In which direction does the Indian River flow? Indus and Ganges rivers - information, photos, description. Source and upstream
Indus" ندھ pnb Sindh, اباسين ps Abāsin, سنڌوندي sd Sindhu, دریائے سندھ ur) - large river in South Asia, originates in the Himalayas of China and flows for the most part across northwestern India and Pakistan. The source is located on the Tibetan Plateau, the mouth is in the north of the Arabian Sea, near the city of Karachi. The length of the Indus is 3180 km, the basin area is 960,800 km² (980 thousand km² in TSB).
Names: सिन्धु sa (); سندھ ur ( Sindh); سندھو sd ( Sindhu); سندھ pa (" ); Hindu ae; اباسين ps ( Abba-Sin"father of rivers"); هند fa (“Hind”); Sengge Chu bo (“Lion River”); ; Ινδός el (Indos).
Indus (Sindhu) is one of the main rivers of the Vedic Semirechye.
Indus in art
The Vedas (Rigveda) admire the Indus, the cradle of India. Sindhu (Indus) is one of the main rivers of Semirechye (Saptasindhu). “The Indus surpasses all flowing streams... Its roar rises from the earth to the sky, it creates infinite power in flashes of light... Just as cows with milk lead their calves, so other rivers thunder in the Indus. Just as a warrior king leads warriors, so the Indus leads other rivers... Rich in good horses, rich in gold, noble in appearance, rich in abundance of health.” In this hymn, the Indus is the "male" river. In other hymns, the celestial sages descend from heaven into the Indus. The Vedas refer to the Ganges twice, and to the Indus more than 30 times. The Indus gave Pakistan's Sindh province its name.
Ecology
Since the beginning of the twentieth century, the Indus has undergone tremendous changes, which has negatively affected almost all the wildlife associated with the river. The construction of dams and dams has led to a record reduction in water flows in the Indus Delta and the volume of incoming sediment. During the second half of the twentieth century, consumption fell by an order of magnitude. Shipping routes from the delta deep into the river have been significantly reduced. Fresh water practically does not reach the delta, only occasionally during the monsoon period. The size of the delta, due to the fact that sediment supply has practically ceased, has decreased significantly (from approximately 6,200 to 1,200 square kilometers). Receipt observed sea water into the river salty water runs up to 75 kilometers upstream. Absence fresh water and the entry of the sea led to the destruction of large areas of agricultural land, several settlements near the coast ceased to exist, and several hundred thousand people were forced to change their place of residence. The strong wave energy inherent in the waters of the Indus delta, coupled with the cessation of sediment supply, causes desertification and deformation of the coastline.
Lake Manchar plays a significant ecological role in the functioning of the Indus River basin.
Geology
The appearance of the river dates back to the period after the collision of the Hindustan Plate with Asia (the collision occurred along different estimates from 55Scotese, Christopher R. (January 2001). “The collision of India and Asia (90 mya - present).” Paleomap Project. Retrieved December 28, 2004. to 35 million Aitchison, Jonathan C.; Ali, Jason R.; Davis, Aileen M. (2007). “When and where did India and Asia collide?” Journal of Geophysical Research 112 (B05423). Bibcode:2007JGRB..11205423A. doi:10.1029/2006JB004706. years ago during the Eocene epoch Cenozoic era). Thus, the Indus can be considered one of the ancient rivers world, it is older than the Himalayas, which reached their final height when the Indus already existed. During the existence of the Indus, significant deformations of the earth's surface occurred, in particular noticeable uplifts, but they did not lead to significant movements of the channel. Research data show that in ancient times the Indus was a drainage from, and its Indus occurred in conjunction with the collision of the Hindustan plate with Asia and the uplift of parts of the Lhasa plate Geological Society Special Publication Series (Issue 195), Geological Society (London). By P. Peter D. Clift, Geological Society of London. Geological Society.: 2002. ISBN 1862391114, 9781862391116. Total pages: 525. Pages 253,254.
Indus played important role in the formation of the surface of the region. The stability of its position for several tens of millions of years since the Ypresian stage meant that the waters of the Indus took an active part in erosion processes. Sedimentary rocks from the Himalayas were carried by the waters of the proto-Indus into the Arabian Sea already from the mid-Eocene, increasing the erosion of the rising Karakoram and Lhasa plates. While many rivers eastern Asia found themselves locked during the period of their history during the process of mountain building, the Indus, flowing along the seam formed during the collision of plates, over millions of years shifted only 100 kilometers to the east (this was caused by the rise of the Suleiman Mountains and their pressure on the Indus Valley in east direction). Takeaway Indom sedimentary rocks also influenced the formation of Mekran, before the rise of the Murray Ridge near the Arabian Basin took place, one of the reasons for which was also the active supply of sediment. In addition to the hundred-kilometer shift of the Indus bed to the east, the river delta also shifted to south direction. The reason for this was the natural process of movement of deltas of water flows into the seas, caused by the removal of particles, as well as tectonic processes of compression in this place of the sea.
The completion of the uplift of Tibet and the decrease in active sedimentation 8.5 million years ago occurred simultaneously with the emergence of the South Asian monsoons.
