Properties and characteristics of natural components and features of their influence on the organization of medicine. Local landscape geosystems

Video tutorial 2: Degree grid

Lecture: Geographical models. Geographic map, area plan. Their main parameters and elements

Geographical models of the Earth

The surface of the Earth cannot be depicted on paper because of its large sizes, so she is depicted as models.

Models of the Earth or surface include:

• area plan.

The surface of the planet is most accurately depicted on the globe:

firstly, the globe follows the shape of the Earth;

secondly, the distortion on the globe is less than when transferring the surface to a map (we transfer a round surface to a flat one);

thirdly, the globe gives an idea of ​​the position of our planet in outer space (angle of inclination, trajectory of rotation).

Using a map projection, the earth's surface is depicted on a globe, map or plan. A map and a site plan are depicted on a flat surface, but they are different from each other. The map shows large areas of the Earth, and the plan shows small areas (several kilometers). Maps and plans differ in scale.

Image of the Earth on a map

To depict the surface of the earth on a map it is used degree grid: These are parallels and meridians located perpendicular to each other.

The parallels are located horizontally (parallel to the equator), the meridians stretch vertically from the north pole to the south. For convenience, we determined the prime meridian (Greenwich) from which the meridians go at a distance of 10° from each other, i.e. The prime meridian is the beginning of the hemispheres, which extends to 180° (the 180° meridian is the boundary of the hemispheres). To the east is considered to be eastern longitude, to the west is considered to be western longitude. The parallels also run at a distance of 10°. For convenience, the equator is chosen as the zero parallel. To the north is the northern latitude, to the south is the southern latitude. Using a degree grid, you can plot objects on a map, as well as find their locations, that is, coordinates. To determine coordinates, you need to know the longitude and latitude of the area.

Maps differ from each other according to several criteria:

1. By scale
2. By content
3. By territory coverage

1. Maps are divided by scale into:

large scale,

medium-scale,

small-scale.

Scale– the ratio of the actual size of the territory to its image on the surface.

The scale can be numerical, linear (used when measuring the distance from point A to point B) and named.

The smaller the scale of the map, the larger the territory that can be depicted on it. Maps of hemispheres, continents and oceans, maps of states are small-scale maps. Medium-scale maps ranging from 1:200000 to 1:1000000. And large-scale (topographic) maps (1:10,000, 1:25,000 and 1:50,000).

2. According to the content of the card there are:

general geographical

thematic

Among the thematic maps there are tectonic, climatic, a map of the “peoples of the world”, and the “Physical map of the hemispheres” is a general geographical map. Thematic ones, in turn, are divided into physical-geographical and socio-economic. Accordingly, the first depict natural phenomena, the second economic. Eg, "Map of Prevailing Winds" relates to thematic physics geographical map. Map "World Population" refers to thematic socio-economic.

3. By territory coverage:

hemispheres map,

continents and oceans,

large regions, states, economic regions.

Maps are also complex, synthetic and analytical. Comprehensive maps provide a wealth of information about the area depicted. Synthetic maps show a holistic image, but do not provide an idea of ​​individual terrain objects. On climate map types of climates are depicted, but we do not learn from this map either the temperature or the prevailing winds. Analytical maps give an idea of ​​one characteristic of the territory, for example, the extent of arable land.

In order to be able to read a map and find information on it, you need to know symbols and be able to read them correctly. All cards are depicted using symbols. Each card has its own set of symbols. The map of mineral resources shows the relief using isolines and colors. By color we determine the type of relief; isolines (lines connecting points of the same height) provide more accurate information about the height of the surface above or below sea level. Mineral deposits are indicated by special icons.

Sources of Geographic Information

Basic concepts, patterns and their consequences

Azimuth- this is the angle between the direction north and the object (the final destination of movement), which is measured from 0 to 360 degrees clockwise.

Geographic longitude— the magnitude of the parallel arc drawn from the prime (Greenwich) meridian to a given point, in degrees. Longitude can be western and eastern, ranging from 0° to 180°.

Geographic map- a reduced and generalized image of the Earth’s surface or its parts on a plane, made using conventional symbols to scale.

Geographic latitude is the magnitude of the meridian arc drawn from the equator to a given point in degrees. Latitude can be north or south, ranging from 0° (latitude of the equator) to 90° (latitude of the poles).

Geographical coordinates- these are quantities that determine the position of a point on the earth’s surface relative to the equator and the prime meridian.

Geographic poles- points of intersection of the earth's surface with an imaginary axis of rotation.

globe(from the Latin ball) is a reduced model of the Earth, most accurately reflecting its shape.

Degree network of geographic map- a system of meridians and parallels, which serves to determine the position of geographical objects on the earth's surface.

Maternity time- this is standard time, translated one hour forward, introduced in Russia since 1930 by a special resolution (decree).

Map scale- the degree of reduction in the length of lines on a plan or map compared to their actual length on the ground. There are numerical (1: 100,000), named (1 cm - 1 km) and linear () scales.

Meridian— a line of section of the earth’s surface by a plane passing through the geographic poles, i.e., connecting the poles. The length of all meridians is the same. The average length of the 1st meridian is 111 km. Directions are determined by meridians (north - south).

Zero time zone- a belt whose middle meridian is the prime meridian (drawn through the city of Greenwich, which is located in the UK).

Parallel- a line of section of the Earth by a plane parallel to the equatorial plane. Due to the spherical shape of the Earth, the length of the parallel decreases from the equator to the poles. Directions are determined by parallels (west - east).

Site plan- a drawing of a small area of ​​terrain, made in conventional symbols and on a large scale without taking into account the curvature of the earth’s surface. The selection of the most significant elements or objects in an image is called geographic generalization.

Standard time— time reporting system by time zones. In total, there are 24 time zones on Earth at 15° longitude. Solar time at points located on the same meridian is called local.

Time zones of Russia— On October 26, 2014 at 2:00 a.m. the Federal Law will come into force Russian Federation No. 248-FZ of July 21, 2014 “On Amendments to the Federal Law “On the Calculation of Time””, which establishes 10 time zones on the territory of the Russian Federation. Previously, on the territory of the Russian Federation, time was calculated according to the international system of time zones. The territory of the Russian Federation was located in 11 time zones (from the 2nd to the 12th inclusive) with the same time within each time zone. The time difference between two adjacent zones was one hour. Ship time at sea is still kept according to the international time zone system. When ships are in roadsteads and ports, the time established there is used. On the territory of the Russian Federation, according to Moscow time, there is movement of railway, water and intercity road transport open for public use, as well as the operation of intercity telephone and telegraph communications. The order of air transport movement has not changed - it is carried out according to universal coordinated time. Informing the population about the operation of transport and communications is carried out according to the time established in the given area.

