Later, in 1066, the Norwegian king Harald Hardrad (the Terrible) attempted to seize the country, but was defeated by the English at Stamfordbridge.

Around 1001, the leader of Munster (Southern Ireland), Brian Boroime, became the paramount chief (king) of the Irish tribes. This was the end of Danish rule in Ireland. Ireland remained independent until the capture of part of the country by English feudal lords at the end of the 12th century.

Formed in the same XI century. (also during the liberation struggle against the Normans) the kingdom of Scotland retained its independence until the end of the 13th century.

Simultaneously with their conquests in Britain, the Danes and Norwegians began plundering and conquering the coasts of continental Europe. They, mainly Danes, created the Duchy of Normandy, a vassal of France, at the mouth of the Seine (911). It was from Normandy in 1066 that the last conquest of England in history was carried out.

The Norse were active mainly in Celtic Ireland and Scotland. They established a foothold in Orkney and Shetland, which they began to settle before the Viking Age; mastered the Isle of Man, the Hebrides and Faroe Islands, and reached Spitsbergen. In 874, the Norwegians began settling the deserted island, which they called the “Ice Country” - Iceland. By 930, they occupied and divided vast coastal areas suitable for habitation. Economic and social relations on the island retained their pre-feudal character. Magnificent sailors, Icelanders in the 80s of the 10th century. settled in Greenland, and at the end of 1000 the noble Viking Leif Eiriksson landed in North America, where Scandinavian colonies existed in the first third of the 12th century.

The bulk of the multi-tribal Vikings in Eastern Europe and Byzantium were Swedes, who in Rus' were called Varangians (and the Baltic Sea - Varangian). The most important sphere of their activity in Rus' gradually became trade and service in the squads of princes. In general, the Vikings were widely engaged in barter trade, trade transit and the sale of loot, growing rich at this expense. The Vikings also went on special trading expeditions. The Swedes traded most actively, moving along the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” and along the Volga to the Bulgars, Khazars and Trans-Caspian peoples.

In foreign territories, the more feudalized Danes preferred to seize cultural territories and, not limiting themselves to receiving tribute, to conduct arable farming there, and sometimes adopted the feudal customs of local societies. The Norwegians either captured the pre-feudal outskirts, where they collected tribute, or colonized uninhabited lands, even far away; there they were engaged not in agriculture, but in shepherding and sea fishing. The Swedes imposed tribute and partially captured the underdeveloped areas of the Baltic region, and were introduced into the more developed and rich environment of Rus' and, to a lesser extent, Byzantium, primarily as service people and traders. In Northwestern Europe, the Viking campaigns contributed to the formation of a unified state in England and accelerated the development of class society, the feudal state, church organization and urban system among the Scandinavians.

THE FORMATION OF FEUDAL RELATIONS IN ENGLAND

In the second half of the early medieval period, the development of the British subregion became even more uneven. Among the Celts, primarily in the areas of Ireland and Scotland untouched by the Normans, and to a lesser extent on the peninsulas of Wales and Cornwall, the tribal (clan) system still dominated.

The social development of England was increasingly accelerating. In the 9th - first half of the 11th century. The feudal system in England becomes leading. Kings are increasingly practicing the distribution of empty lands, as well as lands inhabited by curls, to their ministerials, Gesit warriors (later - thegns); the Bocklands (see above) are increasingly assigned to the Glafords, who become large landowners, owners of granted land (from the end of the 9th century - with the right of free alienation) and lords of the people living there. Church institutions gradually became large landowners, also at the expense of royal grants.

The situation of the peasants has changed seriously. In the 9th century. Individual ownership of the community member’s allotment with the right of alienation already arises (similar to the Frankish allod). With its emergence and the separation of small families, the fragmentation of plots occurs: if a large family usually owned a gaida, then an individual family owned a virgata (a quarter of a gaida, about 10.25 acres). This stimulated property stratification among the free Anglo-Saxons; and the continuous robberies and extortions of the Normans, the increase in payments in favor of the feudal lords and the state contributed to the ruin of many curls.

Under these conditions, not only peasants of unfree origin (colons-uili), but also the descendants of the curls, personally free genites, and partly geburahs found themselves in land dependence on the Glafords (see below). By paying dues or bearing corvée for a land plot received from the master, the Geburahs lost their full rights and found themselves attached to the land. If Glaford received from the king the right of jurisdiction over the immune territory (the so-called juice), then all its inhabitants also became judicially dependent on the landowner. Gradually this territory turned into a fiefdom. From the first half of the 10th century. a person who did not have a lord, according to the “Laws of Athelstan,” was obliged to urgently “find himself a lord.”

In the middle of the 10th century, according to King Edmund's Truth, land-dependent peasants were already considered incompetent. The level of patrimonial exploitation of peasants was significant. Treatise of the first half of the 11th century. “On the Rights and Duties of Various Persons” gives an idea of ​​the manor of a middle-class feudal lord of that time. It distinguishes three main categories of peasantry: 1) genits - previously free curls who found themselves dependent on the lord - the owner of the bokland. They paid a number of small payments in kind, carried out some of the master’s instructions (“on horseback”), but at the same time were obliged to the king for mounted military service; 2) geburahs - peasants who were in heavy land dependence (since they sat on the lord’s land). They apparently descended from slaves or uileys, but sometimes from curls who had lost their rights to allotment. The Geburahs carried out the heaviest corvee labor, including field labor (2-3 days a week), and made many payments in kind and in cash. This category of dependent peasants, sitting on a medium-sized plot of land, bore the main burden of cultivating the lord's land; 3) kotters (kossetli, kotsetli) were holders of the same type, but with small land plots. They also carried out weekly corvée, but to a lesser extent, as well as many small payments. The Cotters came from broke free people, former slaves and freedmen. On the manor's estate, the labor of yard slaves was sometimes used.

