Psychological laws and their classification. Laws of psychology - summary. Specifics of psychological causation

15. Control functions goal setting, planning, organization, coordination (or regulation), stimulation (motivation) and control.

1) The function of goal setting is to develop basic, current and long-term goals of activity. Life does not stand still, so every this moment the manager must compare his activities with the real situation in society, in the departments of the organization, with the “neighbors,” and with the decisions of senior managers. 2) The planning function is to develop directions, ways, means and measures to achieve the goals of the organization. The importance of this function is illustrated by the saying, “Well planned is half done.” A prerequisite for planning as a specialized type management activities is forecasting - identifying and predicting objective (real) trends, states of development of an organization in the future.-

3) Function of the organization. The concept "organization" is usually used in two meanings. Firstly, organization is understood as a process, an activity aimed at streamlining human interaction, ideas, processes. Secondly, organization is understood as a form of manifestation of joint activity.

When we talk about the function of an organization, then, in our opinion, it consists, first of all, in combining elements or parts (people, ideas, processes, etc.) into a systemic whole, resulting in the formation of a viable, effective and sustainable system. In other words, it is a process of purposeful interaction of parts of a whole as a system to achieve set goals under specific conditions and within a certain time frame.

The organization of interaction between members of the organization must be flexible, efficient, reliable, economical and self-correcting. The sequence of implementation of an organization's function is usually as follows:

* determination of goals, objectives and features joint activities members of the organization;

* identifying the need for resources to achieve goals and ensuring an uninterrupted supply of these resources. Therefore, they sometimes say that organizing means first assessing the possibilities, and only then setting the task;

* establishing the sequence of actions of performers, duration and target dates for their implementation;

* choosing ways to carry out the necessary actions and interactions of people to achieve goals;

* establishing between members of the organization the necessary organizational relations(subordinate, coordination, etc.);

* creating appropriate motivation among members of the organization in achieving worthwhile goals.

The key point in implementing this function is the process of organizing interaction between subordinates. Among the principles effective organization the interactions are as follows:

* specialization of performers;

* quantitative and qualitative proportionality of the parts that form the system;

* parallelism of actions;

* rhythm of activity.

4) Function of coordinating and regulating joint activities. After carrying out the functions of the organization, some inconsistencies may arise between all the elements of the created system or mechanism for achieving goals. In these cases, there is a need, firstly, to clarify the nature of the actions of the performers, to make them more coordinated, harmonious and effective and, secondly, to eliminate deviations from the mode of operation of the system specified by the organization.

5) The incentive function includes the development and use of incentives for effective interaction between subjects of joint activities and their

effective activities. When performing this function, the manager must adhere to a number of principles:

* dependence of the magnitude of the incentive on the specific contribution of the subordinate to the common cause;

* connection of incentives with the goals of the organization;

* unity of interests of the subordinate, the organization and society as a whole;

* reasonable combination of moral and material incentives;

* combination of incentives with measures of punishment and coercion.

Among the main management functions important role belongs to the functions of control, accounting and analysis of activities. The content of this function includes a comprehensive study of activities and assumes:

* monitoring the progress, dynamics and patterns of development of processes in the managed system, measurement, registration and grouping of data;

* comparison of its parameters with a given operating program;

* quantitative and qualitative assessment of performance efficiency;

* identifying deviations and bottlenecks in the development of the system;

* identifying the causes of the current state;

* determination of the most appropriate ways to restore system functionality.

13(17). Psychological laws of management

The laws of management psychology manifest themselves in interactions in interpersonal relationships and in group communication, and act like any law, depending on whether we know them or not, or not. The basic laws of management psychology and management activities in general are:

1. Law of uncertainty response and is called the law of dependence of external influences on early psychological conditions. It is based on two psychological phenomena- apperent and the presence of stereotypes of consciousness. Apperent is the dependence of perception on past experience. Stereotypes of consciousness are stable opinions, assessments, judgments that inaccurately and incompletely reflect the surrounding reality and influence behavior, creating obvious or hidden communication barriers.