Time zones are established on the territory of the Russian Federation, the boundaries of which are formed taking into account the borders of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation. The composition of the territories forming each time zone and the procedure for calculating time in time zones:

1) 1st time zone (MSK-1, Moscow time minus 1 hour, UTC+2): Kaliningrad region;

2) 2nd time zone (MSK, Moscow time, UTC+3): Republic of Adygea (Adygea), Republic of Dagestan, Republic of Ingushetia, Kabardino-Balkarian Republic, Republic of Kalmykia, Karachay-Cherkess Republic, Republic of Karelia, Komi Republic, Republic Crimea, Republic of Mari El, Republic of Mordovia, Republic of North Ossetia - Alania, Republic of Tatarstan (Tatarstan), Chechen Republic, Chuvash Republic - Chuvashia, Krasnodar region, Stavropol Territory, Arkhangelsk Region, Astrakhan region, Belgorod region, Bryansk region, Vladimir region, Volgograd region, Vologda region, Voronezh region, Ivanovo region, Kaluga region, Kirov region, Kostroma region, Kursk region, Leningrad region, Lipetsk region, Moscow region, Murmansk region, Nizhny Novgorod region, Novgorod region, Oryol Region, Penza region, Pskov region, Rostov region, Ryazan region, Saratov region, Smolensk region, Tambov Region, Tver region, Tula region, Ulyanovsk region, Yaroslavl region, cities federal significance Moscow, St. Petersburg, Sevastopol and Nenets autonomous region;

3) 3rd time zone (MSK+1, Moscow time plus 1 hour, UTC+4): Udmurt republic and Samara region;

4) 4th time zone (MSK+2, Moscow time plus 2 hours, UTC+5): Republic of Bashkortostan, Perm region, Kurgan region, Orenburg region, Sverdlovsk region, Tyumen region, Chelyabinsk region, Khanty-Mansiysk Autonomous Okrug - Yugra and Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug;

5) 5th time zone (MSK+3, Moscow time plus 3 hours, UTC+6): Altai Republic, Altai Territory, Novosibirsk region, Omsk region and Tomsk region;

6) 6th time zone (MSK+4, Moscow time plus 4 hours, UTC+7): Republic of Tyva, Republic of Khakassia, Krasnoyarsk Territory and Kemerovo Region;

7) 7th time zone (MSK+5, Moscow time plus 5 hours, UTC+8): Republic of Buryatia, Transbaikal region and Irkutsk region;

8) 8th time zone (MSK+6, Moscow time plus 6 hours, UTC+9): Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) (Aldansky, Amginsky, Anabarsky, Bulunsky, Verkhnevilyuysky, Vilyuisky, Gorny, Zhigansky national Evenki, Kobyaisky, Lensky , Megino-Kangalassky, Mirninsky, Namsky, Neryungrinsky, Nyurbinsky, Olekminsky, Oleneksky Evenki national, Suntarsky, Tattinsky, Tomponsky, Ust-Aldansky, Ust-Maisky, Khangalassky, Churapchinsky and Eveno-Bytantaysky uluses (districts), city of republican significance Yakutsk) and Amur region;

9) 9th time zone (MSK+7, Moscow time plus 7 hours, UTC+10): Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) (Verkhoyansky, Oymyakonsky and Ust-Yansky uluses (districts), Primorsky Territory, Khabarovsk region, Magadan region, Sakhalin region (Alexandrovsk-Sakhalinsky, Anivsky, Dolinsky, Korsakovsky, Kurilsky, Makarovsky, Nevelsky, Noglikisky, Okha, Poronaisky, Smirnykhovsky, Tomarinsky, Tymovsky, Uglegorsky, Kholmsky, Yuzhno-Kurilsky (districts), city of regional significance - the city of Yuzhno -Sakhalinsk) and the Jewish Autonomous Region;

10) 10th time zone (MSK+8, Moscow time plus 8 hours, UTC+11): Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) (Abyisky, Allaikhovsky, Verkhnekolymsky, Momsky, Nizhnekolymsky and Srednekolymsky uluses (districts), Sakhalin region (North- Kuril region);

11) 11th time zone (MSK+9, Moscow time plus 9 hours, UTC+12): Kamchatka Territory and Chukotka Autonomous Okrug.

Equator- a conventional line located at the same distance from the poles. The equator divides the globe into the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. The length of the equator is 40 thousand km.

Geographical discoveries and exploration of the Earth

Geographical terms and concepts. Geographical definitions. Absolute altitude– vertical distance from sea level to a given point.a.v. points located above sea level are considered positive, below - negative.
Azimuth– the angle between the direction to the north and the direction to any object on the ground; calculated in degrees from 0 to 360° in a clockwise direction.

Iceberg- a large block of ice floating in the sea, lake or stranded.
Antarctic belt– descends from the South Pole to 70° S.
Anticyclone– an area of ​​high air pressure in the atmosphere.