Pool
The area of the Indus basin is 970 thousand square kilometers, which makes it the twelfth in the world in terms of this indicator.
The climate of the region is arid and semi-arid. Precipitation is seasonal, in the lower part of the Indus its value is small, with more than half of the precipitation coming with the South-West monsoon (during the period July-September). On the plains, the average annual precipitation is less than 100 mm, but as you go upstream, this figure increases, reaching 500 mm in Lahore and 2000 mm in the Himalayas. The arid climate causes high evaporation from the surface of the water, especially in the lower reaches of the Indus, where the amount of evaporation can reach 2000 mm per year Large Rivers: Geomorphology and Management. Editor Avijit Gupta. John Wiley & Sons, 2008. ISBN 0470723718, 9780470723715. Total pages: 712, pp. 333-345.
The main feeding areas of the Indus are western Tibet, mountain system Karakoram and (suture - the junction of various tectonic parts along the fault). The influence of tributaries from the Hindustan Plate is very insignificant.
Story
In the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. e. in the Indus Valley one of the ancient civilizations. Later, the Great Silk Road passed through the Indus Valley and its tributaries.
Economic use
The hydropower potential of the Indus is estimated at 20 million kW. 14 large dams were built, including the Sukkur Dam. The average sediment runoff is about 450 million tons per year.
Usage problem water resources The rivers of the Indus basin have repeatedly caused conflicts between India and Pakistan, as well as between individual states. The Indus Waters Treaty, concluded in 1960, regulates the distribution of waters of the five rivers of Punjab.
Irrigation
In the lower part of the Indus basin, about 12 million hectares of land are irrigated (mainly in Punjab and the delta), less than half of the river's flow reaches the mouth. The total length of irrigation canals is approximately 65 thousand km; over 1.7 million hectares are irrigated with the help of irrigation structures.
Shipping
Navigation on the Indus is usually carried out from the mouth to the city of Deraismailhan (about 1200 km). Even higher, to the city of Attock, at the mouth of the Kabul River, small flat-bottomed ships can rise.
Hydraulic structures
The main dams and dams on the Indus are:
Flora and fauna
Estimates of the Indus Valley from the time of Alexander the Great indicate dense forests that covered the region in the past. However, these forests have now shrunk significantly. The founder of the Mughal state, Babur, in his memoirs, Babur-nama, wrote about rhinoceroses found on the banks of the river. Intensive deforestation and human impact on the ecology of Shivalik have led to a severe deterioration in growing conditions. The Indus Valley is an arid region with little vegetation. Agriculture is supported largely by irrigation.
The Indus basin and the river itself are different biological diversity. The region is home to approximately 25 species of amphibians and 147 species of fish, of which 22 are found only in the Indus.
Mammals
(Platanista gangetica minor or Platanista indi) is a species of dolphin that lives only in the Indus, mostly in the provinces of Sindh and PunjabEndangered Wildlife and Plants of the World (Volume 4), Marshall Cavendish Corporation, ISBN 0761471944, 9780761471943. Marshall Cavendish, 2001. Pages 1872, p.467 . In the past, it also appeared in the tributaries of the river. According to the World Health Fund wildlife Indian river dolphin is in first place among cetaceans that are endangered. Only about 1,000 dolphins are believed to remain, a significant portion of which live in the short 130-kilometer-long stretch of river between the Sukkur and Guddu dams in Sindh. The dolphin is almost completely blind and navigates using echolocation.Fish
Fish are represented by the families of cyprinids (Indian saberfishes, zebrafish, barbs, marinkas, etc.), loaches (botia, etc.), bagariidae, catfish, macropods (colises, etc.), snakeheads (snakeheads, etc.) and others. Fisheries at Higher Altitudes: Asia, Issue 385 Editor T. Petr. Food & Agriculture Org., 1999. ISBN 9251043094, 9789251043097. Pages: 304, pp. 130-131. A popular gastronomic fish is a fish from the herring family.
The size of fish stocks in the river is quite large, and the cities of Sukkur, Thatta and Kotri are major fishing centers. But water withdrawal for irrigation needs and the construction of dams forced special measures to maintain the number of fish.
Hydrography
Source and upstream
The source of the river is located at an altitude of about 5300 m (5182 m according to the Geodictionary and 5500 m according to Britannica) in the southwest of the Tibetan Plateau, on the northern slope of Mount Garing-boche (Kailas Range), approximately 40 km north of Lake Manasarovar. Under the name Sindhu, it flows to the confluence with the Ghar-Dzangbo River near the village of Largmar, where it receives the name Ind..
For more than 1000 km, the Indus flows northwest through the Karakoram Mountains, following a deep tectonic valley and forming numerous rocky gorges. The Indus crosses the border between the Tibet Autonomous Region and the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir at an altitude of 4572 m near settlement Demchok. After a long mountain section, the river enters the valley where the ancient city Leh is the capital of the historical region of Ladakh. Not far from Leh, the Zanskar River (on the left) flows into the Indus, after which at the city of Tingmosgang the river again goes into the gorge and flows to the border settlement of Batalik.