This law states that different people V different time can react differently to the same influences. One person will respond to rudeness addressed to him with rudeness, another will remain silent, and a third will try to calm the rude person down. Many internal psychological factors (mood, emotional state, etc.) seriously influence and sometimes determine the reactions of a particular person in specific situations.

2. The law of inadequacy of mutual perception is that a person can never comprehend another person with the completeness that would be sufficient to make serious decisions about that person. This distortion is caused by many reasons:

1) Man is constantly in a state of change. It is known that at any moment of time each person can be on different levels physical, physiological, intellectual, social, moral, emotional and sexual development.

2) A person always consciously or unconsciously defends himself from attempts to reveal his characteristics and “ weak spots"so as not to become a victim of someone else's manipulations.

3) Often a person cannot give comprehensive information about himself because he does not fully know himself. And in some cases, he, often without knowing it, tries to appear not as he really is, but as he wants to be in the eyes of other people. In carrying out management activities, taking into account the law of inadequacy of perception, managers must use the following principles approach to people:

a) the principle of universal talent, which from a management point of view takes the form of the motto: “There are no untalented or incapable people. There are people who are busy with other things”;

b) the principle of development is that abilities (both general and special) can develop;

c) the principle of inexhaustibility indicates that not a single estimate, given to a person, cannot be considered final.

3. The law of inadequacy of self-esteem. The essence of this law is that when trying to evaluate oneself, a person faces the same internal barriers and limitations as when evaluating other people. It is known that self-esteem is rarely adequate - it is either overestimated or underestimated. It is common for a person to overestimate himself in some ways and at the same time underestimate himself in some ways, and this leaves an imprint on the conclusions he makes about himself.

4. Law of information distortion. The essence of this law is that management information (directives, orders, instructions, etc.) tends to change meaning in the process of moving from top to bottom. The loss of meaning of information is based on the language in which management information is transmitted. . Determined that oral information playback with an accuracy of up to 50%.

If the information is incomplete, people inevitably begin to speculate, speculate, and supplement what they know, relying on unverified facts and their own guesses. And then the amount of information can change not only downward, but also upward.

1) Reduce, as far as possible, the number of transmission links involved in the process of disseminating information.

2) Provide employees with all necessary supplies in a timely manner. Information on those issues which they must decide.

3) Support feedback with subordinates in order to monitor the correct assimilation of the information received.

5. Law of self-preservation is that one of the leading motives determining people's behavior, is the preservation of personal status, wealth, and self-esteem. Direct or indirect violation of dignity causes a negative reaction.

6. Law of compensation V general view means that a person who has some shortcomings, difficulties or problems in one area of ​​life, consciously or unconsciously tries to compensate for them by working harder in another area. In relation to management psychology, this means that when high level incentives for a given job or high demands on a person, lack of any abilities to this species activity is compensated by other abilities or skills and the ability to work. If this happens unconsciously, then the necessary experience is acquired through trial and error.

The laws of management psychology are manifested in the interaction of people, in interpersonal relationships and in group behavior. They act regardless of whether we know them or not, whether we are aware of them or not. Unfortunately, some managers take into account the existence of these laws only on an intuitive level. Can we talk about successful management in this case? Hardly. Of course, production will develop, overcoming the action of systems that do not comply with the laws of management. But what is the price of such overcoming?

The basic laws of management psychology (managerial activity) are:

1. Law of response uncertainty.

2. The law of inadequacy of mutual perception.

3. The law of inadequacy of self-esteem.

4. Law of information distortion.

5. The law of self-preservation.

6. Law of compensation.

Let's consider each of these laws separately.

Law of Response Uncertainty

It can be called the law of dependence external influences from internal psychological conditions(structures). This law is based on psychological phenomena - apperception and the presence of stereotypes of consciousness.