Area– the area of ​​distribution of any phenomenon or group of living organisms.
Arctic belt– descends from the North Pole to 70° N latitude.
Archipelago- a group of islands.
Atmosphere– the air shell of the Earth.
Atoll– a coral island in the shape of a ring.
Beam- a dry valley in steppe and forest-steppe regions in the Russian Plain.
Barkhan- an accumulation of loose sand blown by the wind and not secured by vegetation.
Pool– an area of ​​depression that has no drainage on the surface.
Shore– a strip of land adjacent to a river, lake, sea; slope descending towards a water basin.
Biosphere- one of the shells of the Earth, includes all living organisms.
Breeze– local wind on the shores of seas, lakes and large rivers. Day breeze. (or sea) blows from the sea (lake) to land. Night breeze (or coastal) - from land to sea.
"Brocken Ghost"(along Mount Brocken in the Harz massif, Germany) is a special type of mirage observed on clouds or fog at sunrise or sunset.
Wind– the movement of air relative to the ground, usually horizontal, is directed from high pressure to low. The direction of the wind is determined by the side of the horizon from which it blows. Wind speed is determined in m/s, km/h, knots or approximately on the Beaufort scale.
Air humidity– content of water vapor.
Watershed– the boundary between drainage basins.
Elevation- an area elevated above the surrounding area.
Waves– oscillatory movements aquatic environment seas and oceans caused by the tidal forces of the Moon and the Sun (tidal waves), wind (wind waves), fluctuations atmospheric pressure(anemobaric waves), underwater earthquakes and volcanic eruptions (tsunamis).
Highlands– a set of mountain structures with steep slopes, pointed peaks and deep valleys; absolute heights are more than 3000 m. The highest mountain systems on the planet: the Himalayas, Mount Everest (8848 m) is located in Asia; in Central Asia, India and China - Karakorum, peak Chogori (8611 m).
Altitudinal zone– a change in natural zones in the mountains from the base to the top, associated with climate and soil changes depending on the height above sea level.
Geographical coordinates– angular values ​​that determine the position of any point on the globe relative to the equator and the prime meridian.
Geospheres– shells of the Earth, differing in density and composition.
Hydrosphere- the water shell of the Earth.
Mountain- 1) an isolated sharp elevation among relatively flat terrain; 2) a peak in a mountainous country.
Mountains– vast territories with absolute heights of up to several thousand meters and sharp fluctuations in heights within their borders.
Mountain system– set mountain ranges and mountain ranges extending in one direction and having a common appearance.
Ridge– elongated, relatively low relief shape; formed by hills lined up in a row and merging at their bases.
Delta- an area where river sediment is deposited at the mouth of a river as it flows into the sea or lake.
Longitude geographical– the angle between the plane of the meridian passing through a given point and the plane of the prime meridian; measured in degrees and counted from the prime meridian to the east and west.
Valley– negative linearly elongated relief shape.
Dunes- accumulation of sand on the shores of seas, lakes and rivers, formed by the wind.
Bay- a part of the ocean (sea or lake) that extends quite deeply into the land, but has free water exchange with the main part of the reservoir.
The Earth's crust is the upper shell of the Earth.
Swell– a small, calm, uniform wave, disturbance of the sea, river or lake.
Ionosphere– high layers of the atmosphere, starting at an altitude of 50-60 km.
Source– the place where the river begins.
Canyon– a deep river valley with steep slopes and a narrow bottom. K. underwater - a deep valley within the underwater edge of the continent.
Karst– dissolution rocks natural waters and phenomena associated with it. Climate is the long-term weather pattern in a particular area. Local K., distributed over a relatively small area.
Climatic zone (or zone)- a vast region distinguished by climatic indicators.
Scythe- a sandy or pebble ridge stretching along the coast or protruding in the form of a cape far into the sea.
Crater- a depression created after a volcano explosion.
Ridge- a sharply rising large rise, one of the types of hills.
Avalanche- a mass of snow or ice falling down a steep slope.
Lagoon- a shallow bay or bay separated from the sea by a spit or coral reef.
Geographical landscape– type of terrain, a relatively homogeneous area of ​​the geographical envelope.
Glacier- a mass of ice moving slowly under the influence of gravity along a mountainside or valley. The Antarctic glacier is the largest on the planet, its area is 13 million 650 thousand km2, its maximum thickness exceeds 4.7 km, and the total volume of ice is about 25-27 million km3 - almost 90% of the volume of all ice on the planet.
glacial period- a period of time in the geological history of the Earth, characterized by a strong cooling of the climate.
Forest-steppe- a landscape in which forests and steppes alternate.
Forest-tundra- a landscape in which forests and tundra alternate.
Liman– shallow bay at the mouth of the river; usually separated from the sea by a spit or bar.
Lithosphere- one of the shells of the Earth.
Mantle- the shell of the Earth between the earth's crust and core.
Mainland – large part land surrounded on all sides by oceans and seas.
Australia– in the Southern Hemisphere, between the Indian and Pacific oceans (the smallest of the continents);
America North and South- V Western Hemisphere, between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans;
Antarctica– in the central part of the South Polar Region (the southernmost and highest continent on the planet);
Africa– in the Southern Hemisphere (the second largest continent);
Eurasia– in the Northern Hemisphere (the largest continent on Earth).
Meridians geographically e – imaginary circles passing through the poles and crossing the equator at right angles; all their points lie at the same geographical longitude.
World Ocean- the entire body of water on Earth.
Monsoons are winds that periodically change their direction depending on the time of year: in winter they blow from land to sea, and in summer from sea to land.
Highlands– a mountainous country, characterized by a combination of mountain ranges and massifs and located high above sea level. Tibet- in Central Asia, the highest and greatest highland on Earth. Its base rests at absolute altitudes of 3500-5000 m or more. Some peaks rise up to 7000 m.
Lowlands- the lower tier of mountainous countries or independent mountain structures with absolute heights from 500 m to 1500 m. The most famous of them are the Ural Mountains, which stretch for 2000 km from north to south - from the Kara Sea to the steppes of Kazakhstan. The vast majority of the peaks of the Urals are below 1500 m.
Lowland– a plain that does not rise above 200 m above sea level. The most famous and significant among them is the Amazon Lowland with an area of ​​more than 5 million km2 in South America.
Lake- a natural body of water on the surface of the land. The largest lake in the world is the Caspian Sea-lake and the deepest is Lake Baikal.
Oceans- parts of the World Ocean separated from each other by continents and islands. Atlantic; Indian - ocean of heated waters; The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest ocean; The Pacific Ocean (Great), the largest and deepest ocean on Earth.
Landslide– downslope displacement of a mass of loose rock under the influence of gravity.
Island- a piece of land surrounded on all sides by the waters of the ocean, sea, lake or river. The largest island in the world is Greenland with an area of ​​2 million 176 thousand km2. Relative height is the vertical distance between the top of a mountain and its foot.
Geographical parallels– imaginary circles parallel to the equator, all points of which have the same latitude.
Greenhouse effect(atmospheric greenhouse effect) – protective actions of the atmosphere associated with the absorption of reflected long-wave radiation.
Trade winds– constant winds in tropical areas, blowing towards the equator.
Plateau- 1) high plain, limited by steep ledges; 2) a vast flat area on a mountain top.
Plateau underwater– an elevation of the seabed with a flat top and steep slopes.
Plyos– a deep (wide) section of the river bed between the rifts.
Plateau- a vast area of ​​land with an altitude from 300-500 m to 1000-2000 m or more above sea level with flat peaks and deeply incised valleys. For example: East African, Central Siberian, Vitim plateau.
Floodplain- part of a river valley that is flooded during high water.
Semi-desert- a transitional landscape that combines the features of a steppe or desert.
Earth's hemisphere- half of the earth’s sphere, allocated either along the equator or along the meridians of 160° east. and 20°W (Eastern and Western hemispheres), or according to other characteristics.
Geographic poles– points of intersection of the Earth’s rotation axis with the earth’s surface. Magnetic points of the Earth are points on the earth’s surface where the magnetic needle is located vertically, i.e. where a magnetic compass is not applicable for orientation by cardinal directions.
Arctic Circles(North and South) - parallels located 66° 33′ north and south of the equator.
Threshold– a shallow area in a river bed with a large slope and fast current.
Foothills– hills and low mountains surrounding the highlands.
Prairies- vast grassy steppes in the North. America.
Ebbs and flows– periodic fluctuations in the water level of seas and oceans, which are caused by the attraction of the Moon and the Sun.
Deserts– vast spaces with almost no vegetation due to the dry and hot climate. The largest desert on the globe is the Sahara in the North. Africa.
Plains– vast flat or slightly hilly expanses of land. The largest on Earth is the Eastern European, or Russian, with an area of ​​more than 6 million km2 and the West Siberian in the north of Eurasia, with an area of ​​about 3 million km2.
River- a constant stream of water flowing in a riverbed. Amazon is a river in the South. America, the largest in the world in length (more than 7,000 km from the source of the Ucayali River), in basin area (7,180 m2) and in water content; Mississippi - largest river North America, one of the greatest on Earth (length from the source of the Missouri River 6420 km); The Nile is a river in Africa (length 6671 km).
Relief– a set of various irregularities of the earth’s surface of various origins; are formed through a combination of impacts on the earth's surface by endogenous and exogenous processes.
Bed- the deepened part of the valley bottom occupied by a river.
Savannah- a tropical and subtropical landscape in which herbaceous vegetation is combined with individual trees or groups of trees.
North Pole- the point of intersection of the earth's axis with the earth's surface in the North. hemispheres.
Sel- a mud or mud-stone stream that suddenly passes through the valley of a mountain river.
Tornado(American name tornado) – vortex movement of air in the form of a funnel or column.
Srednegorye– mountain structures with absolute heights from 1500 to 3000 m. There are the most mountain structures of medium height on Earth. They are spread over vast areas of the south and northeast of Siberia. Almost all of them are occupied Far East, eastern China and the Indochina Peninsula; in northern Africa and the East African Plateau; Carpathians, mountains of the Balkan, Apennine, Iberian and Scandinavian peninsulas in Europe, etc.
Slope- an inclined area on land or seabed. Windward slope - facing the direction from which the prevailing winds blow. Leeward slope – facing the direction opposite to the direction of the prevailing winds.
Steppe– treeless spaces with an arid climate, characterized by herbaceous vegetation. In Eurasia, the steppes stretch in an almost continuous strip from the Black Sea to Northeast China, and in North America they occupy vast expanses of the Great Plains, joining the savannas of the tropical belt in the south.
Stratosphere– layer of the atmosphere.
Subtropical zones(subtropics) - located between tropical and temperate zones.
Subequatorial belts– located between equatorial belt and tropical zones.
Taiga– zone coniferous forests temperate zone. The taiga covers the northern part of Eurasia and North America in an almost continuous belt.
Typhoon- the name of tropical cyclones of storm and hurricane force in Southeast Asia and the Far East.
Takyr- a flat depression in the desert, covered with a hardened clay crust.
Tectonic movements– movements earth's crust, changing its structure and shape.
Tropics- 1) imaginary parallel circles on the globe, located 23°30° north and south of the equator: the tropics of Capricorn (northern tropic) - the tropics of the northern hemisphere and the tropics of Cancer (southern tropic) - the tropics of the southern hemisphere; 2) natural belts.
Tropical zones– located between subtropical and subequatorial zones.
Troposphere– lower layer of the atmosphere.
Tundra– treeless landscape in the Arctic and Antarctic.
Temperate zones– located in temperate latitudes.
Temperate latitudes– located between 40° and 65° N. and between 42° and 58° S.
Hurricane– a storm with a wind speed of 30-50 m/s.
Estuary– the place where a river flows into a sea, lake or other river.
Atmospheric front- a zone separating warm and cold air masses.
Fiord (fjord)- a narrow, deep sea bay with rocky shores, which is a glacial valley flooded by the sea.
Hill– a small height and gently sloping hill.
Cyclones– area of ​​low atmospheric pressure.
Tsunami is the Japanese name for huge waves resulting from underwater earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
Parts of the world– regions of the Earth, including continents (or parts thereof) with nearby islands. Australia, Asia, America, Antarctica, Africa, Europe.
Shelf– continental shelf with prevailing depths of up to 200 m (in some cases more).
Latitude geographical– the angle between the plumb line at a given point and the plane of the equator, measured in degrees and counted from the equator to the north and south.
Squall– a sharp short-term increase in wind before a storm.
Calm- calm, calm.
Storm- Very strong wind, accompanied by strong rough seas.
Equator- an imaginary line connecting points on the globe equidistant from the poles.
Exosphere– layer of the atmosphere.
Ecosphere- an area of ​​outer space suitable for the existence of living organisms.
Erosion– destruction of soils and rocks by flowing waters.
South Pole– the point of intersection of the earth’s axis with the earth’s surface in the Southern Hemisphere.
Earth's core– the central part of the planet with a radius of about 3470 km.

