Humans are different from primates. Differences between humans and monkeys. Greater primates or monkeys

Man has his own characteristics that qualitatively distinguish him from animals, including our closest relatives - great apes.

• 1. Upright posture, thanks to which the spine is straightened, the cranium can develop in all directions, which creates the possibility of a significant increase in brain volume; hands are freed, which allows you to make and use tools.
• 2. The human hand differs from the forelimb of primates in greater mobility, better opposability of the thumb; strengthening the palmar region.
• 3. There is a difference in the structure of the brain, which consists mainly in a lower packing density of neurons in the cortex, in more dendrites, in a greater number of cortical neurons with short axons and in a greater number (per unit volume of the cortex) of neuroglial cells. The ratio of the absolute number of neurons in the human cerebral cortex and the monkey cerebral cortex is 1.4:1.0.
• 4. Although the structure of genes, as already mentioned, is the same for us and for monkeys, there is a difference in a characteristic called “gene expression”, in other words, this is their activity, the speed with which new proteins are born through them . It turned out that in the human brain this expression is 5 times higher than in monkeys.

There is an opinion that at some ancient stage in the evolution of primates, the human ancestor received an unexpected advantage in the form of “fast” brain genes. In other words, his brain began to evolve 5 times faster. Why none of the other animals received such a gift is anyone's guess, since it is impossible to answer this question. How we are so different is already more or less clear, but it is not at all clear why such a difference arose.

5. Only a person has speech and is capable of transmitting information not related to the present moment. There is an area in the human brain that controls the conceptual side of speech. And man is the only primate that, due to the low position of the larynx, is capable of articulate speech.

Meanwhile, judging by modern data, the closest relatives of humans - chimpanzees, bonobos and gorilla - understand symbols, operate with them, combine signs, creating new meanings. Pygmy chimpanzees are especially successful in this. For example, a bonobo named Kenzi has learned to communicate using symbols, perceives words by ear without special training, quickly establishes a connection between a drawn symbol and its verbal expression, and understands the meaning of simple sentences. Perhaps in natural conditions Bonobos are capable of transmitting information using symbols. A group of American and Japanese primatologists recently discovered that members of the same community, breaking into groups, leave each other real messages in the form of symbols: sticks stuck in the ground, branches laid on a path, plant leaves oriented in the right direction. Thanks to such marks, relatives can determine the direction of movement of the group ahead. These marks are more often found at forks or in places where it is impossible to leave marks on the ground - when crossing a stream, in a wetland, etc. This is what people would do in similar situations.

• 6. There are significant differences between the psyche of animals and the human psyche:
  • * a person operates with images and concepts, the content of which is free from the limitations of space and time and can relate to imaginary events that never exist anywhere, i.e. his thinking is abstract-logical, in contrast to the concrete-figurative thinking of animals;
  • * a person has cognitive ability, based on penetration into the structure of the world and the construction of models of the world;
  • * a person can both comply with existing moral standards behavior, and destroy and self-destruct;
  • * only man has self-awareness and self-reflection, manifested in the ability to contemplate his own existence and be aware of death.
• 7. Man, unlike animals, does not inherit forms of activity along with the structural and anatomical organization of the body. Forms of activity are transmitted to him indirectly, through the forms of objects created by human labor. In addition, as we have already said, a person knows how to make tools and is capable of long-term concentration of attention, which is necessary for work.

Introduction

In 1739, the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus, in his System of Nature (Systema Naturae), classified humans - Homo sapiens- like one of the primates. In this system, primates are an order in the class mammals. Linnaeus divided this order into two suborders: prosimians (including lemurs and tarsiers) and higher primates. The latter include apes, gibbons, orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees and humans. Primates share many common characteristics that distinguish them from other mammals.
It is generally accepted that Man as a species separated from the animal world within the framework of geological time quite recently - approximately 1.8-2 million years ago at the beginning of the Quaternary period. This is evidenced by the finds of bones in the Olduvai Gorge in western Africa.
Charles Darwin argued that the ancestral species of Man was one of the ancient species of apes that lived in trees and were most similar to modern chimpanzees.
F. Engels formulated the thesis that the ancient ape turned into Homo sapiens thanks to work - “labor created Man.”