Apperception- dependence of perception on the past experience of the subject.

Stereotypes of consciousness- stable opinions, assessments, judgments that inaccurately and incompletely reflect the surrounding reality and influence behavior, creating obvious or hidden communication barriers.

How does this law work? Different people at different times can react qualitatively differently to the same influences. One person will respond to banal rudeness addressed to him with rudeness, another will remain silent, and a third will try to calm the rude person down. If there were no differences in internal mental structures, then each person would react the same way to the same influence. “It is not possible for us to predict how our word will respond,” these words of the poet reflect the essence of the law of uncertainty of response.

The manager should keep in mind one more manifestation of this law, namely, that even the same person at different times can react qualitatively differently to the same influence. It is important to understand that many internal psychological factors (mood, emotional condition etc.) seriously influence, and sometimes even determine, the reactions of a particular person in specific situations. And these factors cannot be taken into account. You should not assume that you can always and everywhere predetermine the reaction (response) of your interlocutor to any of your actions. The response cannot be predicted - this is an immutable law of management psychology. Let's look at a specific example of how this law works. The boss gives an order and hopes that it will be carried out (expects a certain response). Sometimes this happens, and sometimes it doesn't. Let's imagine that the task was completed inaccurately, incorrectly, or not completed at all. The boss is not satisfied. He tries to find out from his subordinate the reasons why the task was not completed, and at the same time analyzes the situation himself.

At the same time, the leader and the subordinate, under the influence of apperception and stereotypes of consciousness, have their own, sometimes diametrically opposed, explanations for inability to perform. A manager may consider his employee to be a slacker or a saboteur. The subordinate, in turn, can find dozens of “objective” circumstances to justify himself. Both the boss and the subordinate make a mistake: the first - because he chose an unsuitable way of interacting with the subordinate, the second - because he chose the wrong method of defense.

The Law of Inadequacy of Mutual Perception

The essence of this law is that a person can never comprehend another person with the accuracy and completeness that would be sufficient to make serious decisions regarding this person. Our perception is “structured” in such a way that it is almost never accurate and complete. We never perceive even the most ordinary object in front of our eyes entirely and completely, but always see, and from a certain angle, only that part of it that falls into the field of vision and directly affects our receptors.

But a person is a much more complex system, hardly amenable to complete description.

1) Man is always in a state of change. It is known that at any given time, any person of a certain age can be at different levels of physical, physiological, intellectual, social, moral, emotional and sexual development.

2) A person always consciously or unconsciously defends himself against attempts to reveal his characteristics and “weak points.” This is understandable - a psychologically “open” person can become a victim of someone’s manipulation.

3) Quite often a person cannot give information about himself because he does not know himself. And in some cases, he, often without knowing it, tries to appear not as he really is, but as he wants to be in the eyes of other people. There is, of course, nothing wrong with this, for this is the natural process of self-expression.

The inadequacy of perception and a person’s desire to show himself better than he is must be taken into account when making any management decision. How can one build management activities taking into account the law of inadequacy of perception? Management experts recommend that managers use the following principles to approach people:

a) the principle of universal talent. From a management point of view, it may sound like this: “There are no untalented or incapable people. There are people who are busy with other things”;

b) the principle of development. Abilities (both general and special) can be developed;

c) the principle of inexhaustibility. No assessment given to a person during his lifetime can be considered final.

The Law of Inadequate Self-Esteem

The essence of this law is that when trying to evaluate oneself, a person faces the same internal barriers and limitations as when analyzing other people. It is known that self-esteem is never adequate - it is always either overestimated or underestimated. In addition, it is common for a person to overestimate himself in some ways and at the same time underestimate himself in some ways, and this, of course, leaves an imprint on the conclusions that he makes about himself. It should be remembered that a person is not so much a rational, logical, reasonable being as an illogical, emotional, irrational and sometimes unreasonable being. His psyche can be simply represented in the form of conscious (logical-mental) and unconscious (emotional-intuitive) components. Hidden internal driving forces forces that force a person to act in a certain way are sometimes not realized by that person himself. That is why logical, rational self-analysis (as well as the analysis of other people) is never completely adequate.