Economic and social geography

Enclave- part of the territory of one state, surrounded on all sides by the territory of other states and having no access to the sea.
Urban agglomeration- a group of closely located cities, united by close labor, cultural, social, and infrastructure ties into a complex system.
Trade balance- the difference between goods exported from the country (export of the country) and imported (import).
Population reproduction- a set of processes of fertility, mortality and natural increase that ensure the continuous renewal and change of human generations.
Geographical environment- part of the earth’s nature with which society interacts at a given stage of historical development.
Geopolitics- addiction foreign policy states depending on their geographical location and other physical and economic-geographical factors.
Global Population Issues- a set of socio-demographic problems affecting the interests of all humanity, creating a threat to its present and future; United efforts of all states and peoples are needed to solve them.
Population policy- a system of administrative, economic, propaganda measures with the help of which the state influences natural population growth in the direction it desires.
Demographic revolution- transition from one type of population reproduction to another.
Demography- a spider about population, the patterns of its reproduction.
Natural population growth- the difference between the birth rate and death rate per 1000 inhabitants per year.
Immigration- entry into the country for permanent or temporary (usually long-term) residence of citizens of other countries.
Import- import of goods into the country from other countries.
Industrialization is the creation of large-scale machine production in all sectors of the economy, the transformation of the country from an agricultural to an industrial one.
International economic integration- the process of establishing deep and sustainable economic relations between countries, based on their implementation of coordinated interstate policies.
Intensive development path- increase in production volumes due to additional capital investments in existing production facilities.
Infrastructure- a set of structures, buildings, systems and services necessary for the normal functioning and provision of Everyday life population.
Conversion- transfer of military production to the production of civilian products.
Megalopolis (metropolis)- the largest form of settlement that arose as a result of the fusion of several neighboring urban agglomerations.
Intersectoral complex- a group of industries that produce homogeneous products or have close technological connections.
Population migration- movement of the population across the territory associated with a change of place of residence.
National economy- interaction of people and means of production: means of labor and objects of labor.
Science intensity- the level of costs for research and development in the total costs of production.
Scientific and technological revolution (STR)- a radical qualitative revolution in the productive forces of society, based on the transformation of science into a direct productive force.
Nation- historical and social community of people formed on certain territory in the process of developing social market relations of the industrial type and inter-district (international) division of labor.
Industry- a set of enterprises producing homogeneous products or providing homogeneous services.
Socio-economic region- the territory of a country, including several administrative units, differing from others in features historical development, geographical location, natural and labor resources, specialization of the economy.
Zoning- division of territory into districts according to a number of characteristics.
Regional policy- a complex of legislative, administrative, economic and environmental measures, contributing to the rational distribution of production across the territory and equalization of people's living standards.
Resource availability- the relationship between the amount of natural resources and the extent of their use.
Free economic zone- a territory with a profitable EGP, in which, in order to attract foreign capital, preferential tax and customs regimes and special pricing conditions are established.
Production specialization- production of individual parts and assemblies by enterprises, certain types products, performing one or more technological operations.
Territory specialization- concentration in the area of ​​production of certain products or certain services
Structure of the national economy- the relationship between various spheres and industries in terms of product value, number of employees or the value of fixed production assets.
Suburbanization- the process of growth of suburban areas of cities, leading to an outflow of population and places of employment from their central parts.
Territorial division of labor- specialization of individual regions and countries in the production of certain types of products and services and their subsequent exchange.
Labor resources- part of the country's population capable of working and possessing the necessary physical development, mental abilities and knowledge for work.
Urbanization- the process of urban growth and the spread of urban lifestyle to the entire network of populated areas.
Service- work aimed at meeting the needs of the individual consumer.
Economic-geographical location (EGP)- the position of an object in relation to others geographical objects which is of economic importance to him.
Economically active population- part of the country's population, a comma in the national economy, and the unemployed, actively looking for work and ready to work.
Export- export of goods to other countries.
Extensive development path- increase in production volumes due to quantitative growth of production units.
Emigration- departure of citizens from their country to another for permanent residence or for a long period.
Power system- a group of power plants connected by power lines and controlled from a single center.
Ethnos- a historically established stable community of people that has a unique internal structure and an original pattern of behavior, determined to a greater extent by the “native” landscape.