Similarities between humans and monkeys

The relationship between humans and animals is especially convincing when comparing their embryonic development. In its early stages, the human embryo is difficult to distinguish from the embryos of other vertebrates. At the age of 1.5 - 3 months, it has gill slits, and the spine ends in a tail. The similarity between human and monkey embryos remains for a very long time. Specific (species) human characteristics arise only at the very latest stages of development. Rudiments and atavisms serve as important evidence of the kinship between humans and animals. There are about 90 rudiments in the human body: the coccygeal bone (the remnant of a reduced tail); fold in the corner of the eye (remnant of the nictitating membrane); fine body hair (fur residue); a process of the cecum - appendix, etc. Atavisms (unusually highly developed rudiments) include the external tail, with which people are very rarely born; abundant hair on the face and body; multiple nipples, highly developed fangs, etc.

A striking similarity of the chromosomal apparatus was discovered. The diploid number of chromosomes (2n) in all apes is 48, in humans - 46. The difference in chromosome numbers is due to the fact that one human chromosome is formed by the fusion of two chromosomes, homologous to those of chimpanzees. A comparison of human and chimpanzee proteins showed that in 44 proteins the amino acid sequences differed by only 1%. Many human and chimpanzee proteins, such as growth hormone, are interchangeable.
The DNA of humans and chimpanzees contains at least 90% of similar genes.

Differences between humans and monkeys

True upright walking and associated structural features of the body;
- S-shaped spine with distinct cervical and lumbar curves;
- low widened pelvis;
- chest flattened in the anteroposterior direction;
- legs elongated compared to the arms;
- arched foot with massive and adducted thumb;
- many features of the muscles and location of internal organs;
- the hand is capable of performing a wide variety of high-precision movements;
- the skull is higher and rounded, does not have continuous brow ridges;
- the cerebral part of the skull dominates to a large extent over the facial part (high forehead, weak jaws);
- small fangs;
- the chin protuberance is clearly defined;
- the human brain is approximately 2.5 times larger than the brain of apes in volume and 3-4 times larger in mass;
- a person has a highly developed cerebral cortex, in which the most important centers of the psyche and speech are located;
- only humans have articulate speech, and therefore they are characterized by the development of the frontal, parietal and temporal lobes of the brain;
- the presence of a special head muscle in the larynx.

Walking on two legs

Upright walking is the most important sign of a person. The rest of the primates, with a few exceptions, live primarily in trees and are quadrupeds, or, as they sometimes say, “four-armed.”
Some apes (baboons) have adapted to terrestrial existence, but they walk on four limbs like the vast majority of mammal species.
Great apes (gorillas) are primarily terrestrial dwellers, walking in a partially upright position, but often supported by the backs of their hands.
The vertical position of the human body is associated with many secondary adaptive changes: the arms are shorter relative to the legs, wide flat feet and short toes, the originality of the sacroiliac joint, the S-shaped curve of the spine that shock-absorbs when walking, a special shock-absorbing connection between the head and the spinal column.

Brain enlargement

An enlarged brain puts Man in special position in relation to other primates. Compared to the average brain size of a chimpanzee, the brain modern man three times more. In Homo habilis, the first of the hominids, it was twice as large as in chimpanzees. Man has much more nerve cells and their location changed. Unfortunately, fossil skulls do not provide sufficient comparative material to evaluate many of these structural changes. It is likely that there is an indirect relationship between brain enlargement and its development and upright posture.

Structure of teeth

The transformations that have occurred in the structure of teeth are usually associated with changes in diet ancient man. These include: reduction in the volume and length of the fangs; closure of the diastema, i.e. the gap that includes the protruding canines in primates; changes in the shape, inclination and chewing surface of different teeth; development of a parabolic dental arch, in which the anterior section has a rounded shape, and the lateral sections expand outward, in contrast to the U-shaped dental arch of monkeys.
During the evolution of hominids, brain enlargement, changes in cranial joints and transformation of teeth were accompanied by significant changes in the structure of various elements of the skull and face and their proportions.

Differences at the biomolecular level

The use of molecular biological methods has made it possible to take a new approach to determining both the time of the appearance of hominids and their family ties with other primate families. The methods used include: immunological analysis, i.e. comparison of immune response various types primates to the introduction of the same protein (albumin) - the more similar the reaction, the closer the relationship; DNA hybridization, which allows one to estimate the degree of relatedness by the degree of matching of paired bases in double strands of DNA taken from different species;
electrophoretic analysis, in which the degree of similarity of proteins of different animal species and, therefore, the proximity of these species is assessed by the mobility of the isolated proteins in an electric field;
Protein sequencing, namely the comparison of the amino acid sequences of a protein in different animal species, which makes it possible to determine the number of changes in the coding DNA responsible for the identified differences in the structure of a given protein. The listed methods showed a very close relationship between species such as gorilla, chimpanzee and man. For example, one protein sequencing study found that the differences in DNA structure between chimpanzees and humans were only 1%.

