Methods of conducting forensic psychological examination. Methods of psychodiagnostics in expert research. Reasons for mandatory appointment of a forensic psychological examination

There are four relatively independent memory processes and four corresponding functions: memorization, preservation, reproduction and forgetting.

Memorization is the process of capturing (recording) information that can be presented in the form of sensations, images, thoughts, emotional experiences, movements, practical actions, and acts of communication. Based on memorization, life experience expands and mental development of a person, his formation as a person, as a subject of activity. Memorization is an active process, its source is the needs and motives of the individual. It is associated with the activity of the subject and the awareness of the facts necessary for the activity.

A number of factors influence the effectiveness of memorization: Meaningfulness of the material . In experiments by Guilford and McGeach, it was proven that a person spends less time memorizing meaningful material than cramming meaningless material. And, indeed, when we comprehend the material, it is remembered better.

In the works of A.A. Smirnova, V.Ya. Lyaudis, V.D. Shadrikov and other scientists show the role of specially organized actions during memorization, acting as mnemonic devices or ways to remember in educational activities: material grouping for any reason; identification of strong points(title, abstract, questions, etc.); planning as a set of strongholds; classification– distribution of phenomena and objects into classes, groups based on certain common characteristics; structuring– establishment relative position parts, internal structure memorable, schematization – an image or description of something; analogy - establishing the similarity or likeness of objects or phenomena; recoding– verbalization or pronunciation, presentation of information in figurative form, transformation of information, completion of memorized material and the introduction into it by the subject of something from other areas; serial organization of material– establishment of intergroup relations, connections, etc.

Plays a special role repetition . It allows you to: 1) retain information for a long time; 2) transfer information from short-term memory to long-term memory; 3) strengthen memory traces. When memorizing material, it is necessary to organize it correctly, distributing repetitions over time. R. Yost experimentally proved: if the material is such that it can be learned with a small number of repetitions, then the method of concentrated memorization should be used, and if necessary big number repetitions, then the distributed learning method with a sufficient number of repetitions turns out to be more economical.

Plays a huge role in memorization motivation , which is associated with the interests, inclinations of the individual, his attitude to certain activities, and emotional mood. Experiments by Z.M. Istomina showed that maximum level Memorization achieves in a situation of practical activity, high motivation for its implementation.

Memory setting. It should be noted that activities aimed at memorization can be no less difficult than understanding the material. This especially applies to learning concepts and definitions. The lack of a memorization mindset and lack of motivation to remember this or that material affects the performance results (for example, an exam). Moreover, it is important to remember the setting for a long time.

Preservation is the accumulation of material in memory. This process helps to keep the life experience gained and, in particular, the personality as a whole from falling apart. Its subject is not only knowledge, abilities and skills, but also any personal education. Preservation gives intelligent meaning to remembering because what is important is preserved. This is not a simple conservation of material, but an active process during which information is continuously processed and structured.

There are various ways to organize information in memory: spatial organization, it allows you to establish support connections and “reference points” in physical and social space (allows you to find the right word in the dictionary, navigate the days of the week, months, etc.); associative organization– grouping of elements with any common features(for example, by first letter, etc.); hierarchical organization, when each element of information belongs to a certain level depending on which category - more general or more specific - it corresponds to (according to Godefroy).

Retention of material is ensured by meaningful memorization, as well as active repetition. Interesting data were obtained in 1924 by Jenkins and Dallenbach. Scientists have proven that daily activities speeds up forgetting, while sleep improves memory due to its inherent ability to consolidate memory traces. Therefore, the Russian proverb is not accidental: “The morning is wiser than the evening.”

In experiments conducted in 1924-1926. in the laboratory of K. Levin by our compatriot B.V. Zeigarnik, when studying the memorization and resumption of interrupted actions, it was proven that an action that remained unfinished is stored in our memory. On the contrary, we forget a completed action ( unfinished effect).

