Lecture: The natural factor in the aspect of the theory of history. Social life

The study of nature and specificity public life should begin with the study of its primary element - man, man as a person. But man is not born as a person. In the process of life, especially at an early age, she acquires all one way or another the necessary social signs and features that help her live and act in the social environment, perceive it and make its own influential adjustments in the process of activity.

The individual does not have the opportunity to choose where, when and how to live. He finds a certain natural and social environment, is forced to adapt, adapt to its conditions. This process of “entering” into social life is commonly called socialization. Its essence lies in the development of social roles (son, brother, friend, student, buyer, passenger, etc.) and acquiring the skills of appropriate role-playing behavior. The assimilation and adjustment of such skills are stimulated by the encouragement or condemnation from others, through the system of social control. Socialization begins in early childhood and continues throughout life, as the options for role behavior are endless.

So, a person constantly feels his full or at least partial dependence on other people or depersonalized by external circumstances. She sees that her desire and aspiration each time encounter certain obstacles, her possibilities in realizing her own will and achieving her goal are, as a rule, limited. Already from childhood, she gets used to perceive the surrounding world of people as rigidly normalized and determined by custom, law or someone else's will. Therefore, the theory of socialization acquires decisive importance in studying the system of action of these factors.

We will call socialization the process during which a human being with certain biological inclinations acquires certain qualities necessary for life in society. In a broader definition, this concept is understood as the process of assimilation by an individual of patterns of behavior, psychological mechanisms, social norms and values ​​that are necessary for the successful functioning of an individual in a given society.

Theory of socialization establishes under the influence of what social factors certain personality traits are created, and the very mechanism of the process of a person's entry from the individual to the social. From these positions, the socialization system includes: social cognition, mastering certain skills of practical activity, mastering certain norms, positions, roles and statuses, developing value orientations and attitudes, as well as including a person in active creative activity. Socialization includes the processes of assimilation, adaptation (getting used to new conditions), education (targeted impact on the spiritual sphere and behavior of the individual), learning (mastering new knowledge) - in a word, learning the "rules of life". Sometimes, as derivatives, both maturation and maturation are included here (sociopsychological on the physiological processes of human formation). Thus, socialization is not only the acquisition of social and economic independence, but also the formation of personality. The individual is the starting point of this process, and the mature person is the final one.

The process of socialization continues throughout life, it distinguishes several "life" cycles (stages): to labor, labor and labor. In this regard, socialization has an active character.

Depending on the age of the person, three main stages of socialization are conditionally defined: primary (socialization of the child, marginal (adolescent), persistent holistic socialization (transition to maturity). In addition, each period is characterized by certain signs. So, in adulthood, socialization is aimed at changing behavior in a new situation, and childhood the emphasis is on the formation of value orientation. adults relying on own experience, are only able to evaluate and perceive them critically, and children are only able to assimilate them. On fig. 1 shows the ratio of assimilation and acquisition social signs and qualities in the process of socialization and depending on age: at an early age - the process of assimilation of qualities is most intensive, and, as a rule, the most important vital, basic signs, at a later age - on the contrary.

Socialization- as a purposeful constructive process - should begin in childhood, when almost 70% of the human personality. If you are late, irreversible processes may begin. It is in childhood that the foundation of socialization is laid, time is its most unprotected stage. The process of acquiring certain social qualities occurs through whose outside help - socialization agents (specific people who are responsible for teaching and assimilating cultural norms and social roles of socialization institutions (institutions, institutions that influence the process of socialization and direct it). Since socialization is divided into two types - primary and secondary, insofar as agents and institutions of socialization are divided into primary (the immediate and immediate environment of a person: parents, family, relatives, friends, teachers, etc.), and secondary (all those who are in the second, less important echelon of influence per person: representatives of the school administration, institute, enterprise, army, church, law enforcement agencies, mass media, various formal organizations, official institutions).

Socialization goes through stages that coincide with the so-called life cycles. They mark important milestones in the biography of each person. Life cycles are associated with a change in social roles, the acquisition of a new status, a change in lifestyle, and the like. One of the mechanisms of socialization is based on this - the so-called cyclic theory of socialization (according to the stages or cycles of individual human development). According to this theory, personality formation goes through 8 stages, respectively, at each of which a characteristic mechanism of perception and development occurs. social environment:

This theory has socio-psychological and age aspects of human formation.

The process of socialization sometimes changes significantly. This, as a rule, is associated with the transition of a person to a new life stage, a new life cycle. A person has to relearn a lot: move away from previous values, norms, roles, rules of behavior - (desocialization) by learning and assimilating new values, norms, roles, rules of behavior instead of the old ones (resocialization). All these subprocesses are included in the structure of the multifaceted mechanism of socialization.

Sociology studies socialization in different aspects: socialization of generations in specific historical conditions, individuals in certain socio-economic conditions, age socialization in a particular society. But it will be more complete if we begin the study of social phenomena from the conditions of their formation: natural, economic, cultural. This is the so-called evolutionary (complex) level of the mechanism of socialization (Fig. 2. Factors in the formation of social relations).