Terrain type, like landscape or region, is one of the most common and important concepts in landscape (complex physical) geography. V.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky wrote back in 1928 that “...the search for types of localities is the first, most important, essential, integral feature of geographical science...” (p. 48). Researchers showed particular interest in this concept in the post-war years, during the period of widespread theoretical and field landscape work. Despite the widespread, if not universal, recognition of terrain types as landscape complexes, until recently different researchers do not put the same content into this concept. In this article we make an attempt to clarify the concept of “terrain type” and find out its place and significance in landscape geography.

Short review existing views in the literature on the scope and content of the concept “type of terrain”

In special geographical literature, the term “type of locality” or similar “typical localities”, “types of localities” began to be used from the middle XIX V. Tracing the literature published since that time, it is not difficult to identify three different points of view on the scope and content of the concept of “terrain type”. According to the first of them, the type of terrain is a regional physical-geographical unit. One of the first to express this point of view was P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky . In Western Siberia, he distinguished the Tobol-Ishim, Barabinsk, Tobolsk, Tomsk, Altai, Upper Irtysh and Lower Ob “typical localities” (Semyonov, 1884). As N.I. Mikhailov correctly notes, “typical localities” in this case are essentially synthetic geographical areas of regional zoning...” (Mikhailov, 1955, p. 122). V. P. Semenov-Tian-Shansky in widely famous work“Types of localities of European Russia and the Caucasus” (1915) by “types of localities” meant regional units close to physical-geographical provinces in the modern concept.. Thus, into independent “types; localities,” he singled out the Polesie subglacial water accumulation, the Donetsk ridge, the Volga loose ravine region, the Zhiguli or Samara Luka, the Trans-Volga lowland and others. B. L. Bernstein divided the territory of the Yaroslavl province into “physical-geographical areas,” which he considered synonymous with physical-geographical regions.

According to the second point of view, until recently the most widespread, the type of terrain is a general typological concept. While putting broad typological content into this term, researchers did not limit its use to any taxonomic framework.

Over 100 years ago, N.A. Severtsov identified “clans of localities” on the territory of the former Voronezh province, symmetrically located along the rivers. In particular, he named the following types of areas: low sand spits; sandy-silty sediments with alder, meadows and lakes; steep edge of the valley with marginal forest, yarugi or treeless; a strip of villages; a strip of cultivated fields with fallow lands; steppe (Severtsov, 1950).

A. N. Krasnov in 1886 used the term “type of terrain” when describing the right bank of the Volga and Oka in the former Nizhny Novgorod province. He named 19 types of terrain, which in their volume are close to the types of tracts in the modern concept (exposed steep clayey slopes, bottoms of shady flooded ravines, etc.). In the same period, P.P. Semenov describes the types of localities of Central Asian deserts, highlighting the loess foothills watered by ditches; short transverse valleys of the Kopet-Dag with their irrigated rivers; bare and waterless slopes and peaks of Kopet-Dag; coastal steppe flow of a large Central Asian river; a cultural oasis remote from the mountains; sandy desert near the Repetek station.

G. N. Vysotsky also uses the term “type of locality” in a general typological sense. Thus, he calls the eastern slopes of Ergeni, characterized by rugged terrain and frequent changes in soil and plant groups, a “variegated type of terrain,” while the Caspian semi-desert is an example of a monotonous territorial type (Vysotsky, 1904).

During the Soviet period, the term “terrain type” as a general, non-taxonomic concept became widespread in the works of employees of the Institute of Geography of the USSR Academy of Sciences. In the 40s, a special group was created to compile complex physical and geographical maps. In addition to the institute’s staff, representatives of the Soil* and Botanical Institutes took part in its work. Of the three maps compiled by this group, two are landscape-typological in nature. The main objects depicted on them are the terrain types of the European part and the eastern regions of the country. These researchers do not give a detailed definition of the type of terrain highlighted on the maps; it is only known that each type of terrain is characterized by “a specific and similar combination of physical-geographical conditions” (Gerasimov and Kes, 1948, p. 352). As special types of terrain, such natural complexes as loaches, taiga plateaus, mountain-hill taiga, taiga small mountains, taiga-ridge plains, steppe small hills, steppe plains, elevated tundra, low-lying swampy tundra, salt marshes, takyrs, deserts are identified as special types of terrain. sandy hilly and dune plains, etc.

The ideas underlying these maps of terrain types were further developed in the works of V. S. Preobrazhensky, N. V. Fadeeva and L. I. Mukhina (Preobrazhensky and Fadeeva, 1955; Preobrazhensky, 1957; Preobrazhensky et al. 1959 ; Preobrazhensky, Fadeeva, Mukhina, 1961; Types of terrain and natural zoning of the Chita region, 1961; Fadeeva, 1961). These authors, relying on the statements of G.N. Vysotsky (1904, 1909) about phytotopological maps, or maps of habitat types, did a lot of work to identify and map terrain types in the Buryat Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic and the Chita region.

V. S. Preobrazhensky proposes to consider as a type of terrain “those areas of territory that have a complex of natural conditions necessary (or unsuitable) for the growth of a certain set of agricultural crops” (Preobrazhensky, Fadeeva, Mukhina, Tomilov, 1959, p. 42). He and his collaborators identify the following natural complexes as independent types of terrain: in the Buryat Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic - mountain dry steppe, mountain steppe, forest-steppe and mountain forest-steppe, mountain taiga, pre-alpine open forest, char, meadow flat riverine plains, meadow gently sloping plains, birch forests, pine forests. forests, mountain tundra (ibid.); in the Chita region - dry steppe, steppe, forest-steppe, taiga, pre-goltsy open forest, loaches, meadow plains, birch forests, goosefoot, pine forests (Types of terrain and natural zoning of the Chita region, 1961).

It is easy to see that V. S. Preobrazhensky and his colleagues distinguish landscape complexes that are far from equivalent as types of terrain: steppe, forest-steppe, taiga, i.e. zonal complexes (types of landscape, in the opinion of most researchers) are placed on a par with meadow flat riverine plains, birch forests, pigweeds and pine forests, found in separate fragments in zonal complexes.