Traditional explanation of anthropogenesis

The common ancestors of apes and humans are gregarious narrow-nosed monkeys- lived in trees in tropical forests. Their transition to a terrestrial lifestyle, caused by climate cooling and the displacement of forests by steppes, led to upright walking. The straightened position of the body and the transfer of the center of gravity caused a restructuring of the skeleton and the formation of an arched S-shaped spinal column, which gave it flexibility and the ability to absorb shock. An arched springy foot was formed, which was also a method of shock absorption during upright walking. The pelvis expanded, which provided greater stability to the body when walking upright (lowering the center of gravity). The chest has become wider and shorter. The jaw apparatus became lighter from the use of food processed over fire. The forelimbs were freed from the need to support the body, their movements became more free and varied, and their functions became more complex.

The transition from using objects to making tools is the boundary between ape and man. The evolution of the hand followed the path natural selection mutations useful for work activity. The first tools were hunting and fishing tools. Along with plant foods, higher calorie meat foods began to be used more widely. Food cooked over fire reduced the load on the chewing and digestive apparatus, and therefore the parietal crest, to which the chewing muscles are attached in monkeys, lost its importance and gradually disappeared during the selection process. The intestines became shorter.

The herd lifestyle, as labor activity developed and the need to exchange signals, led to the development of articulate speech. Slow selection of mutations transformed the undeveloped larynx and oral apparatus monkeys into the human speech organs. The root cause of the emergence of language was the social and labor process. Work, and then articulate speech, are the factors that controlled the genetically determined evolution of the human brain and sense organs. Concrete ideas about surrounding objects and phenomena were generalized into abstract concepts, and mental and speech abilities developed. A higher education system was being formed nervous activity, and articulate speech developed.
Transition to upright walking, herd lifestyle, high level development of the brain and psyche, the use of objects as tools for hunting and protection - these are the prerequisites for humanization, on the basis of which work activity, speech and thinking developed and improved.

Australopithecus afarensis - probably evolved from some late Dryopithecus about 4 million years ago. Fossils of Australopithecus afarensis have been discovered in Omo (Ethiopia) and Laetoli (Tanzania). This creature looked like a small but erect chimpanzee weighing 30 kg. Their brains were slightly larger than those of chimpanzees. The face was similar to that of apes: with a low forehead, supraorbital ridge, flat nose, cut off chin, but protruding jaws with massive molars. The front teeth had gaps, apparently because they were used as tools for grasping.

Australopithecus africanus settled on Earth approximately 3 million years ago and ceased to exist about a million years ago. It probably descended from Australopithecus afarensis, and some authors have suggested that it was the ancestor of the chimpanzee. Height 1 - 1.3 m. Weight 20-40 kg. The lower part of the face protruded forward, but not as much as in apes. Some skulls show traces of the occipital crest, to which strong neck muscles were attached. The brain was no larger than that of a gorilla, but casts indicate that the structure of the brain was somewhat different from that of apes. In terms of the relative size of the brain and body, Africanus occupies an intermediate position between modern apes and ancient people. The structure of the teeth and jaws suggests that this ape-man chewed plant foods, but may also have gnawed the meat of animals killed by predators. Experts dispute its ability to make tools. The oldest record of Africanus is a 5.5-million-year-old jaw fragment from Lotegama in Kenya, while the youngest specimen is 700,000 years old. Findings indicate that Africanus also lived in Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania.

Australopithecus gobustus (Mighty Australopithecus) had a height of 1.5-1.7 m and a weight of about 50 kg. It was larger and better physically developed than Australopithecus africanus. As we have already said, some authors believe that both of these " southern monkeys"are respectively males and females of the same species, but most experts do not support this assumption. Compared to Africanus, it had a larger and flatter skull, accommodating a larger brain - about 550 cc, and a wider face. K powerful muscles were attached to the high cranial crest, which moved the massive jaws. The front teeth were the same as those of Africanus, and the molars were larger. Moreover, the molars in most specimens known to us are usually very worn, despite the fact that they were covered with a thick layer of durable enamel.This may indicate that the animals ate hard, tough food, in particular cereal grains.
Apparently, the mighty Australopithecus appeared about 2.5 million years ago. All the remains of representatives of this species were found in South Africa, in caves where they were probably dragged beasts of prey. This species became extinct about 1.5 million years ago. Beuys's Australopithecus may have originated from him. The structure of the skull of the mighty Australopithecus suggests that it was the ancestor of the gorilla.