Law of Information Distortion

Sometimes it is called the law of loss of meaning of management information, or the law of splitting the meaning of management information. The essence of this law is that management information (directives, orders, instructions, etc.) has an objective tendency to change meaning in the process of moving from top to bottom. The degree of change is directly proportional to the number of links through which information passes: the more workers become familiar with it and pass it on to other people, the more the meaning differs from the original. This is not happening due to someone’s evil will. The loss of meaning of information is based on the following circumstances:

1) The language in which management information is transmitted is a polysemantic language. No matter how strict or precise the concepts used in a language, there is always the possibility different interpretations the same message. It has been established that oral information is perceived with an accuracy of up to 50% (by the way, the famous “broken phone” game is based on this fact).

2) If the information is incomplete, if access to it is limited and the need of subordinates to obtain operational information is not fully satisfied, then people inevitably begin to speculate, invent, and supplement what they know, relying on unverified facts and their own guesses. And then the volume of information changes not only towards decrease, but also towards increase.

3) People who perceive information and transmit it differ from each other in their level of education, intellectual development, according to your needs, as well as physical and mental state. This also leaves an imprint on the process of information transfer.

What can you do to minimize distortion? It is recommended to do the following:

1) Reduce, as far as possible, the number of transmission links involved in the process of disseminating information.

2) Timely provide employees with all the necessary information on the issues that they must resolve.

3) Maintain feedback with subordinates in order to monitor the correct assimilation of the information received.

Law of self-preservation

The essence of this law is that one of the leading motives that determine people’s behavior is the preservation of personal status, wealth, self-esteem. Direct or indirect violation of dignity causes a negative reaction. It is very easy to understand the meaning and significance of this law. Let's imagine a production meeting at which the manager invited those present to speak on some issue. One of those present immediately reacted to the proposal and said something out of place. “You always start with stupid things,” the manager responded to this.

What happens in this situation to everyone present? Their consciousness instantly switches from the task of discussion to the task of protecting their own dignity. This means that a person involuntarily begins to think about how not to end up in the position of the first speaker. He stops working on the assigned task and tries to guess the manager’s position. And this reduces the creative potential of meeting participants - people, collectively solving the problem. As we see, failure to comply with the law of preservation of personal status leads to a negative result. This example clearly shows that psychological laws not only influence the quality of work, but often determine it.

What to do in such situations? We recommend organizing a solution to a complex problem in a divided time mode: first collect all available proposals without determining their value, and then conduct a critical analysis of the compliance of the proposal with the “conditions of the problem.”

Law of Compensation

In general, this law means that a person who has some shortcomings, difficulties or problems in one area of ​​life, consciously or unconsciously tries to compensate for them by working harder in another area. In relation to management psychology, this means that with a high level of incentives for a given job or high demands on a person, the lack of any abilities for a given type of activity is compensated by other methods or skills and ability to work. If this happens unconsciously, then the necessary experience is acquired through trial and error. But if compensation is carried out consciously, then its effect can be increased. For example, with underdeveloped memory, you need to skillfully organize work: use notebooks, voice recorders, weekly journals, etc.

Expert Vladimir Gadzhievich Aliev, head of the educational and methodological association of Russian universities for education in the field of management.

Scientists have been trying for a long period of time to find out what motivates us, where we are going, why, why, and also trying to find out what the main psychological laws are that govern the lives of each of us. There are laws of the Universe that determine the presence of luck near us, determine fate. Psychology helps in specific situations, in difficult moments, when we need to quickly make a decision or understand what led us to where we are at the moment.

Why are the laws of psychology needed?