After crossing the border between the state of Jammu and Kashmir and Pakistan's Northern Territories, the Shingo River flows into the Indus. After about 80 km, the Shayok River flows into the Indus on the right. At Skardu (the main city of Baltistan), the Shigar River flows into the Indus on the right, fed, among other things, by the largest glaciers Biafo and Baltoro. The Indus reaches its northernmost point at the peak of Haramosh, after which it merges with the Gilgit River (also on the right) near the city of Bunji and turns southwest, breaking through the spurs of the Himalayas and the Hindu Kush. From here the Karakoram Highway runs along the banks of the Indus. Almost immediately after its confluence with Gilgit, the Indus is replenished by the waters of the Astor River and flows at the foot of the Nanga Parbat mountain, which feeds the river with its glaciers. The Indus then crosses the border of Kashmir and flows into Pakistan.
In its middle reaches it crosses the hilly lowlands where the Tarbela Dam was built in 1977. After this, the Indus receives a large tributary, the Kabul (the height of the confluence is about 610 m), flows through the Kalabagh Gorge between the spurs of the Suleiman Mountains and the Salt Range and then enters the Indo-Gangetic Plain.
Flat area
Merging with the Soan River and emerging onto the plains of Punjab near the city of Daudhail, the Indus is divided into several branches and channels. The river and its accompanying canals flow through the cities of Miyanwali and Dera Ismail Khan. The Taunsa dam was built near the village of Kotaddu. After passing through Dera Ghazi Khan, the Indus receives the waters of the largest tributary of the Indus, the Panjnad River, after which the width of the river increases from 400-500 m to 1-2 km. Near the city of Sukkur (Sindh region), the Nara (Eastern Nara) branch separates from the Indus, but reaches the sea only during high water, although in ancient times it apparently served as the main channel. In its lower reaches, the Indus crosses the western edge of the Thar Desert. After passing through the plain for over 1800 km, it flows into the Arabian Sea.
The river carries a large number of sediments, so its bed is raised above the sandy plain. For a considerable length, the river bed is embanked to protect the surrounding areas from floods, which sometimes occur. Large areas were destroyed by floods in 1947 and 1958, and the 2010 flood also damaged great damage country. Sometimes severe floods force the river to change its course.
Delta
Near Hyderabad, located 150 km from the sea, the Indus Delta begins, which has an area of 30 thousand km² (the seventh largest in the world) and a length seashore 250 km. The river is divided into 11 main branches, but the total number of channels in the Indus delta cannot be accurately determined, because each flood changes the entire pattern. During this century, the main channel changed its location many times. Currently, the main channel of the river is called Gajamro, flows into the sea at a point with coordinates 24°6" north latitude and 67°22" east. duty. The coastal strip with a depth of 8 to 30 km is flooded at high tide.
The Indus Delta formed during the Holocene.
List of tributaries
The largest tributaries:
Water mode
In the mountainous section, the Indus is fed mainly by melting snow and glaciers, where the flow is about 220 km³/year, with an average water flow of about 7000 m³/s. Consumption is minimal in winter months(December-February), from March to June the water rises. In the lower part of the basin, the river is replenished with water from monsoon rains, which leads to spring-summer floods (March - September). During this period, the water rises by 10-15 m in the mountains, and 5-7 m in the plains. During high water(July-September) the river bed in floodplain areas reaches 5-7 km in width (in the area of the city of Dera Ismail Khan the width reaches 20-22 km)
The average water flow in Hyderabad is 3850 m³/sec, but in high-water years this figure can reach 30 thousand m³/sec. After entering the plain, the Indus loses water through evaporation and seepage. During dry periods, the lower Indus may dry up and not reach the Arabian Sea.
There is physiographic and historical evidence to show that at least since the time of the Mohenjo-Daro culture, the Indus has changed the position of its course below southern Punjab several times. In the area of the cities of Rohri and Sukkur, the river is sandwiched between limestone cliffs, and to the south the river bed has moved to the west, especially its delta. Over the last 7 centuries in upper Sindh, the Indus has moved 15-30 km to the west.
Climate
With the exception of a mountainous section in Pakistan, the Indus Valley lies in the driest part of the Indian subcontinent. The average annual precipitation along the entire length of the Indus varies from 125 to 500 mm. In addition to the Himalayan glaciers, the Indus is fed by monsoon rains from July to September.
In the northern part of the Indus basin, January temperatures drop below zero and reach 38 °C in July. The river doesn't freeze. One of the hottest places on Earth, the city of Jacobabad is located west of the Indus in upper Sindh - temperatures there rise to 49 °C.
Length: 3,180 kilometers.
Basin area: 960,800 square kilometers.