Australopithecus boisei had a height of 1.6-1.78 m and a weight of 60-80 kg, small incisors designed for biting and huge molars capable of grinding food. The time of its existence is from 2.5 to 1 million years ago.
Their brain was the same size as that of the mighty Australopithecus, that is, about three times smaller than our brain. These creatures walked upright. With their powerful physique they resembled a gorilla. As with gorillas, males were apparently significantly larger than females. Like the gorilla, Beuys's Australopithecus had a large skull with supraorbital ridges and a central bony ridge that served to attach powerful jaw muscles. But compared to the gorilla, Beuys's crest was smaller and more forward, his face was flatter, and his fangs were less developed. Because of its huge molars and premolars, this animal received the nickname “nutcracker.” But these teeth could not exert strong pressure on food and were adapted for chewing not very hard material, such as leaves. Since broken pebbles were found along with the bones of Australopithecus Beuys, which is 1.8 million years old, it can be assumed that these creatures could have used the stone for practical purposes. However, it is possible that representatives of this species of monkeys fell victim to their contemporary - a person who succeeded in using stone tools.

A little criticism of classical ideas about the origin of Man

If man's ancestors were hunters and ate meat, then why are his jaws and teeth weak for raw meat, and the intestines relative to the body are almost twice as long as those of carnivores? The jaws of prezinjanthropes were already significantly reduced, although they did not use fire and could not soften food on it. What did human ancestors eat?

When there is danger, birds fly into the air, ungulates run away, monkeys take refuge in trees or rocks. How did the animal ancestors of people, with slow movement and the absence of tools other than pathetic sticks and stones, escape from predators?

M.F. Nesturkh and B.F. Porshnev openly also refer to the unresolved problems of anthropogenesis mysterious reasons people losing hair. After all, even in the tropics it is cold at night and all monkeys retain their fur. Why did our ancestors lose it?

Why did a cap of hair remain on a person’s head while it was being reduced on most of the body?

Why does a person’s chin and nose protrude forward with the nostrils turned down for some reason?

The speed of transformation of Pithecanthropus into modern man (Homo sapiens), as is usually believed, in 4-5 millennia, is incredible for evolution. Biologically this is inexplicable.

A number of anthropological researchers believe that our distant ancestors were australopithecines who lived on the planet 1.5-3 million years ago, but australopithecines were land monkeys, and like modern chimpanzees they lived in savannas. They could not be the ancestors of Man, since they lived at the same time as him. There is evidence that Australopithecus, who lived in West Africa 2 million years ago, they were objects of hunting by ancient people.

That the monkey is close relative It has been known for a long time that chimpanzees are our closest relative among all apes. When studying DNA, the origin of humans from ape-like ancestors is fully confirmed. Genetic differences at the DNA level between humans average 1 nucleotide in 1000 (i.e. 0.1%), between humans and chimpanzees - 1 nucleotide in 100 (i.e. 1%).

In terms of genome size, humans and higher primates do not differ from each other, but they differ in the number of chromosomes - humans have one less pair. As was discussed in previous lectures, a person has 23 pairs of chromosomes, i.e. a total of 46. Chimpanzees have 48 chromosomes, one pair more. In the process of evolution, human ancestors had two different chromosomes primates united into one. Similar changes in the number of chromosomes occur in the evolution of other species. They may be important for the genetic isolation of a group during the process of speciation, since in most cases individuals with different numbers of chromosomes do not produce offspring.

The time of divergence of species, or in other words, the time of existence of the last common ancestor for two species, can be determined in several ways. The first is this: they date the bone remains and determine who these remains could belong to, when the common ancestor of certain species could have lived. But there are not so many bone remains of supposed human ancestors that it is possible to confidently restore and date the complete sequence of forms in the process of anthropogenesis. Now they use another method of dating the time of divergence between humans and other primates. To do this, count the number of mutations that have accumulated in the same genes in each of the branches during their separate evolution. The rate at which these mutations accumulate is more or less known. The rate of accumulation of mutations is determined by the number of differences in the DNA of those species for which paleontological dating of the divergence of species based on bone remains is known. Time of divergence between humans and chimpanzees different estimates varies from 5.4 to 7 million years ago.