However, by the end of the early medieval period, feudal estates in England had not yet become widespread. The manorial structure was characteristic primarily of large landownership in Middle England, and in the country as a whole it was small holdings and a transitional form of fiefdom that predominated, which was based primarily on the labor of household slaves.

A feature of early feudalism in England was the large proportion of the free peasantry. A significant part of it was still in the X-XI centuries. retained not only personal freedom, but also the right to land, the rights and responsibilities of a community member and a militia member. The preservation of a significant category of free, full-fledged small landowners, who stood, as it were, between the peasants and small patrimonial landowners, did not allow individual social categories to become isolated. According to the treatise of the 10th - early 11th centuries. “On secular differences and the law,” a merchant who “sailed overseas three times,” or a free curl who possessed certain property and land qualifications (5th land guide), could, on the condition of serving the king, become a heavily armed warrior - thegn. Undeveloped until the end of the 11th century. vassal-feudal and immune relations also remained.

From the end of the 8th century. the successes of the feudalization process and the expansion of the Normans stimulated the political unification of the Anglo-Saxons and the strengthening of the early feudal state. King of Wessex, which was least destroyed by the Scandinavian invasions and turned into a stronghold of anti-Norman resistance, from the 9th century. became razvalda - “Lord of Britain”. Under King Ecbert in 829, the history of the united early feudal English state began.

In the 70-90s of the 9th century. under King Alfred the Great, this state strengthened significantly, and the fight against the Danes also contributed to internal consolidation. Along the country's borders, especially along the coast, up to 30 forts grew. The first English fleet is created - over 100 “long” (60 or more oars) ships, more stable and fast than the Scandinavian ones. The ground forces are also being reorganized. It mainly consisted of peasant militia. However, the main fighting force of the army was now professional, heavily armed mounted warriors, each of whom owned 5 guides of land. They had metal armor and came to duty accompanied by several infantrymen. The heavily armed cavalry army also included thegns and large feudal lords, including spiritual lords, with their troops. The thegns, basically the predecessors of future knights, who received land from the king for their service, now made up the majority of the feudal lords and became the mainstay of royal power.

Under Alfred, the first all-English legislation, “The Truth of King Alfred” (c. 890), was created, which unified and revised, in accordance with the conditions of the 9th century, the provisions of the previous legal codes of Wessex, Mercia, and Kent. This legislation portrays a society whose tribal basis has already been destroyed. Construction and military duties, as well as taxes, fall heavily on the Kerls, whose legal status is reduced. In the middle of the 10th century, under King Edgar (959-975), the name “Engla land,” which previously designated only the possessions of the Wessex kings, spread to the entire country, and its inhabitants began to be called English. At the beginning of the 11th century. The Danish king Canute the Great became king of England (1016-1035), making it his support and the center of a huge power, which included Denmark and Schleswig (1018-1035), Norway (1030-1035), and the southern regions of the Scandinavian Peninsula. In an effort to gain a foothold in England, Cnut the Great objectively contributed to the strengthening of English feudal statehood. In his code (“Laws of Knut”), he confirmed the privileges of the feudal lords and the judicial dependence of the peasants on them. Government under Knut and his successors, sons, was perceived by the masses as main source operation. In 1041, the rebellious population killed the tax collectors of the Danish king Hardaknut (1040-1042), in 1051-1052. A widespread rebellion arose in the country against the English king Edward the Confessor demanding “fair laws.” After the death of this last Anglo-Saxon king, during the outbreak of unrest, Duke William of Normandy emerged among the contenders for the English throne. At the end of September 1066, his powerful army (5 thousand soldiers, 2 thousand of them heavily armed), which gathered knights from all over France, concentrated on the shore of the English Channel. Up to 700 transport barges were prepared. Having loaded soldiers, horses, and food onto them, Duke William crossed the strait and landed on the English coast. On October 14 of the same year, in a battle near the port of Hastings, the knightly army of the Normans completely defeated the hastily assembled peasant militia of the Anglo-Saxons. At the end of 1066, the Duke of Normandy was anointed king at Westminster and became King William I of England.

§ 6. Europe in the early Middle Ages (V – X centuries) The origin of medieval civilization. European medieval history can be divided into two periods: the early Middle Ages (V - X centuries) - the formation of a new civilization as a result of the interaction of ancient heritage with

EARLY MIDDLE AGES Banniard, Michel, Genèse culturelle de l’Europe, Ve-VIIIe siècle, Paris, Seuil, 1989. Brown, Peter, L’Essor du christianisme occidental. Triomphe et diversit?, Paris, Seuil, 1997 (translated from English). Herrin, Judith, The Formation of Christendom, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1987. Hillgarth J. N., ed., The Conversion of Western Europe, 350– 750, Englewood Cliffs, Prentice Hall, 1969.Leguay, Jean-Pierre, L'Europe des ?tats