Where it flows: The Indus originates in Tibet at 32° northern latitude and 81°30` east longitude (from Greenwich), at an altitude of 6,500 meters, on the northern slope of Mount Garing-boche, near the northern end of Lake Manassarovar, to the West of which are the sources of the Setledge, and to the East - the Bramaputra. The upper course of the Indus heads to the North-West, after 252 km of flow it receives on the left the Gartok River, which flows down from the western slope of Garing-boche, after which the Indus cuts through the plateau, and at the La Gans-Kiel passage it invades the narrow valley separating Kuen- Harrier from the Himalayan Mountains, flows through Ladakh below its capital, the city of Leh, receives the rapid Zanskar at an altitude of 3,753 meters, then the tributary Dras and enters Baltistan, where Shayok, descending from the Karakoram Mountains, flows into it from the right, and where India receives its name Aba-Sind, that is, the father of rivers. Somewhat higher than Iskardo, or Skardo, the capital of Baltistan, I. receives the Shigar on the right, and then a number of other mountain tributaries. From Skardo, the Indus flows north-northwest for 135 kilometers, at 74° 50` east longitude it turns to the southwest and then receives Gilgit on the right. Somewhat lower, the Indus rushes into the gorge of the Himalayan mountains, 3,000 meters deep, where the “sources of the Indus” were previously believed, although the river is located in this place at a distance of more than 1,300 kilometers from its actual beginning.
Upon leaving the mountains, the Indus first flows into a wide channel among a vast plain, which was once a lake, and connects with the Kabul River, the most significant of its right tributaries; here the width of the Indus is 250 meters, the depth is: in high water 20-25 meters, and in shallow water 10-12 meters. Somewhat below the Indus hits the rocks, from which the city protecting the river crossing received the name Attock (delay). From here the river, for 185 kilometers, must again make its way through a long series of gorges between steep, stone walls, until finally, at the exit from the gorge of the Karabakh, or Black Garden, the Indus finally leaves the region of the mountains and snakes in long meanders across the plain, bordered by side streams or branches and false rivers , indicating former channels main river. Here the Indus, without receiving significant inflows, gradually decreases from evaporation to Mithan-kot, near which it again receives Panjnad, formed from the confluence of Jilam, Chenab, Rava and Setledge, the upper course of which, together with the Indus, forms the famous Pyatirechye. At its confluence with the Indus, Panjnad is 1,700 meters wide, while the width of the Indus itself, with equal depth (4-5 meters), does not exceed 600 meters. Above Rori, in the Sindh region, where the Indus turns to the South, the Happa (East Happa) branch separates from it, which flows through the desert to the Southeast, but reaches the sea only in high water. Once Happa, apparently, served as the main channel of the Indus. Other hollows, wide and deep, testify to the incessant wanderings of the river, looking for the most convenient path to the sea. The study of this area leads to the conclusion that the Indus was constantly moving further and further from East to West, either due to the rocking movement of the soil in this direction, or due to rotation globe, causing the rivers of the northern hemisphere to deviate to the right from the normal direction. This gradual movement of the Indus to the West leads to the fact that the neighboring areas lying to the East of it are increasingly dried out, and many freshwater streams, separating from the main river, turn into salt lakes. At Hyderabad, 150 kilometers from the sea, the Indus delta begins, forming a triangle of 8,000 square kilometers, the base of which stretches over an area of 250 kilometers along the shore of the Arabian Sea. The number of Indus mouths cannot be determined with accuracy, since it changes with each flood. During this century, the main channel changed its location many times.
Feeding method: in the upper reaches mainly from the melting of glaciers, in the middle and lower reaches - from the melting of snow and precipitation.
Tributaries: Gartok, Zanskar, Dras, Shaisk, Shigar, Gilgit, Kabul, Panjnad.
Inhabitants: snakehead, yellowcheek, eight-whiskered minnows, grass carp, silver carp...
Freezing: does not freeze.
OLsource
mouth
Hydrography
The Indus River originates in the Himalayas in Tibet (China), flows through northeast Kashmir (India) and through Pakistan.
Source and upstream
The source of the river is at an altitude of about 5300 m (5182 m according to Geodictionary and 5500 m according to Britannica) in the southwest of the Tibetan Plateau, on the northern slope of Mount Kangrinboche (Kailas), about 40 km north of Lake Mapham Yumtso. Entitled Sengge-Zangbo(Shiquanhe) flows to the confluence with the river Gar-Dzangbo near the village of Langmar, where it receives the name Indus.
For more than 1000 km, the Indus flows northwest through the Karakoram Mountains, following a deep tectonic valley and forming numerous rocky gorges. The Indus crosses the border between the Tibet Autonomous Region and the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir at an altitude of 4572 m near the village of Demchok. After a long mountainous section, the river enters a valley where the ancient city of Leh is located - the capital of the historical region of Ladakh. Not far from Leh, the Zaskar River (on the left) flows into the Indus, after which, near the city of Tingmosgang, the river again goes into the gorge and flows to the border settlement of Batalik.
After crossing the border between the state of Jammu and Kashmir and Pakistan's Northern Territories, the Shingo River flows into the Indus. After about 80 km, the Shayok River flows into the Indus on the right. At Skardu (the main city of Baltistan), the Shigar River flows into the Indus on the right, fed, among other things, by the largest glaciers Biafo and Baltoro. The Indus reaches its northernmost point at the peak of Haramosh, after which it merges with the Gilgit River (also on the right) at the city of Bunji and turns southwest, breaking through the spurs of the Himalayas and the Hindu Kush. From here the Karakoram Highway runs along the banks of the Indus. Almost immediately after its confluence with Gilgit, the Indus is replenished by the waters of the Astor River and flows at the foot of Mount Nanga Parbat, which feeds the river with its glaciers. The Indus then crosses the border of Kashmir and flows into Pakistan.