You already know that the human genome has been completely read (sequenced). Last year it was reported that the chimpanzee genome had also been read. By comparing the genomes of humans and chimpanzees, scientists are trying to identify the genes that “make us human.” This would be easy to do if, after the separation of the branches, only human genes evolved, but this is not so, chimpanzees also evolved, and mutations also accumulated in their genes. Therefore, in order to understand in which branch the mutation occurred - in humans or in chimpanzees - we also have to compare them with the DNA of other species, gorilla, orangutan, mouse. That is, what only chimpanzees have and, for example, orangutans do not, are purely “chimpanzine” nucleotide substitutions. Thus, by comparing the nucleotide sequences of different primate species, we can identify those mutations that occurred only in the line of our ancestors. There are now about a dozen genes known that “make us human.”

Differences have been discovered between humans and other animals in the genes of olfactory receptors. In humans, many olfactory receptor genes are inactivated. The DNA fragment itself is present, but mutations appear in it that inactivate this gene: either it is not transcribed, or it is transcribed, but a non-functional product is formed from it. As soon as selection to maintain the functionality of a gene ceases, mutations begin to accumulate in it, disrupting the reading frame, inserting stop codons, etc. That is, mutations appear in all genes, and the mutation rate is approximately constant. It is possible to maintain a gene functioning only due to the fact that mutations that disrupt important functions are rejected by selection. Such genes inactivated by mutations, which can be recognized by their nucleotide sequence, but have accumulated mutations that make it inactive, are called pseudogenes. In total, the mammalian genome contains about 1000 sequences corresponding to olfactory receptor genes. Of these, 20% of pseudogenes are in mice, a third (28-26%) are inactivated in chimpanzees and macaques, and more than half (54%) are pseudogenes in humans.

Pseudogenes are also found in humans among the genes that encode the family of keratin proteins that make up hair. Since we have less hair than chimpanzees, it is clear that some of these genes could be inactivated.

When they talk about the difference between humans and apes, they primarily highlight development mental abilities and ability to speak. A gene associated with the ability to speak has been found. This gene was identified by studying a family with a hereditary speech disorder: an inability to learn to form phrases in accordance with the rules of grammar, combined with a mild degree of delay mental development. The slide shows the pedigree of this family: circles are women, squares are men, filled figures are sick family members. The mutation associated with the disease is in the gene FOXP2(forkhead box P2). It is quite difficult to study gene functions in humans; it is easier to do this in mice. They use the so-called knockout technique. The gene is specifically inactivated, if you know the specific nucleotide sequence, then this is possible, after which this gene does not work in the mouse. In mice in which the gene is turned off FOXP2, the formation of one of the brain zones during the embryonic period was disrupted. Apparently, in humans this zone is associated with the development of speech. This gene encodes a transcription factor. Recall that at the embryonic stage of development, transcription factors turn on a group of genes at certain stages that control the transformation of cells into what they should turn into.

To see how this gene evolved, it was sequenced in different species: mouse, macaque, orangutan, gorilla and chimpanzee, and then compared these nucleotide sequences with human ones.

It turned out that this gene is very conserved. Among all primates, only the orangutan had one amino acid substitution, and the mouse had one substitution. On the slide, two numbers are visible for each line, the first shows the number of amino acid substitutions, the second - the number of so-called silent (synonymous) nucleotide substitutions, most often these are substitutions in the third position of the codon that do not affect the encoded amino acid. It can be seen that silent substitutions accumulate in all lines, that is, mutations in a given locus are not prohibited if they do not lead to amino acid substitutions. This does not mean that mutations in the protein-coding part did not appear; they most likely appeared, but were eliminated by selection, so we cannot detect them. The lower part of the figure schematically depicts the amino acid sequence of the protein; the places where two human amino acid substitutions occurred, which apparently affected the functional characteristics of the protein, are marked. FOXP2.

If a protein evolves at a constant rate (the number of nucleotide substitutions per unit time is constant), then the number of substitutions in the branches will be proportional to the time during which the substitutions accumulated. The time of separation of the line of rodents (mice) and primates is assumed to be 90 million years, the time of separation of humans and chimpanzees is 5.5 million years. Then the number of substitutions m accumulated in total in the mouse line and in the primate line between the point of separation with the mouse and the point of separation between humans and chimpanzees (see figure), compared with the number of substitutions h in the human line, should be 31.7 times greater. If more substitutions have accumulated in the human line than expected at a constant rate of gene evolution, then evolution is said to be accelerating. How many times evolution is accelerated is calculated using a simple formula:

A. I.= ( h/5.5) / [ m/(2 x 90 - 5.5)]= 31.7 h/ m

Where is A.I. (Acceleration Index) – acceleration index.