Playback- this is the revival, updating of connections previously formed in the brain by extraction from long-term memory and transfer to operational memory. The following forms of reproduction are distinguished:

Recognition– occurs when objects are re-perceived. It always connects our experience with new situations in life and makes it possible to correctly navigate the surrounding reality. Recognition plays a huge role in the processes of human self-identification, being a condition for the individual’s self-awareness.

Recall– the most active form of memory. The effectiveness of recall depends on the clarity of the tasks and the degree of logical ordering of the information stored in memory. Difficulties that arise during recall are often due to the fact that at the right moment the symbol-means necessary for recall was not available. Proper organization of memorized information increases the efficiency of recall. The context in which the memorization took place plays a huge role. Therefore, recreating identical conditions will contribute to better recall of the material.

Actual reproduction (or memory)– is carried out in the absence of an object of perception. It can be involuntary and voluntary, purposeful. Voluntary reproduction is caused by the reproductive task that a person sets for himself. Sometimes remembering can be very difficult, especially when there are no reference points or objects. Therefore, it is always easier to learn information, but this “ease” actually indicates the person’s existing level of memory. Therefore, educational tests in which you need to choose the correct answer more accurately reflect the level of knowledge than direct questions.

In the studies of the French psychologist A. Pieron in 1913, it was proven that the reproduction of learned material is better 2 - 3 days after memorization. This effect is called reminiscence .

Reminiscence represents a quantitative improvement in retention during subsequent reproductions of material without additional exercises and repetitions of what has been memorized. It’s like an involuntary reproduction of material that already seemed forgotten.

Forgetting is the process of freeing a person from unnecessary experience or knowledge. Forgetting is any inability to retrieve information.

G. Ebbinghaus was the first to study changes in memory over time. He proved that stored information begins to decline sharply immediately after memorization. Further decline slows down and stops at approximately the same level (20% of the material) after a month. The criterion for forgetting is subjective and lies in the individual himself, in his needs, interests, life goals and tasks. Sometimes a person forgets what he needs. In this regard, we must remember that the meaningfulness and significance of this or that knowledge for a person allows us to avoid this fact.

Forgetting performs a series essential functions in the human psyche. First, it protects the brain from information overload. Secondly, forgetting useless information makes it easier to access useful information. Thirdly, forgetting performs a special psychotherapeutic work, freeing us from the burden of unpleasant, traumatic experiences.

There are a number factors that influence forgetting.

Forgetting material is associated with person's age: in older people, mechanical imprinting begins to deteriorate, figurative memory weakens, and a decrease in the volume of memorization is observed. However, what is significant and connected with current activities, professional and everyday skills mastered in the process of life, is forgotten less.

Forgetting sometimes occurs because an event is described in our minds in a way that does not distinguish it from others, and therefore cannot be retrieved in memory. For example, when a student before an exam learns all the material “in one sitting” without differentiating it, it can be very difficult to remember a specific question.

Important role plays a role in the nature of the information and the frequency of access to it. If we do not repeat the acquired knowledge and do not use it in experience, it is forgotten. So, for example, foreign languages. A large number of people don't use them after graduation educational institution and forgets. On the contrary, what is important to us is associated with interest and is forgotten less.

Interesting studies have been carried out by Gestalt psychologists in the field forgetting intentions(the so-called “forgetfulness” of a person) Sometimes we forget an intention because it has not moved from short-term memory further into long-term memory (for example, we must convey information to a friend and forget about it) - we're talking about about the insufficient duration of the intention.

Associated with forgetting interference phenomenon, which is interpreted as a violation of memorization, due to the overlap of one material with another. There are several types of interference:

a) proactive interference is associated with events that occurred before memorization (for example, important or emotionally significant information communicated initially interferes with subsequent concentration and memorization);

b) negative transfer during learning (for example, a previously learned method of solving makes it difficult to master a new one);

c) the influence on memorization of homogeneous activity (when immediately after studying one material we take on another, similar to it, for example, studying two in a row foreign languages);

d) retroactive interference, it is associated with the fact that if immediately after mastering knowledge or acquiring a skill we begin a new, and especially relatively similar activity, new material will overlap the old one and displace it. This phenomenon will not occur when performing different activities or when performing very similar activities (for example, when studying two sections of one textbook or when, after studying psychology, we comprehend mathematics, however, if after psychology we begin to study philosophy, then we will remember the first one worse) .