In its middle reaches it crosses the hilly lowlands where the Tarbela Dam was built in 1977. After this, the Indus receives a large tributary, the Kabul (the height of the confluence is about 610 m), flows through the Kalabagh Gorge between the spurs of the Suleiman Mountains and the Salt Range and then enters the Indo-Gangetic Plain.
Flat area
The river carries a large amount of sediment, so its bed is elevated above the sandy plain. For a considerable length, the river bed is embanked to protect the surrounding areas from floods, which sometimes occur. In 1947 and 1958, floods destroyed large areas, and the 2010 flood also caused great damage to the country. Sometimes severe floods force the river to change its course.
Delta
The Indus Delta formed during the Holocene.
List of tributaries
The largest tributaries:
| Name | Height, m | Merge point coordinates |
|---|---|---|
| Sengge-Zangbo and Gar-Zangbo | 4144 | 32°26′24″ n. w. 79°42′49″ E d. HGIOL |
| Hanle | 4053 | 33°10′06″ n. w. 78°49′26″ E d. HGIOL |
| Zanskar | 3050 | 34°09′56″ n. w. 77°19′54″ E d. HGIOL |
| Sangeluma-Chu | 2783 | 34°34′32″ n. w. 76°31′45″ E. d. HGIOL |
| Shingo | 2580 | 34°44′48″ n. w. 76°12′58″ E. d. HGIOL |
| Shayok | 2258 | 35°13′43″ n. w. 75°55′05″ E. d. HGIOL |
| Shigar | 2180 | 35°19′30″ n. w. 75°37′44″ E. d. HGIOL |
| Gilgit | 35°44′24″ n. w. 74°37′25″ E. d. HGIOL | |
| Astor | 35°34′11″ n. w. 74°38′40″ E. d. HGIOL | |
| Kandin | 789 | 35°25′55″ N. w. 73°12′17″ E. d. HGIOL |
| Chaurudara | 725 | 35°08′33″ n. w. 73°04′56″ E d. HGIOL |
| Khan Khwar | 34°55′23″ n. w. 72°52′46″ E. d. HGIOL | |
| Kabul | 33°53′58″ n. w. 72°14′09″ E. d. HGIOL | |
| Haro | 33°46′01″ n. w. 72°14′39″ E. d. HGIOL | |
| Kohat-Toy | 33°23′48″ n. w. 71°48′09″ E d. HGIOL | |
| Soane | 211 | 33°01′13″ n. w. 71°43′14″ E. d. HGIOL |
| Kurram | 32°37′01″ n. w. 71°21′24″ E. d. HGIOL | |
| Panjnad (Sutlej) | 29°08′42″ n. w. 70°42′55″ E. d. HGIOL |
Water mode
In the mountainous section, the Indus is fed mainly by melting snow and glaciers, where the flow is about 220 km³/year, with an average water flow of about 7000 m³/s. The flow is minimal in the winter months (December-February), from March to June the water rises. In the lower part of the basin, the river is replenished with water from monsoon rains, which leads to spring-summer floods (March - September). During this period, the water rises by 10-15 m in the mountains, and 5-7 m in the plains. During the period of high water (July-September), the river bed in floodplain areas reaches 5-7 km in width (in the area of the city of Dera Ismail Khan the width reaches 20-22 km)
The average water flow in Hyderabad is 3850 m³/sec, but in high-water years this figure can reach 30 thousand m³/sec. After entering the plain, the Indus loses water through evaporation and seepage. During dry periods, the lower Indus may dry up and not reach the Arabian Sea.
There is physiographic and historical evidence to show that at least since the time of the Mohenjo-Daro culture, the Indus has changed the position of its course below southern Punjab several times. In the area of the cities of Rohri and Sukkur, the river is sandwiched between limestone cliffs, and to the south the river bed has moved to the west, especially its delta. Over the last 7 centuries in upper Sindh, the Indus has moved 15-30 km to the west.
Pool
The area of the Indus basin is 970 thousand square kilometers, which makes it the twelfth in the world in terms of this indicator.
The main feeding areas of the Indus are western Tibet, the Karakoram mountain system and the Indus-Yarlung Suture. Indus-Yarlung suture zone) (suture is the junction of various tectonic parts along a fault). The influence of tributaries from the Hindustan Plate is very insignificant.
Geology
The appearance of the river dates back to the period after the collision of the Hindustan Plate with Asia (the collision occurred, according to various estimates, from 55 to 35 million years ago during the Eocene era of the Cenozoic era). Thus, the Indus can be considered one of the oldest rivers in the world, older than the Himalayas, which reached their final height when the Indus was already in existence. During the existence of the Indus, significant deformations of the earth's surface occurred, in particular noticeable uplifts, but they did not lead to significant movements of the channel. Research data show that in ancient times the Indus was a drainage from the Lhasa Plate. Lhasa Plate), and his Indus occurred in conjunction with the collision of the Hindustan Plate with Asia and the uplift of parts of the Lhasa Plate.