Now we need to evaluate whether the deviation of the number of substitutions in a person’s line from is within the limits of chance, or whether the deviation is significantly higher than expected. The probability that 2 amino acid substitutions will appear in the human line within 5.5 million years, given that the probability of the occurrence of substitutions is estimated for the mouse line as 1/(90+84.6)=1/174.6. In this case, the binomial distribution is used B(h + m, Th/(Th+Tm)), where h is the number of substitutions in the human line, m is the number of substitutions in the mouse line: Th=5.5, Tm=174.5.

Although chimpanzees are our closest relatives, they were still unknown in most parts of the world until Charles Darwin wrote about them in 1859 and they became popular. Only recently has a lot of hitherto unknown information been discovered, allowing us to take a different look at the misconceptions and exaggerations that are used in abundance in the works fiction. However, our similarities and differences are not what many imagine. By studying our immediate family, we can better understand ourselves.

1. Number of types

Chimpanzees are often incorrectly called apes, but they are actually just big family monkeys, just like us. Others prominent representatives primates are orangutans and gorillas. There is only one species of man at present: homo sapiens. In the past, many scientists have tried to prove that there are several species of humans, and often hasten to add that they belonged to the “higher” species. However, all humans can produce offspring from their own kind, and therefore we are all one species. As for chimpanzees, there are actually two species: pan troglodytes, which are common chimpanzee, and pan paniscus, the slender chimpanzee or bonobo. These two species of chimpanzees are completely certain types. Humans and chimpanzees as species evolved from a common ancestor, possibly sahelanthropus tchadensis, about five or seven million years ago. Only fossils remain of this ancestor.

2. DNA

It is often said that human and chimpanzee DNA are 99% the same. Genetic comparison is not an easy task due to the nature of the gene mutation, so a more accurate estimate is somewhere between 85% and 95%. And while this number may sound impressive, it has already been proven that DNA is used by all living things for basic cellular functions. For example, we have about half the same DNA as a banana, and yet no one emphasizes this fact to show how similar a person can be to a banana! Thus, 95% do not say as much as it seems at first glance. Chimpanzees have 48 chromosomes, two more than humans. Believed to be an inheritance from a human ancestor, two pairs of chromosomes merge into one pair. Interestingly, humans have the least genetic variation of any animal, so inbreeding can cause genetic problems. Even two completely unrelated humans are typically more genetically similar than two chimpanzee brothers.

3. Brain size

The average chimpanzee brain has a volume of 370 cc. On the other hand, humans have an average brain size of about 1350 cc. see However, the brain and its size are not in themselves absolute indicator intelligence. Some laureates Nobel Prize had a brain volume below 900 cc. cm, and some - more than 2000 cubic meters. see The structure and organization of the various parts of the brain is the best way to determine intelligence. The human brain has a larger surface area, so it has many more convolutions than the chimpanzee brain, which means the human brain has more connections between parts of the brain. And also the relatively large frontal lobe allows us to have much more developed abstract and logical thinking.

4. Social communication skills

Chimpanzees spend a lot of time communicating. Most of Their communication consists of caring for each other. Juvenile and young chimpanzees often play, chase each other, and tickle each other. Adult chimpanzees also often play with their offspring. Shows of affection include hugging and kissing and occur between chimpanzees of all ages and genders. Bonobos are especially outspoken, and almost every display of attention has a sexual connotation, regardless of gender. Chimpanzees form friendships and spend a lot of time together grooming each other. Humans also spend about the same amount of time communicating, but we do it more verbally than physically. However, much of the vast amount of meaningless chatter is simply a more complex version of chimpanzee behavior - and it serves a slightly different purpose than strengthening our bonds. People also demonstrate closer relationships through physical contact - friendly pats on the back or hugs. Dimensions social group primates are accurately reflected in the size of their brains. Chimpanzees have about 50 close friends and acquaintances, while humans have between 150 and 200.

5. Language and facial expressions

Chimpanzees have complex systems greetings and messages that depend on social statuses communicating chimpanzees. They communicate verbally using a variety of calls, grunts and other vocalizations. Most of their communication, however, is done through gestures and facial expressions. Many of their facial expressions - surprise, smiles, pleading facial expressions and consoling facial expressions - are the same as those of humans. However, humans smile by showing their teeth, which for chimpanzees and many other animals is a sign of aggression or danger. Most human communication is carried out through vocalizations. Humans clearly have more complex vocal cords, which allows them to produce a greater range of sounds, but also makes it difficult for them to drink and breathe at the same time, as chimpanzees do. In addition, humans have very muscular tongues and lips, which allows them to perform precise manipulations of their voices. This is why humans have a pointed chin, while chimpanzees have a sloping chin - humans have most of the labial muscles on lower jaw in the chin area, but chimpanzees do not have many of these muscles and therefore do not need a prominent chin.