Laws are generally needed always and everywhere. If there are no laws, then all of humanity will rush into the abyss, into chaos, just like our Universe. Anarchy will come, just like in space. Everything only seems to be orderly, but this is all just an illusion, because we are observers, and we live very little at that. The universe is about 13 billion years old, and intelligent humanity is about 3000 years old. It’s the same as just taking a photograph and saying that everything is fine in the world, in the country, exploring only this moment. In the photo, the forest is green, people are smiling, the sun is shining, but this is only a moment. This is how all our time is relative to the Universe. It's insignificant.

This is why you need to live current time. The laws of psychology help you quickly assess your strengths, capabilities and make predictions for the future. You won't be able to influence the course of history, but you can make your moments more enjoyable. The laws of psychology have been deduced over thousands of years, because people have always been interested in how we are structured and how our consciousness works. We are not robots, but in certain situations we almost always act the same way. Psychology will teach you how to read people and how to properly use the research of scientists in this area.

Laws of psychology for every day

Law One: What surrounds you creates or changes your mood. The right environment and conditions significantly increase your productivity and improve your mood. If you need to get rid of depression or fatigue, then use the reverse ambience effect when you listen to cheerful music, watch a funny movie, read interesting books, surround yourself with nice people. If you need to concentrate, then you need to listen to classical music or light music without words. When you need dynamics, recharge, a dynamic environment and an abundance of red color will help. Remember that your environment shapes your mood.

Law two: the more people around you, the less likely it is that someone will show individuality. For example, let’s simulate a situation where you are in a metropolis, you feel sick, and you fall on the asphalt. The likelihood that someone will help you up is much less than the same likelihood in a situation where you are close to very few people in the same room. To put it very rudely and shamelessly, we are all part of the herd. There are very few people who maintain individuality in society. It's easier for everyone to pretend than to be themselves. This is explained by fear.

Law three: meeting any life problem is carried out in accordance with five main stages. These are the very stages:

• negation. At first you don't see or don't want to admit there is a problem;
• rage, anger. Then you panic, get angry, asking yourself the question of who is to blame for what happened;
• bargain. Then you just want, with all your might, to do everything as before, to return to the starting point;
• depression. When you realize that there is no and cannot be a way back, you become depressed;
• Adoption. It all ends simply - you admit that there is a problem, you fully accept it and prepare to move on to the next stage of life.

You cannot change this train of thought because it is written in your genetic code nature. For some, these stages last longer, for others, on the contrary, less. The winner, of course, is the one who goes through all these five stages faster, saving his time.

Law Four: It doesn’t matter at all whether you achieve your goal or not, because the main thing is to start moving towards the goal, and not to achieve it. If you always set goals for yourself and hope that everything will always work out, you will quickly fade away. Set yourself feasible goals and be flexible, changing goals and adapting to changes. If you want to become rich, start studying ways to make money. The psychology of love is simple - if you want to find love, start looking for the reasons for its absence. Don’t sit idle, because dynamics is life.

Law five: a person criticizes himself, but does not take advantage of all opportunities. Nature has gifted us with everything necessary to find a soul mate and to achieve successful self-realization. There are many bright examples that people with disabilities achieved great results in business and in love. Stop working half-heartedly, doubting yourself. You can do anything.

Law six: even the most strong people doubt something. This is not a good thing, but sometimes it is necessary to think twice before doing something. You always need to think twice, but if you are determined to do something, try to cut off the ends without burning bridges. There is no turning back, but escape routes are always needed. If you want to quit your job and find another one, quit, but leave gracefully. Overly impulsive actions are destructive. If you doubt yourself, that's normal. The main thing is that your doubts do not control you.

Law seven: we are all the same and similar in many ways. Almost every person thinks that their problems are unique, but they are not. Everyone has their own internal war, but its reasons are slightly different. We all want to eat, live comfortably and love. These are our main desires and priorities, whatever one may say. They determine everything.