Essentially synonymous with the type of terrain as a general typological concept are many of the geographical landscapes of L. S. Berg (1947) (spruce forests of the lowland forest zone, ravine landscape of the forest-steppe, sands of the desert zone, river valleys of the desert zone, etc.), landscapes in the works of B B. Polynova (1926, 1927), types of territory in the works of A. N. Ponomarev (1937) and Z. M. Murzaev (1953), landscape and type of landscape in the view of N. A. Gvozdetsky (1958, 1961) and some other geographers.

According to the third point of view, a terrain type is a taxonomic unit of typological landscape mapping. In a number of previously published works (Milkov, 1953, 1955, 1956a, 1956b, 1957a, 19576, 1959a, 1959b, etc.), we sought to substantiate the concept of “terrain type” as one of the most important landscape-typological units of a certain taxonomic significance. In doing so, we proceeded from the position that in nature there are two, although closely interrelated, but independent series of landscape complexes: regional and typological. Regional complexes (district, province, zone, country) are units of landscape zoning, typological ones are units of landscape mapping. Both complexes have an independent system of taxonomic units, which includes: tract type, terrain type, landscape type.

The type of terrain represents a relatively equivalent, from the point of view of economic use, territory, which has a natural, unique combination of tracts. Like other typological units, a locality type has a discontinuous area and its distribution does not depend on the boundaries of regional units. For the forest-steppe and steppe zones of the south of the Russian Plain, we described the following types of terrain: floodplain, above-floodplain-terrace, riverside (slope), upland, interfluve undrained, watershed-outwash, remnant-watershed, low-mountain.

An interpretation of the type of terrain close to the one described is found in a large number of recent works devoted to physical-geographical zoning and landscape-typological mapping of different regions of our country. Among the landscape-typological works, the following can be named: N.I. Akhtyrtseva (1957a and b, 1959, 1961) on the Kalach Upland, S.T. Belozorova (1958) on the Odessa region, 3. P. Berdnikova and N.N. Smirnov (1959) on the relationship between riverine and upland types of terrain in the south of the Central Russian Upland, K. I. Gerenchuk (1956, 1957) on the western regions of the Ukrainian SSR, G. E. Grishankova (1958, 1961) on the Eastern Yails of Crimea and the Central Russian Upland, M. M. Koinova (1957) about the Stanislav region, A. I. Lanko, A. M. Marinich and others (1959) about the Ukrainian SSR, and many others.

The type of terrain as a taxonomic typological unit is recognized by N. A. Solntsev. He believes that localities represent “a natural combination of a certain type of tracts (Solntsev, 1961, p. 56) and at the same time are organic integral part landscape (region).

Thus, of the considered points of view on the concept of “terrain type,” the last two are currently the most widely recognized, according to which the terrain type is considered as a general typological concept and as one of the main taxonomic units of landscape mapping. Despite the differences in these views, we do not see a sharp, insurmountable line between them. Representatives of both points of view see in the type of locality the most important typological landscape complex, the knowledge of which helps to reveal internal content regional units. However, it should be emphasized that the recognition of terrain type as a general typological concept does not eliminate, but, on the contrary, makes it more urgent to develop a taxonomic system for terrain types.

On the leading factors shaping terrain types

The terrain types of the forest-steppe and steppe zones of the Russian Plain, which are well known to us from field work, usually show the closest connection with elements of erosional relief. This is confirmed in the names of the terrain types: nominal, floodplain-terrace, riverside (slope), remnant-watershed.

In the conditions of the Central Russian forest-steppe, where the valley-gully relief is perfectly expressed, and the subsoil almost everywhere is carbonate loess-like rocks of uniform composition, erosional relief acquires an exceptional, leading role in

formation of terrain types. This connection of vegetation and soils with the relief of the Central Russian forest-steppe was repeatedly pointed out by N. A. Severtsov, G. I. Tanfilyev, G. F. Morozov, B. A. Keller. It is therefore quite natural that the types of terrain - landscape complexes - in the Central Russian forest-steppe in many cases coincide with certain types of locations.

It should be noted that there is no complete coincidence of terrain types with location types even in the conditions of the Central Russian forest-steppe. Firstly, different types of terrain are often observed here in similar location conditions. Thus, on the flat interfluves of the Oka-Don lowland, not one, but three types of terrain are clearly visible: upland, interfluve undrained and watershed-outwash (see profile); secondly, almost every type of location is not one, but a complex complex of location types. For example, the upland type of terrain consists not only of flat, elevated-plain “upland formations”, in the concept of G.N. Vysotsky (1904), it closely intertwines a number of tracts of different locations: the uplands themselves (levels), drainage hollows, peaks ravines, steppe depressions, ponds.

Along with the relief, the lithology of the parent rocks that serve as the subsoil also plays a leading role in the formation of terrain types. If in the Central Russian forest-steppe in the isolation of terrain types the first place belongs to the relief, then in Caspian lowland it very often no longer plays such a decisive role and the lithology of the source rocks comes first. True, the estuary type of terrain in the Caspian semi-desert owes its existence to the relief, however, in the vast expanses of the semi-desert, landscape differences are caused not by the relief, but by the replacement of clayey and loamy soils with sandy and sandy loam.

The leading role of lithology in the formation of semi-desert landscape complexes was established by E. A. Eversmann. In the first part of the “Natural History of the Orenburg Region” he wrote about steppes devoid of fat (semi-deserts in the modern concept): “the latter can also be divided into clayey and solonetzous steppes (Katkil among the Kaysaks), actually into salt marshes, salt mud (among the Kaysaks Sur) and, finally, to the sandy steppes, sands (among the Kaisaks, kum). This division is based on nature itself and is important for determining the distribution of plants and animals." (our detente.- F. Milkov) (Eversmann, 1949, p. 219).

The landscape-forming role of lithology increases even more in dry deserts, where moisture reserves in soils are determined mainly not by meso- and microforms and relief, but by water permeability, capillarity and other soil properties. N.A. Gvozdetsky identifies the following types of Central Asian deserts: 1) loess-clay ephemeral, 2) clayey wormwood (wormwood-saltwort), 3) sandy psammophytic, 4) rocky gypsophytic, 5) saline halophytic (Gvozdetsky and Fedina, 1958). These types of deserts, from our point of view, are nothing more than enlarged types of terrain.