6. Food

Chimpanzees and humans are omnivores (eating plants and meat). Humans are more carnivorous than chimpanzees and have smaller intestines for digesting meat. Chimpanzees sometimes hunt and kill other mammals, often other monkeys, but otherwise chimpanzees are content with fruit and sometimes insects. People are much more dependent on meat - people can get vitamin B12 naturally only from animal products. Based on our digestive system and the lifestyle of surviving tribes, it is believed that humans evolved to eat meat at least once every few days. People also tend to eat on a schedule rather than eating continuously throughout the day, which is characteristic feature other carnivores. This may be due to the fact that the meat could only be available after a successful hunt and was therefore eaten in large quantities, But not often. Chimpanzees will eat fruit throughout the day, while most humans will eat no more than three times a day.

7. Sex

Bonobos are known for their sexual appetite. The common chimpanzee may become angry or aggressive, but bonobos relieve tension through sexual pleasure. They also greet each other and show their affection for each other through sexual arousal. The common chimpanzee does not use sex recreationally, and mating takes only ten or fifteen seconds, often while eating or during other activities. Friendships and emotional attachments have no bearing on who the common chimpanzee associates with, and females in heat usually mate with several males, who sometimes wait patiently for each other's turn. Humans experience sexual pleasure like bonobos, but reproductive sex takes much longer and requires more effort, resulting in long-term partnerships. Unlike humans, chimpanzees have no concept of sexual jealousy or competition, as they do not have long-term partners.

8. Upright walking

Both humans and chimpanzees are bipedal creatures and can walk on two legs. Chimpanzees often do this to see further, but prefer to walk on all fours. Humans have been walking upright since childhood and have developed a cup-shaped pelvis to support them internal organs. Chimpanzees walk by leaning forward as they move, so that their pelvis does not support their organs, and they have wider hips. This makes childbirth much easier for chimpanzees than for humans, whose cup-shaped pelvis is in the path of the large birth canal. Humans have straight legs with their toes pointed forward for ease of walking, while chimpanzees have protruding thumb on the leg and their legs look more like arms. They use their legs to climb and crawl sideways, diagonally, or in rotational movements.

9. Eyes

In humans, the iris of the eye is white, while the iris of the chimpanzee eye is typically dark brown. This makes it easier to see where a person is looking, and there are several theories as to why this is so. This may be an adaptation to a more complex social situation where it is advantageous to see who others are looking at and what they think. This can help when hunting in complete silence, where eye direction is very important for communication. Or it could simply be a genetic mutation with no purpose - some chimpanzees also have white irises. Both humans and chimpanzees can see in color, which helps them choose ripe fruits and plants for food, and have binocular vision, their eyes look in the same direction. This helps them see in depth and is more important during hunting than having eyes on different sides of the head like rabbits, which helps them avoid being caught.

10. Tools

For many years, it was believed that among animals only humans use tools. Observations of chimpanzees dating back to 1960 showed the use of pointed branches to catch termites, but much has changed since then. Both humans and chimpanzees are capable of change environment creating tools to solve everyday problems. Chimpanzees make spears, use rocks as hammers and anvils, and crush leaves to use as temporary sponges. It is believed that as a result of walking upright, our forelimbs are much more free to use tools, and we have elevated tool use to an art. We live constantly surrounded by the products of our abilities, and much of what people think makes us “successful” has its roots in our instrumental production.

Children raised by animals

10 mysteries of the world that science has finally revealed

In Brazil, a live fish more than a meter long was pulled out of a patient

The elusive Afghan "vampire deer"

Apes (anthropomorphids, or hominoids) belong to the superfamily of narrow-nosed primates. These, in particular, include two families: hominids and gibbons. The body structure of narrow-nosed primates is similar to that of humans. This similarity between humans and apes is the main one that allows them to be classified as one taxon.