The Indus played an important role in shaping the surface of the region. The stability of its position for several tens of millions of years since the Ypresian stage meant that the waters of the Indus took an active part in erosion processes. Sedimentary rocks from the Himalayas were carried by the waters of the proto-Indus into the Arabian Sea as early as the mid-Eocene, increasing the erosion of the rising Karakoram and Lhasa plates. While many rivers in eastern Asia were blocked during the process of mountain building during their history, the Indus, flowing along the suture formed during the collision of plates, shifted only 100 kilometers to the east over millions of years (this was caused by the rise of the Suleiman Mountains and their pressure on the Indus Valley to the east). The removal of sedimentary rocks by the Indus also influenced the formation of Mekran, before the uplift of the Murray Ridge near the Arabian Basin took place, one of the reasons for which was also the active supply of sediment. In addition to the hundred-kilometer shift of the Indus bed to the east, the river delta also moved southward. The reason for this was the natural process of movement of deltas of water flows into the seas, caused by the removal of particles, as well as tectonic processes of compression in this place of the sea.
The completion of the uplift of Tibet and the decline in active sedimentation 8.5 million years ago occurred simultaneously with the emergence of the South Asian monsoons.
Climate
With the exception of a mountainous section in Pakistan, the Indus Valley lies in the driest part of the Indian subcontinent. The average annual precipitation along the entire length of the Indus varies from 125 to 500 mm. In addition to the Himalayan glaciers, the Indus is fed by monsoon rains from July to September.
In the northern part of the Indus basin, January temperatures drop below zero and reach 38 °C in July. The river doesn't freeze. One of the hottest places on Earth, the city of Jacobabad is located west of the Indus in upper Sindh - temperatures there rise to 49 °C.
Flora and fauna
Estimates of the Indus Valley from the time of Alexander the Great indicate dense forests that covered the region in the past. However, these forests have now shrunk significantly. The founder of the Mughal state, Babur, in his memoirs, Babur-nama, wrote about rhinoceroses found on the banks of the river. Intensive deforestation and human impact on environmental situation in Siwalik led to a severe deterioration in growing conditions. The Indus Valley is an arid region with little vegetation. Agriculture is supported in large part by irrigation.
The Indus Basin and the river itself are rich in biological diversity. The region is home to approximately 25 species of amphibians and 147 species of fish, of which 22 are found only in the Indus.
Mammals
The size of fish stocks in the river is quite large, and the cities of Sukkur, Thatta and Kotri are major fishing centers. But the withdrawal of water for irrigation needs and the construction of dams forced the implementation of special measures to maintain the number of fish.
Story
In the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. e. One of the oldest civilizations developed in the Indus Valley. Later, along the Indus Valley and its tributaries passed
The Indus Valley is a place where, more than five thousand years ago, a special civilization arose, which is called the Indus (Harappan).
Story
For modern humanity, it was discovered only in the 20th century, when, after 1920, systematic excavations of the cities of the Indus civilization began. Obviously, the heyday of this agrarian civilization was closely connected with the Indus River, in the basin of which high-yield irrigated agriculture was possible.
The level of progress in the cities created by this civilization was so high that at first scientists assumed that this culture was not of local origin, but was brought, say, by people from Mesopotamia. However, further excavations have confirmed the continuity between the earlier settlements and the Indus civilization.
The archaeological complexes of Harappa and the Indus Valley are the most famous in the world today, although several hundred settlements of this culture, which is sometimes also called Harappan, have already been found.
The cities of the Indus civilization were carefully planned and clearly built according to uniform standards. Wheeled carts drove along straight streets, up to ten meters wide, and the city was divided into separate rectangular blocks. The bricks that the ancient inhabitants of the Indus Valley used for construction were so well made that late XIX V. workers simply dismantled the ruins of Harappa to build the railway.
Many houses of the Indus civilization were built with rooms for ablution in special septic tanks. The sewerage system was carefully planned and lined with bricks. Large pools with waterproof walls are also a sign of the Indus civilization. Water clearly played a role in the formation of this culture in the pool great river decisive role.
Excavations have shown that wheat, millet, barley, and cotton were grown here, bulls and buffaloes were used as draft animals, and poultry was also raised. The artisans of the Indian cities made beautiful ceramics and fabrics, as well as jewelry from bronze, gold, silver, carnelian, agate, lapis lazuli, and turquoise. Numerous finds show that many products were exported. By the way, the system of standards of the Indus civilization is extremely convenient - it was used one system scales, bricks were of the same size, trade clay seals were of the same type, craft tools of the same type. Stone rectangular seals, characteristic of the Indus civilization, are found far from the Indus Valley, indicating active trade.
The writing of the Indus civilization has not yet been deciphered - bilingual texts cannot be found.