Playback And recognition- processes of restoration of what was previously perceived. The difference between them is that recognition occurs upon a repeated encounter with an object, upon its repeated perception, while reproduction occurs in the absence of the object.

Playback can be involuntary And arbitrary. Involuntary is an unintentional reproduction, without the goal of remembering, when images emerge by themselves, most often by association. Voluntary reproduction is a purposeful process of restoring past thoughts, feelings, aspirations, and actions in consciousness. Sometimes spontaneous reproduction occurs easily, sometimes it requires effort. Conscious reproduction associated with overcoming known difficulties, requiring volitional efforts, is called recollection.

The qualities of memory are most clearly revealed during reproduction. It is the result of both memorization and retention. We can judge memorization and preservation only by reproduction. Reproduction is not a simple mechanical repetition of what is captured. Reconstruction occurs, i.e. mental processing of the material: the presentation plan changes, the main thing is highlighted, inserted additional material, known from other sources.

The success of reproduction depends on the ability to restore the connections that were formed during memorization, and on the ability to use the plan during reproduction.

Physiological basis recognition and reproduction - revitalization of traces of previous excitations in the cerebral cortex. With recognition, the trace of excitement that was trodden during memorization is revived.

Reproduction forms:

Ø recognition - a manifestation of memory that occurs when an object is re-perceived;

Ø memory, which occurs in the absence of perception of the object;

Ø recall, which is the most active form of reproduction, largely dependent on the clarity of the tasks assigned, on the degree of logical ordering of the information remembered and stored in the DP;

Ø reminiscence - delayed reproduction of something previously perceived that seemed forgotten;

Ø eidetism - visual memory, long-lasting bright image with all the details of what was perceived.

Recognition of any object occurs at the moment of its perception and means that the perception of an object occurs, the idea of ​​​​which was formed in a person either on the basis of personal impressions (memory representation), or on the basis verbal descriptions(imagination). Recognition processes differ from each other in their degree of certainty. Recognition is least certain in cases where we experience only feeling of familiarity object, but we cannot identify it with anything from past experience. Such cases are characterized uncertainty of recognition. There are many similarities between definite and indefinite recognition. Both of these variants of recognition unfold gradually, and therefore they are often close to recollection, and therefore are a complex mental and volitional process.

Memorization is a mnemonic process through which incoming information is selectively selected for subsequent reproduction and included in already existing system associative connections. It is characteristic of a person that the development of his memory occurs, first of all, due to the meaningful processing of memorized information. If in early childhood If, first of all, direct memorization is realized, then later, through the use of mediating elements, the formation of mediated memory occurs, which is decisive in the life of an adult. Positive role systematic repetition plays a role in memorization when the original elements are included in new system associative connections.

Storage is the accumulation of material in memory. For long-term storage, as in an archive, an organization is required that would allow not only classification, but also quick retrieval of information. What a person remembers is stored by the brain for a more or less long time. Storage as a memory process has its own laws. It has been established that storage can be dynamic and static. Dynamic storage manifests itself in random access memory, and static – in long-term. During dynamic storage, the material changes little; during static storage, on the contrary, it must undergo reconstruction and processing.

The storage of information and its modification can only be judged by recognition and reproduction.

Recognition is the recognition, as already known, of an object that is in the center of actual perception. This process is based on the comparison of perceived features with the corresponding memory traces, which act as standards for the identification features of the perceived object.

Highlight:

· individual recognition of an object, as repeated perception of a particular object;

· generic recognition of an object, when a newly perceived object can be attributed to some class of objects.