Evolution

Apes first appeared at the end of the Oligocene in the Old World. This was approximately thirty million years ago. Among the ancestors of these primates, the most famous are primitive gibbon-like individuals - propliopithecus, from the tropics of Egypt. It was from them that Dryopithecus, Gibbon and Pliopithecus arose. In the Miocene, there was a sharp increase in the number and diversity of species of apes that existed at that time. At that time, there was an active spread of Dryopithecus and other hominoids throughout Europe and Asia. Among the Asian individuals were the predecessors of orangutans. In accordance with the data of molecular biology, humans and apes split into two trunks about 8-6 million years ago.

Fossil finds

The oldest known apes are Rukvapithecus, Camoyapithecus, Morotopithecus, Limnopithecus, Ugandapithecus and Ramapithecus. Some scientists are of the opinion that modern apes are descendants of Parapithecus. But this point of view has insufficient justification due to the paucity of the remains of the latter. As a relict hominoid we mean the mythical creature - Bigfoot.

Description of primates

Apes have a larger body than that of apes. Narrow-nosed primates do not have a tail, ischial calluses (only gibbons have small ones), or cheek pouches. Characteristic feature hominoids is the way they move. Instead of moving on all their limbs along the branches, they move under the branches mainly on their arms. This method of movement is called brachiation. Adaptation to its use provoked some anatomical changes: more flexible and longer arms, a flattened chest in the anteroposterior direction. All apes are able to stand on their hind limbs, freeing their forelimbs. All types of hominoids are characterized by developed facial expressions, the ability to think and analyze.

Difference between humans and apes

Short-nosed primates have significantly more hair, which covers almost the entire body, with the exception of small areas. Despite the similarity between humans and apes in structure, humans are not as developed and have a significantly shorter length. At the same time, the legs of narrow-nosed primates are less developed, weaker and shorter. Apes move easily through trees. Often individuals swing on branches. During walking, all limbs are usually used. Some individuals prefer the “walking on their fists” method of movement. In this case, the body weight is transferred to the fingers, which are gathered into a fist. Differences between humans and apes also manifest themselves in the level of intelligence. Despite the fact that narrow-nosed individuals are considered one of the most intelligent primates, their mental inclinations are not as developed as those of humans. However, almost everyone has the ability to learn.

Habitat

Apes inhabit the tropical forests of Asia and Africa. For all existing species Primates are characterized by their habitat and way of life. Chimpanzees, for example, including dwarf ones, live on the ground and in trees. These representatives of primates are distributed in almost all types of African forests and open savannas. However, some species (bonobos, for example) are found only in the humid tropics of the Congo Basin. Gorilla subspecies: eastern and western lowland - more common in humid African forests, and representatives of the mountain species prefer forests with temperate climate. These primates rarely climb trees due to their massive size and spend almost all their time on the ground. Gorillas live in groups, and the number of members changes constantly. Orangutans, on the contrary, are loners, as a rule. They inhabit swampy and rain forests, they climb trees perfectly, they move from branch to branch somewhat slowly, but quite deftly. Their arms are very long - reaching all the way to their ankles.

Speech

Since ancient times, people have sought to establish contact with animals. Many scientists have studied the issues of teaching speech to great apes. However, the work did not produce the expected results. Primates can only produce isolated sounds that bear little resemblance to words, and their vocabulary in general is very limited, especially in comparison with talking parrots. The fact is that narrow-nosed primates lack certain sound-producing elements in the oral cavity in organs corresponding to humans. This is what explains the inability of individuals to develop skills in pronouncing modulated sounds. Monkeys express their emotions in different ways. So, for example, a call to pay attention to them is with the sound “uh”, passionate desire is manifested by panting, threat or fear is manifested by a piercing, sharp cry. One individual recognizes the mood of another, looks at the expression of emotions, adopting certain manifestations. To convey any information, facial expressions, gestures, and posture are the main mechanisms. Taking this into account, the researchers tried to start talking to monkeys using the same method used by deaf and mute people. Young monkeys learn signs quite quickly. After enough short period people got the opportunity to talk with animals.

Perception of beauty

The researchers noted, not without pleasure, that monkeys love to draw. In this case, primates will act quite carefully. If you give a monkey paper, a brush and paints, then in the process of depicting something, he will try not to go beyond the edge of the sheet. In addition, animals are quite skillful in dividing the plane of paper into several parts. Many scientists consider the paintings of primates to be strikingly dynamic, rhythmic, full of harmony in both color and form. More than once it was possible to show the work of animals at art exhibitions. Researchers of primate behavior note that monkeys have an aesthetic sense, although it manifests itself in a rudimentary form. For example, watching animals living in the wild, they saw how individuals sat on the forest edge during sunset and watched in fascination.