Work on deciphering the writing continues. Perhaps, when this can be done, the veil of mystery about the decline of the Indus civilization will be lifted. It ceased to exist by the end of the 18th century. BC e., although no sudden catastrophe happened. The version that the Indus civilization was destroyed by the Aryans who arrived in the Indus Valley at that time is not confirmed by excavation materials. No traces of mass graves or brutal battles were found. It is possible that it was the Indus that was the reason for the decline of one of the richest cultures; one of the hypotheses for its disappearance is a change in the river bed.
After the partition of the formerly unified territory of British India in 1947, some hydraulic structures that provided water for canals in Pakistan ended up in India. Almost immediately in 1948, the Indian administrator cut off the water supply to many canals irrigating fields in the Pakistani province. Indian authorities later cited bureaucratic difficulties.
In 1952, India and Pakistan, who could not reach an agreement, accepted the World Bank's offer of mediation in the negotiations. Long negotiations ended in September 1960 with the signing of the Indus Waters Treaty by Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Pakistani President Ayub Khan.
Under this treaty, India received the right to control the flow of the “eastern” rivers Ravi, Beas and Sutlej, and Pakistan over the water of the “western” rivers - Indus, Jhelum and Chenab. India retained the right to use the water " western rivers» for domestic purposes, that is, for drinking, navigation, agriculture and electricity generation, provided that it does not accumulate water in excessively large quantities.
The treaty gave Pakistan 80% of the water in the Indus River system and did not cause Pakistani protests until India began building hydroelectric dams.
In 2005, there was a break in the “water truce”. The Government of India has announced its intention to build a hydroelectric complex on the Chenab River (a tributary of the Sutlej). The case was transferred World Bank, as a result independent experts Some of the accusations were rejected, but some were recognized as fair.
Now in Pakistan, India is being accused of stealing millions of cubic meters of water for electricity generation from the Chenab River, where the huge Baglihar Dam was built. In 2009, local villagers complained to the Pakistani government that water levels had dropped by more than 10 m.
Pakistan's biggest concern is a repeat of the 1948 situation. Given that the country has the world's largest continental irrigation system, Agriculture accounts for a quarter of Pakistan's GDP and employs half of the country's working population, the concerns are understandable. In May 2010, Pakistan filed a claim with the International Court of Arbitration to stop the construction of the Indian hydroelectric project.
India really needs to develop hydropower, since the lack of electricity creates considerable difficulties for industrial growth, and 40% of the population does not have access to electricity at all.
Pakistan rejects accusations that India could manipulate water flow by reducing it, for example during the planting season. Theoretically, after the entire construction complex is completed, India will be able to contain about a month's volume of river flow during the critical dry season. And of course, this will be enough to destroy the crops in Pakistan.
The “water” conflict is unlikely to be resolved in the near future - all the circumstances of the case speak against it. Moreover, since the middle of the 20th century. in India, the amount of fresh water per capita decreased from 5 thousand cubic meters to 1.8 thousand, and in Pakistan - from 5.6 thousand cubic meters to 1.2 thousand. Considering that the figure of 1 thousand cubic meters is considered critical , then the struggle for control of the Indus between the two nuclear states threatens with unpredictable consequences in the future.
general information
Indus, a major river in South Asia.Source:, northern slope of Mount Garing-boche.
Mouth: northern Arabian Sea.
Main tributaries: Sindhu and Ghar-Dzangbo, Hanle, Zanskar, Sangeluma-Chu, Shingo, Shayok, Shigar, Gilgit, Astor, Kandin, Chaurudara, Khan-Khwar, Kabul, Kharo, Kohattoy, Soan, Kurram, Sutlej (Panjnad).
Countries through which the river flows: China, India, Pakistan.
Major airports: Benazir Bhutto International Airport (Islamabad), Faisalabad International Airport, Karachi Jinnah International Airport, Allama Iqbal International Airport (Lahore).
Main port: Karachi.
Large lakes of the basin: Manasarovar, Langak (China), Kinjhar Lake, Rawal, Tarbela, Manchar (Pakistan).
Numbers
Pool area: 960,800 km 2.Population: about 180,000,000 people.
River length: 3180 km.
Delta area: 30,000 km2.
Water flow: 6600 m 3 /s.
Economy
Shipping from Karachi to Dera Ismail Khan (Pakistan).Hydroelectric power stations (14 dams), irrigation of agricultural land - about 13,700,000 hectares.
Fishing.
Climate and weather
Tropical dry.Average temperature in July:+30°С... +36°С, January: +12°С... +20°С (in the northern part of the basin it drops below 0 in winter).
Average annual precipitation : 125-500 mm.
Attractions
■ (China): monasteries Jokhang Ganden, Sera, Drepung Potala Palace;■ Lech(India): Leh Palace, Alchi Monastery, Lamayuru Monastery, Hemis Monastery;
■ Karachi: Old city, Wazir mansion. Quaid-e-Azam Mazar Mausoleum, Masjid-e-Touba Mosque, Holy Trinity Cathedral, St. Andrew's Church, National Museum Pakistan, Chaukandi Art Gallery;
■ Thatta city(Pakistan);
■ Sukkur(Pakistan): minaret and mausoleum of Mazum Shah, mausoleum of Shah Khairuddin Jilani;
■ Archaeological complex Mohenjo-Daro;
■ Archaeological complex of Harappa;
■ Lahore: underground Ram Temple, Royal Fort, Lahore Fort, Old City, Lahore Museum, Fakir Khan Museum;
■ Islamabad: Shah Faisal Masjid, National Art Gallery, National Heritage Museum, Islamabad Museum;
■ Rawalpindi: Rawat Fort, Giri Fort, Pharwala Fort;
■ Taxila city(Pakistan);
■ National Park Kirthar(Pakistan).