Psychology will help you answer the basic questions that are gnawing at you. Remain yourself, because we are unique in what nature needs and identical in what the universe needs. Look for inspiration and motivation for yourself, but not only in needs. Be open to this world, try to think outside the box. Good luck and don't forget to press the buttons and

Patterns of mental life that are very widespread among people and reliable over time. Proposed by F. Müller and E. Haeckel, according to which in the individual, primarily embryonic, development of higher organisms there is a natural repetition (“recapitulation”) of the characteristics characteristic of their biological ancestors, that is, ontogenesis repeats phylogeny in an abbreviated version. The subjective brightness of a short flash of light depends on the product of the stimulus intensity and its duration. But this law operates only in the near-threshold region and for stimulus durations that do not reach the critical point. The law of psychophysics, according to which a barely noticeable change in sensation when the intensity of the stimulus changes occurs when the original stimulus increases by a certain constant fraction of it. E. Weber conducted experiments on distinguishing weights, line lengths and sound pitches, in which he also showed the constancy of the ratio of a barely noticeable change in the stimulus to its original value. The law of summation of the mental (cognitive) process. With an equal probability of recalling meaningless information from memory, more old information is forgotten more slowly and requires fewer repetitions when learning. The visual threshold decreases proportionally square root stimulus area, provided that this area exceeds 1 angular degree. Memory destruction with progressive amnesia, for example in cases of illness or in old age, has a certain sequence: first, memories of recent events become inaccessible, then the mental activity of the individual begins to be disrupted, and a loss of feelings and habits occurs. Instinctive memory disintegrates. In the case of memory restoration, the same stages occur in the reverse order. The characteristics of the threshold stimulus, such as its brightness and angular area, are inversely proportional. This law is valid for light stimuli with small angular dimensions. Between a number of sensations and a number of physical stimuli there is not a logarithmic, according to Fechner, but a power-law relationship: Y = k * S to the power of n (Y is a subjective value, sensation, S is a stimulus, n is an exponent of a function, k is a constant depending on units). Moreover, the exponent of the power function is different for different modalities of sensations: for loudness it has a value of 0.3, for an electric shock - 3.5. The apparent brightness of a source of intermittent light, when the fusion frequency of light flickers is reached, becomes equal to the brightness of continuous light having the same luminous flux values. The magnitude of the sensation is directly proportional to the logarithm of the intensity of the stimulus. Reaction time when choosing from a certain number alternative signals depends on their number. Formula V.E. Hika: VR = a*log(n+1) (VR is the average value of the reaction time for all alternative signals; n is the number of equally probable alternative signals; a is the proportionality coefficient). The effect of summing the brightness of several spectral colors when they are combined, causing the perception of a new color. The visible size of a sequential image directly depends on the distance of the screen on which this image is projected. This pattern may not appear at large (over 10-15 m) distances to the screen, as well as with eidetism. Relations that are early taken into account in real behavior and contribute to its automation are recognized with difficulty and late, and relations that hinder automation are recognized early. Empirical patterns connecting motivation and a person and the quality of the activity he performs. 1st law: the relationship between motivation and quality of activity is expressed by a bell-shaped graph: when motivation increases to a certain level, the quality of activity also increases, but a further increase in motivation, after reaching a plateau, leads to a decrease in productivity. 2nd law: for a more complex problem, more optimal is more low level motivation. For each color there is another single color ("complementary"), when mixed with which it becomes achromatic grey colour. Subjectively equally perceived colors, when mixed with other colors, also produce equally perceived colors, regardless of their spectral composition. When mixing two different colors a color is obtained that is intermediate between the original ones, so that when mixing this resulting color with one of the original ones, it is impossible to obtain the second original color. When two different colors are mixed, the resulting color is always less saturated than at least one of the original ones. A socio-psychological phenomenon that if a person defines a situation as real, then the situation will become real in its consequences. The effect of easier detection of light objects on a dark background than dark ones on a light one at the same luminance contrast values. Dependence of peripheral visual acuity on the absolute distance of observation objects. Given their identical angular sizes, small and close objects are recognized better than large and distant ones. The effect of overestimating the speed of a moving object by 1.5-2 times with a fixed gaze, deprived of the ability to carry out tracking movements focused on the speed and trajectory of the moving object. A pattern due to which information that is associated with the remaining unfinished action is better remembered. The tendency to associate two or more probabilistic independent events. In particular, this manifests itself in the judgment that after many losses in a game such as roulette, the chances of winning increase. Special case interference of memorized material, characterized by difficulties that arise when the similarity of the memorized material increases. Phenomenon social psychology, consisting in the fact that as the group size increases, individual contribution to teamwork decreases. A feature of decision-making characterized by an overestimation of the probability of an event if it is confirmed personal experience, not the experiences of other people.