A completely different situation than in the Central Russian forest-steppe is developing, on the one hand, in semi-deserts and deserts, on the other, in the Baltic states, in the north of Belarus and in adjacent areas. Here, the complex glacial relief - from coarsely hilly and hilly to completely flat in place of drained lake reservoirs or secondary moraine plains - is combined with an extremely variegated, rapidly changing lithology of Quaternary sediments - subsoils (sands, clayey, loamy and sandy loam moraines, banded clays, cover loams and etc.). Under these conditions, the identification of terrain types from a methodological point of view turns out to be, perhaps, more difficult compared to the identification of the same typological complexes in the Central Russian forest-steppe or in semi-deserts. There is a need to develop new techniques and approaches to identifying and mapping terrain types that are different from those used in other areas of the country. Interesting experiments to identify the types of terrain in the glacial north-west of the Russian Plain were carried out by 3. V. Borisova (1958), A. B. Basalikas and O. A. Shleinyte (1961), 3. V. Dashkevich (Borisova) (1961), V A. Dementyev (1961).

In conclusion, it should be emphasized that the relative importance of relief and lithology of source rocks as leading factors in the formation of terrain types varies depending on the degree of their “expressiveness” and, to a certain extent, on the climatic background (an increase in the lithological factor in sharply arid areas).

Distribution area and regional characteristics of terrain types

The type of terrain usually generalizes big number specific areas. By specific locality, we, as before (Milkov, 1956b), mean a spatially unified, non-disconnected fragment of a type of locality within one regional unit - a landscape area.

A specific area in its properties is closest to regional units of landscape zoning and in some cases, during large-scale studies, can and should serve as an object of independent study. More often, however, a specific locality is studied not as an independent object, but as a standard for many other similar specific localities, which together form a type of locality. Spatial isolation and at the same time landscape proximity of the type of terrain throughout the entire range constitutes the most important property of this landscape complex, which is difficult to overestimate for theory and practice. In this regard, a completely legitimate question arises: how large is the area of ​​the same type of terrain? The following three possible answers to this question can be accepted.

Firstly, we can assume that the type of terrain is a landscape complex that has unlimited distribution. This assumption is based on the fact that similar landforms and lithology of source rocks - the leading factors in the formation of terrain types - are repeated in different provinces, zones and even continents. However, the identification of terrain types in such a broad interpretation loses its scientific and practical significance. Despite the fact that the remnant hills and ridges of the Volga Upland and the Kyzylkum desert, or sandy plains. Polesie and the Turkmen Karakum, in terms of relief forms and lithology, are somewhat similar to each other; in landscape terms, they are so far from each other that hardly anyone would risk combining them into one type of terrain.

Secondly, a locality type can be considered a landscape typological complex of local regional significance. The tendency to limit types of terrain to a relatively narrow regional framework is noticeable in the works of K. I. Gerenchuk (1957). In practice, excessive regional limitation of terrain types can lead to blurring of the lines between a terrain type and a specific location. In the end, you can get to the point that for each landscape area it seems advisable to develop its own special system of terrain. Apparently, this is what N.A. Solntsev (1957) means, proposing to replace the term “type of terrain” with another term - “terrain”. In this case, we are deprived of the opportunity to use in practice the most important quality of typological units - to serve as a criterion for establishing landscape similarity and relative economic equivalence of territorially separated specific areas. From our point of view, in all cases, even with the most large-scale studies, when we are faced with practically specific localities, it is better to talk not just about “localities”, but about “types of localities”, thereby emphasizing that the described locality is not a region, not a unique individuality, but only a fragment of a widespread type.

Finally, the type of terrain as an intrazonal landscape complex. This interpretation of it seems logically the most justified, since the types of terrain usually do not go beyond the landscape zone; their totality within the landscape zone forms a landscape type - typological taxonomic unit higher rank than the terrain type. However, the nature of typological units is such that sometimes they do not take into account the boundaries of regional units and the same type of terrain can be found in different landscape zones, just as the area of ​​a landscape type does not repeat the area of ​​distribution of any particular landscape zone. For example, such types of terrain as upland, floodplain, floodplain-terrace and riverside (slope) are equally widespread in the forest-steppe and steppe zones of the Russian Plain; fragments of upland and riverine types of terrain are also found in the south of the zone mixed forests.

What, ultimately, is the criterion for establishing the boundaries of the distribution of a particular type of terrain? It lies in the very definition of the type of terrain - the boundaries of a locality are determined by the geography of its constituent characteristic tracts and dominant tracts. To clarify what has been said, let us consider the boundaries of the distribution of the upland type of terrain. This type of terrain, perfectly expressed in the watersheds of the forest-steppe and steppe zones of the Russian Plain, represents a combination of the following types of tracts: level areas, steppe depressions, drainage hollows, and the tops of gullies. To the north of the forest-steppe - in the taiga and mixed forest zones - watersheds are rarely flat, and where they are found, they are characterized by groundwater occurring close to the surface, are often swampy and, therefore, are not similar to the plain-type plains of the forest-steppe and steppe zones . However, in some areas of taiga and mixed forests, mainly in the so-called opoles, the upland type of terrain continues to be found. A classic example of an opole is Yuryevskoye in the Vladimir region. On its territory there are quite well developed flats without signs of waterlogging; there are saucer-shaped depressions and runoff hollows. The Yurievsky Opolye’s belonging to the flatland type of terrain is confirmed by its peculiarities economic use: the field, covered with fertile dark-colored soils on loess-like loams, like the plains of the forest-steppe and steppe zones, is almost completely plowed.

Southern border The distribution of the upland type of terrain is the northern semi-desert: here the role of solonetz tracts in the structure of upland areas sharply increases, and the importance of runoff hollows disappears. The upland-plain locations of the southern semi-desert and desert constitute a different type of terrain, different from the upland. The area of ​​the upland type of terrain extends very widely from west to east. In addition to the Russian Plain, it is found on the plains of Hungary, distributed in the forest-steppe and steppe zones of Western and Central Siberia, very close analogues are known in the prairies of North America.

Different types of terrain have different habitats - sometimes very extensive, sometimes relatively limited. One of the most extensive habitats belongs to the floodplain type. Establishing its boundaries is a task for special research, but it seems to us that the Dnieper or Dniester floodplains and Central Asian tugai form independent types of terrain, different from the floodplain type of terrain middle zone Russian plain.

Here it is appropriate to raise another question - about the role climatic factor in the formation of terrain types. Obviously, relief and lithology are the leading factors in the formation of terrain types only on a certain, albeit fairly broad, climatic background. Such a background is provided by zones of a region located within one zone with the same or similar moisture balance, which is expressed in the ratio of the annual amount of precipitation to the amount of evaporation.

Recognizing wide areas for terrain types, we must not forget about the presence of certain landscape differences in these typological complexes, caused by local regional features of nature. For example, the weak development or complete absence of fresh ravines is a regional feature of the riverine (slope) type of terrain in the High Trans-Volga region. A regional feature of the interfluve undrained type of terrain of the Central Russian forest-steppe are aspen bushes, which are unusual for the interfluve undrained type of terrain of the Dnieper lowland. The almost complete absence of steppe depressions represents a regional feature of the upland type of terrain of the Kalach Upland.