Curious facts
■ The historical name of the Indus is Sindhu (in Sanskrit, this is what one of its tributaries is now called), later, in ancient Persian, sounded like Hindu and gave the name to the country of India, the Hindi language, as well as Hindustan and Hinduism.■ In the waters of the Indus there lives a blind dolphin - susuk. Adults are already very rare species reach a weight of 70-90 kg.
Susuks lack lenses in their eyes and rely entirely on echolocation. IN troubled waters Indus this is quite justified. Blind dolphins do not have natural enemies, but every year there are fewer and fewer of them, despite protection and conservation programs. Human activity - dam construction, discharge Wastewater, fishing is destroying the susuk's habitat.
■ Indus cannot be called navigable river- there are many shallow areas in its course.
Indus Length: 3,180 kilometers.
Area of the Indus Basin: 960,800 square kilometers.
Indus food method: in the upper reaches mainly from melting, in the middle and lower reaches - from melting snow and precipitation.
Tributaries of the Indus: Gartok, Zanskar, Dras, Shaisk, Shigar, Gilgit, Kabul, Panjnad.
Inhabitants of the Indus: snakehead, yellowcheek, eight-whiskered minnows, white carp, silver carp...
Indus Freeze: doesn't freeze.
Where does the Indus flow? The Indus originates in Tibet at 32° and 81°30` east longitude (from Greenwich), at an altitude of 6,500 meters, on the northern slope of Mount Garing-boche, near the northern end of Lake Manassarovar, to the West of which are the sources of the Setledge, and to To the east - Bramaputra. the Indus flow heads to the North-West, after 252 km of flow it receives the Gartok on the left, which flows down from the western slope of Garing-boche, after which the Indus cuts through the plateau, and at the La-Kiel pass it invades the narrow valley separating Kuen-lun from the Himalayan mountains, flows through Ladakh below its capital, the city of Leh, receives the rapid Zanskar at an altitude of 3,753 meters, then the tributary Dras and enters Baltistan, where Shayok flows into it from the right, descending from the Karakorum mountains, and where India receives the name Aba-Sind , that is, the father of rivers. Somewhat higher than Iskardo, or Skardo, the capital of Baltistan, I. receives the Shigar on the right, and then a number of other mountain tributaries. From Skardo, the Indus flows north-northwest for 135 kilometers, at 74° 50` east longitude it turns to the southwest and then receives Gilgit on the right. Somewhat lower, the Indus rushes into the gorge of the Himalayan mountains, 3,000 meters deep, where the “sources of the Indus” were previously believed, although the river is located in this place at a distance of more than 1,300 kilometers from its actual beginning.
Upon leaving the mountains, the Indus first flows into a wide channel among a vast plain, which was once a lake, and connects with the Kabul River, the most significant of its right tributaries; here the width of the Indus is 250 meters, the depth is: in high water 20-25 meters, and in shallow water 10-12 meters. Somewhat below the Indus hits the rocks, from which the city protecting the river crossing received the name Attock (delay). From here the river, for 185 kilometers, must again make its way through a long series of gorges between steep, stone walls, until finally, at the exit from the Karabakh, or Garden, gorge, the Indus finally leaves the mountain region and snakes in long meanders along, bordered by side streams or branches and false rivers indicating the former beds of the main river. Here the Indus, without receiving significant inflows, gradually decreases from evaporation to Mithan-kot, near which it again receives Panjnad, formed from the confluence of Jilam, Chenab, Rava and Setledge, the upper course of which, together with the Indus, forms the famous Pyatirechye. At its confluence with the Indus, Panjnad is 1,700 meters wide, while the width of the Indus itself, with equal depth (4-5 meters), does not exceed 600 meters. Above Rori, in the Sindh region, where the Indus turns to the South, the Happa (East Happa) branch separates from it, which flows to the Southeast, but reaches the sea only in high water. Once Happa, apparently, served as the main channel of the Indus. Other hollows, wide and deep, testify to the incessant wanderings of the river, looking for the most convenient path to the sea. A study of this area leads to the conclusion that the Indus was constantly moving further and further from East to West, either due to a rocking movement in this direction, or due to the rotation of the globe, causing the rivers of the northern hemisphere to deviate to the right from the normal direction. This gradual movement of the Indus to the West leads to the fact that the neighboring areas lying to the East of it are increasingly dried out, and many freshwater streams, separating from the main river, turn into. At Hyderabad, 150 kilometers from the sea, the Indus delta begins, forming a triangle of 8,000 square kilometers, the base of which stretches over an area of 250 kilometers along the coast. The number of Indus mouths cannot be determined with accuracy, since it changes with each flood. During this century, the main channel changed its location many times.