Management psychology, as a branch of practical psychology, also studies management activities. The laws of management psychology manifest themselves in interactions in interpersonal relationships and in group communication, and act like any law, depending on whether we know them or not, or not. The basic laws of management psychology and management activities in general are:

1. Law of response uncertainty.

2. The law of inadequacy of mutual perception.

3. The law of inadequacy of self-esteem.

4. Law of information distortion.

5. The law of self-preservation.

6. Law of compensation. Let's look at each of them.

Law of Response Uncertainty called the law of dependence of external influences of early psychological conditions. It is based on two psychological phenomena - apperent and the presence of stereotypes of consciousness. Apperent is the dependence of perception on past experience. Stereotypes of consciousness are stable opinions, assessments, judgments that inaccurately and incompletely reflect the surrounding reality and influence behavior, creating obvious or hidden communication barriers.

This law states that different people can react differently to the same stimuli at different times. One person will respond to rudeness addressed to him with rudeness, another will remain silent, and a third will try to calm the rude person down. “It is not possible for us to predict how our word will respond,” these words of F. Tyutchev reflect the essence of the law of response uncertainty. The manager should keep in mind one more manifestation of this law: even the same person at different times can react qualitatively differently to the same influence. Many internal psychological factors (mood, emotional state, etc.) seriously influence and sometimes determine the reactions of a particular person in specific situations. And these factors cannot be taken into account fully. You should not assume that you can always and everywhere predetermine the reaction (response) of your interlocutor to any of your actions. The response cannot be predicted - this is an immutable law of management psychology.

For example: the boss gives an order and hopes that it will be carried out (expects a certain response). Sometimes this happens, and sometimes it doesn't. Let's imagine that the task was completed inaccurately, incorrectly, or not completed at all. The boss finds out from the subordinate the reasons why the task was not completed, and at the same time analyzes the situation himself. In this situation, both, under the influence of apperception and stereotypes of consciousness, have their own, sometimes diametrically opposed, explanations this fact. A manager may consider his employee to be a slacker or a saboteur. The subordinate, in turn, can find dozens of “objective” circumstances to justify himself. Both the boss and the subordinate make a mistake: the first - because he chose an unsuitable way of interacting with the subordinate, the second - because he chose the wrong method of defense.

Law of Inadequacy mutual perception is that a person can never comprehend another person with the completeness that would be sufficient to make serious decisions regarding this person. Our perception is “structured” in such a way that it is almost never completely adequate, accurate and complete. We never perceive even the most ordinary object in front of our eyes entirely and completely, but always see it from a certain perspective, that is, only that part of it that falls into the field of vision and directly affects our receptors.

This distortion is caused by many reasons, the main of which psychologists consider the following:

1) Man is constantly in a state of change. It is known that at any given time each person can be at different levels of physical, physiological, intellectual, social, moral, emotional and sexual development.

2) A person always consciously or unconsciously protects himself from attempts to reveal his characteristics and “weak points”, so as not to become a victim of someone else’s manipulation.