Taking into account the above, when identifying, characterizing and mapping terrain types, one should constantly keep in mind not only their general - typological - features, but also the main regional features. This problem turns out to be not easy, and some researchers, trying to solve it, follow the path of fragmenting terrain types. Following this path, one can identify countless types of terrain and still not solve the problem - the regional influences on the types of terrain are so diverse. The only satisfactory solution is to combine typological units with regional ones in the text and on the landscape map. Typological units should be considered in inextricable connection with regional ones, and in both units one should see only different aspects of a single whole - the landscape sphere of the earth. It was precisely this path that a team of geographers from Voronezh University followed in the monograph “Physico-geographical zoning of the central black earth regions” (1961). In it, in addition to brief information about the types of terrain in general, The Central Black Sea Region, in some detail, indicating the areas, describes the types of terrain in each physical-geographical region.

As a generalization of everything stated above about regional influences on terrain types, it seems appropriate to introduce the concept of “variant of terrain type” (Milkov, 1959a and b). Depending on the nature of regional influences, we can talk about zonal, altitudinal-geomorphological and lithological variants of the terrain type. The flatland type of terrain in the forest-steppe and steppe zones represents two zonal variants of the same type of terrain. The riverine (slope) type of terrain on the Central Russian Upland and on the Oka-Don Lowland are not two different types of terrain, but different altitudinal-geomorphological variants of the same riverine (slope) type of terrain. Finally, the riverine type of terrain in the north of the Central Russian Upland, with outcrops of Devonian limestone, and in the south of the Central Russian Upland, with outcrops of white chalk, are not different types of terrain, but only lithological variants of the same riverine (slope) type terrain.

Theoretical and applied significance of studying terrain types

At present, the overwhelming majority of geographers quite reasonably admit that without preliminary identification and mapping of terrain types, it is difficult, if not impossible, to objectively identify physical-geographical areas. The main significance of terrain types lies precisely in the fact that their study leads to a more in-depth knowledge of regional differences in the nature of the country. Moreover, even physical-geographical regions (other authors refer to landscapes), which until recently were depicted as a kind of “homogeneous whole,” represent a complex unity consisting of unequal typological complexes.

The study of terrain types has not only theoretical, but also versatile applied significance. The relative economic equivalence of terrain types makes it possible to carry out a primary qualitative accounting of land wealth using a landscape-typological map. Good results By economic assessment types of terrain in Transbaikalia were obtained by V. S. Preobrazhensky, L. I. Mukhina and N. V. Fadeeva (Preobrazhensky, Fadeeva, 1955; Preobrazhensky et al., 1959; Fadeeva, 1961, etc.). The first experiments in economic assessment of terrain types were given in the works of Voronezh economic geographers (Velsky, Porosenkov, 1961; Goncharov, 1961). With the help of terrain types, the internal natural and economic differences of limited territories - individual collective farms and state farms are successfully revealed (Nature and economy of the Chapaev collective farm, 1956; Velsky, 1957, 1959; Tarasov, 1957). A promising problem, standing on the verge of physical and economic geography, is the district and regional grouping of collective farms according to the predominant type of terrain, identifying the characteristics of the current state of the economy and the prospects for its development for each group of collective farms (Milkov, 1961a).

V.V. Nikolskaya and L.F. Nasulich conducted interesting studies in the Amur region to identify types of terrain that differ in the degree of soil moisture and soakability, which largely determines the nature of their economic use (Nikolskaya and Nasulich, 1958).

The study of terrain types helps the planning of new cities and towns (Dorfman, 1961), opens up new opportunities in the study of erosion processes, and makes it possible to draw not a generalized average for the region, but a real picture of the gullyiness of the territory (Ezhov, 1957, 1958, 1959). There is no doubt that the broad and in-depth study of terrain types, which has developed in recent years in our country, will contribute to the further strengthening and development of landscape geography.

Each has its own unique sacred properties, changing in the same space - time. Properties: 1) material (mineralogical composition of rocks, gas composition of air) 2) Energy (air temperature, energy of water flow) 3) informational. 1) and 2) act as factors ensuring their interaction. Lithuania is characterized by a homogeneous geological foundation and homomorphological processes of the same type. Solid foundation - geologist. structure and relief of the earth. surface..In relief, it is important to distinguish the morphostructure when analyzing regional and local geosystems. Lt has an independent morphostructure. The climate is determined. a set of light and atmospheric processes. Rank depending on territory. climate scale processes and regional or local differentiation of geosystems. Macroclimate - reflects the climate. features of the higher region. Complexes - regions, zones. Mesoclimate (local) - the climate of the tract or local variation. Microclimate - facies climate. Flora - various plant communities. The boundaries of distribution of the animal population coincide with natural ones. Various types, types and varieties of soil form complex territorial combinations in a forest and depend on its morphological structure. Anthropogenic components: “traces” and objects of human activity. Significance in the formation: the relief of the earth's surface, its geological. building, local climate, water supply, territory. Khar-nogo is raising. cover.

Geographical areas and tracts

Classification of geographical areas and tracts. A locality is the largest morphological part of a region, consisting in structure of a special variant of the combination of the main tracts of a given region. A naturally repeating set of one of the options for the main tracts. Rank higher than the tract. terrain boundaries: 1) varied internal structure. Within the boundaries of an area there is variation in the geological foundation 2) with the same type of relief there are areas with changed morphological characteristics 3) within the boundaries of the same area with the same set of tracts of different types the area ratio changes 4) ridge and interridge terrain with the relative height of the ridges up to 25-35 cm. Ridge (a combination of upland - on flat tops; hollow - on the surface of ridges with washed away soils on the slopes of gullies and ravines) Interridge - flat swampy valleys 0.5-2.0 km wide with areas temporarily waterlogged, swampy areas valleys, peat areas) 5) Extensive systems of similar tracts: large watersheds swamps, dune ridges, karst basins 6) groups of alien, atypical tracts interspersed in a given area. Elevated plains of European Russia-forest-steppe zone: 1) upland meadow- steppe 2) slope near valley with upland oak forests and ravine-gully network 3) above-floodplain-terrace forest 4) floodplain forest-meadow. The geographical area serves as a link between local geosystems of the rank of tracts, sub-tracts and landscape. The tract is the main unit for studying and mapping characteristic spatial combinations of landscape research. A tract is a conjugate system of genetically, dynamically and territorially related facies or their groups - sub-tracts. Sub-urochishchi - a group of facies of the same type, identified within one tract on slopes of different exposures. Background tracts (dominants) - tracts that occupy the most its area and form its background - areas of the original surface changed by subsequent processes.

Subdominant tracts (subordinate) - in total they occupy a significantly smaller area than the background ones. They appeared on the original surface under the influence of geological and geomorphological processes (mainly erosion, characteristic of the humid zone). Additional tracts are rare. In areas whose geological structure differs from the rest of the territory. Classification of tracts: 1) hilly and ridged with a large relief slope 2) interfluve uplands with small slopes (2-5 degrees) 3) interfluve lowlands with small slopes (1-2 degrees) 4) hollows and basins 5) peat depressions and flat swamps watersheds 6) river valleys with tracts different types, canyon-like valleys, floodplains, valleys of small rivers and streams.