In a more complex form, recognition appears as the reproduction in the representation of objects that are not currently given in actual perception.

Reproduction is a mnemonic process in which previously formed psychological content (thoughts, images, feelings, movements) is updated. Reproduction is selective in nature, determined by needs, direction of activity, and current experiences. During reproduction, a significant restructuring of what is perceived usually occurs, so that the original content loses a number of minor details and acquires a generalized character corresponding to the tasks being solved. Due to the effects of reminiscence and interference, reproduction immediately after the perception of memorized material (direct reproduction) does not always give best result compared to delayed.

Forgetting is the loss of the ability to reproduce previously received information. There are several theories of forgetting.

Attenuation theory. Information from short-term memory can be transferred to long-term memory through repetition. If information is not used or repeated, it will be forgotten over time. As a result of information processing, a “trace” appears - a certain change in the nervous tissue; this trace fades away when not used.

Interference theory. Associative connections are formed between specific stimuli and specific reactions, which are stored in memory for so long until other competing information interferes with them. When studying interference, retroactive and proactive inhibition receive the most attention. Retroactive inhibition manifests itself in the effect of suppression of old material by new, and proactive inhibition - in the suppression of new material by old.

The theory of situational forgetting. Failure to recall information does not necessarily mean that memories are lost, but that they may be inaccessible due to a mismatch between features during encoding and features during retrieval [Solso, 2006].

Recognition - Mental process, located at the intersection of memory, thinking and perception, which consists in the ability of perception to quite quickly interpret images as already familiar, having certain connections in memory. In recognition (as in reproduction) imprinting and memorization are manifested.

Recognition, in comparison with reproduction, is an earlier manifestation (at least in human ontogenesis). In recognition, perception and the processes of preservation and reproduction are presented in an as yet undivided unity. Without recognition, perception cannot exist as a conscious, meaningful process. At the same time, recognition is also preservation and reproduction within perception.

In the process of recognition from perception, that activity of correlation, comparing the sensory qualities of the image arising in the process of perception with the object, which is already contained in perception, stands out and comes to the fore. Any perception, as an act of cognition, contains, in a more or less hidden form, a correlation, a comparison of the image that appears in perception with an object. When it is not this activity that is represented in consciousness, but its result, there is perception; when this activity comes to the fore in consciousness, the whole process appears as recognition.

Recognition can occur on several levels. The most basic primary form recognition - automatic recognition in action. This first stage of recognition manifests itself in the form of an adequate response to the primary stimulus. Typical example- when we automatically greet a person, and only after that do we remember what kind of person we met. Another example is when we see a ball flying at us, we automatically put out our hands to catch it; if a weight were flying at us, we would take a step to the side to avoid it. Such recognition in action is possible without recognition in the form of conscious identification of a new perception with the previous one.

The next stage of recognition is forms that are associated with a feeling of familiarity, without the possibility, however, of identifying a recognized object with a previously perceived one. The subject may feel that this object is not the one or that the word that turned up to him is not the one he is looking for, but at the same time the subject is not able to define this object or name the right word. In these cases, it is partly true that we recognize things not so much by their signs, but by the feelings that they arouse in us.

The third stage of recognition is identification of the object. An object given to a subject in one context, in one situation, is isolated from this situation and identified with an object given earlier in another context. Such recognition actually presupposes the formalization of perception in a concept, that is, the correlation of an object with one or another concept. This correlation can be made at various levels and for various reasons. But in all cases this is a more or less complex cognitive act.

S. L. Rubinstein notes that recognition refers to the process of perception. But at the same time, it is closely connected with both memory and thinking. In a sense, recognition is an act of thinking in its expanded form.

The recognition process may have different shapes. In some cases, it is performed on the basis of ideas or memories of specific situation, in which this or a similar object was perceived in the past. In other cases, recognition is generic (generic) in nature, based on the concept of the corresponding category of objects.