3) Often a person cannot give comprehensive information about himself because he does not fully know himself. And in some cases, he, often without knowing it, tries to appear not as he really is, but as he wants to be in the eyes of other people. Psychologists insist that the inadequacy of perception and a person’s desire to show himself better than he is must be taken into account when making any management decision.

In carrying out management activities, taking into account the law of inadequacy of perception, managers must use the following principles of approach to people:

A) principle of universal talent, which, from a management point of view, takes the form of a motto: “There are no untalented or incapable people. There are people who are busy with other things”;

b) development principle is that abilities (both general and special) can be developed;

V) principle of inexhaustibility indicates that no assessment given to a person can be considered final.

Law inadequacy of self-esteem. The essence of this law is that when trying to evaluate oneself, a person faces the same internal barriers and limitations as when evaluating other people. It is known that self-esteem is rarely adequate - it is either overestimated or underestimated. It is common for a person to overestimate himself in some ways and at the same time underestimate himself in some ways, and this leaves an imprint on the conclusions he makes about himself. A person is not only a rational, logical, reasonable being, but also an emotional, irrational, and sometimes unreasonable being, therefore the hidden internal driving forces that force a person to act in a certain way are sometimes not realized by that person himself. That is why logical, rational self-analysis (as well as the analysis of other people) is never completely adequate.

Law distortion of information. Sometimes it is called the law of loss of meaning of management information, or the law of splitting the meaning of management information. The essence of this law is that management information (directives, orders, instructions, etc.) tends to change meaning in the process of moving from top to bottom. The loss of meaning of information is based on the language in which management information is transmitted. No matter how strict or precise the concepts used in a language are, there is always the possibility of different interpretations of the same message. It has been established that oral information is perceived with an accuracy of up to 50%.

If the information is incomplete, if access to it is limited, and the need of subordinates to obtain operational information is not fully satisfied, then people inevitably begin to speculate, invent, and supplement what they know, relying on unverified facts and their own guesses. And then the amount of information can change not only downward, but also upward. In addition, people who perceive information and transmit it differ from each other in their level of education, intellectual development, in their needs, as well as in their physical and mental state. This also leaves an imprint on the process of information transfer. To minimize distortion, management psychology experts recommend:

1) Reduce, as far as possible, the number of transmission links involved in the process of disseminating information.

2) Timely provide employees with all the necessary information on the issues that they must resolve.

3) Maintain feedback with subordinates in order to monitor the correct assimilation of the information received.

Law self-preservation is that one of the leading motives that determine people’s behavior is the preservation of personal status, wealth, and self-esteem. Direct or indirect violation of dignity causes a negative reaction. For example, at a production meeting, the manager invited those present to speak on some issue. One of those present immediately responded to this proposal, but said something out of place. “You always start with stupid things,” the manager responded to this. In this situation, the consciousness of all those present instantly switches from the task of discussion to the task of protecting their own dignity. This means that a person involuntarily begins to think about how not to end up in the position of the first speaker. He stops working on the assigned task and tries to guess the manager’s position. And this reduces the creative potential of meeting participants - people collectively solving a problem.

Law of Compensation in general terms, it means that a person who has some shortcomings, difficulties or problems in one area of ​​life, consciously or unconsciously tries to compensate for them by working harder in another area. In relation to management psychology, this means that with a high level of incentives for a given job or high demands on a person, the lack of any abilities for a given type of activity is compensated by other abilities or skills and the ability to work. If this happens unconsciously, then the necessary experience is acquired through trial and error. But if compensation is carried out consciously, then its effect can be increased. For example, underdeveloped memory can be compensated for by skillfully organized work and the use of a system for recording information: notebooks, voice recorders, weekly journals, etc.

Thus, the result of a manager’s activities is determined by his ability to build a management process taking into account the laws and patterns of mental and social development labor collective, individual approach to people, which is based on achievements modern psychology management.