Natural. Let's start with the fact that "social life" is a complex of phenomena that arise from the interaction of individuals and groups. "Public" manifests itself in both the plant and animal worlds. In plants, this is a natural process of evolution, adaptation to the environment, direct dependence on conditions, and there is no conscious action or intention in them. The animal has connections, an awakening that humans also have, on the example of uncoordinated associations (cockroaches) of cohesion high type(ants, bees, wolves, lions, monkeys). And since these connections are no longer determined by any factors, but only by natural ones, it is possible to detect their influence on people.

The initial foundations of social life are biological - these are the characteristics of the human body, biological needs, physiological processes. The main ones, thanks to which human culture was formed, are:

■ straight walking;

■ hands, fingers (until now a universal tool human activity);

■ dependence of children on parents, care of the latter;

■ plasticity of needs, habits, developed adaptation;

■ stability and specificity of behavior (particularly sexual "), communication.

There are various anthropological theories, according to which natural conditions are interpreted as the main factor in the development of society.

Geographic conditions- This is the second set of natural conditions. Man, as a "zoological species", lives on land, where there is an influence of geographical conditions on its activity (relief, climatic and weather). The specificity of these conditions reflects the placement of people, resettlement, and the state of health. (Example: comparison of the specifics of the geographical and social conditions of the inhabitants of the tundra, desert, forest zone). There is a direction in sociological theory - geographical determinism, which explains the human psyche as a reaction to natural geographical conditions. (Example: comparing the character of a Spaniard and a Swede). But man is a creative being, it changes, subjugates, adapts the environment. Dependence on geographical conditions was felt mainly only in primitive society. Therefore, the geographical environment, although it forms the basis, does not determine the course of social life.

Demographic bases can also be attributed to natural conditions: these are the phenomena of fertility, natural increase, population density; relative composition a certain type of population (youth, older people). All this affects economic and social processes and phenomena (production, standard of living). The demographic process also determines certain limits of social life. A rationally quantitatively regulated and hygienically healthy population is an important factor in social development.

Social theories that study the problem of social development, the size and quality of the population, are defined as the concept of demographic determinism. Natural conditions are a necessary basis for social life, but they are not decisive.

Another group of conditions-factors of social life is economic conditions. As a bioist, a person depends to a certain extent on nature, but this dependence is not decisive. Man is inherently a creator - he adapts, subjugates the elements of the natural environment, works. The process of purposeful human influence, during which it transforms the elements of the natural environment into the means of satisfying its needs, into the material goods necessary for life, is called labor. This is a constant and necessary process, and therefore the production of material goods determines the basic processes of social life. In order to transform an element of nature into a definite and necessary, worthy form for use, consumption, a person puts into action all his natural forces: hands, fingers, head. Acting on nature, it is socially modified. The production process itself includes:

■ purposeful human activity;

■ item that is produced;

■ the tool that guides.

Tools of labor in historical development under the influence of man have changed; the people who were engaged in these tools also changed. But the production process is not only a level of development, in this process people interacted with each other, entered into certain relationships, relationships. This is how production and economic relations were formed - a system of connections and dependencies in which people are engaged in the process of production, exchange, consumption. Economic relations- the way in which the people of a certain society produce means of subsistence and exchange products (since there is a division of labor). People engaged in production enter into certain social and political relations.

Production and economic relations were transformed on a certain basis - the relationship of people to the instruments of production (form of ownership). In the process of historical economic development some took possession of the means, others offered labor (physical strength, skill, knowledge). From here - there was a division of people into social classes, layers. The satisfaction of natural goods led to the formation of institutions of production, exchange and consumption, a certain system of relations, which, in turn, gave rise to various forms communities of people.

Cultural Foundations- this is the third set of factors that determine the phenomena and processes of social life.

The influence of culture on social life is expressed primarily through the socialization and formation of an individual, as well as through the formation and development of each individual era in the process of historical development society, which, in turn, determines the shade and nature of socialization. The place and role of the phenomenon of culture is most fully realized thanks to the important social functions that culture has performed and still performs in society. Each individual becomes a member of society, and most importantly, a person only in the process of socialization, thanks to the assimilation of knowledge, skills, language, values, norms, traditions, rules of conduct of his social group and the whole society as a whole. Culture consolidates, solders, integrates people, ensures the integrity of society.

Schematically, socialization can be depicted as a system "child - family - person". It is in the family that the child acquires the first signs of social life. A person is formed in the process of education. The child learns, accepts and acquires certain traits, knowledge and skills.

The creation and introduction of a value system is another form of cultural influence. Culture establishes a system of values, defines the criteria. This includes not only teaching cultural norms and mastering social roles, but also the transfer from parents to children of social values, ideas about what is good and evil, good and bad, etc. Man is primarily characterized by biological needs, and it satisfies them. In the further mechanism of satisfying needs, interests and values ​​arise, because they are realized in different ways, means, methods - a choice is formed in interests and means.

In such situations, values ​​come into play, the scale of values ​​- those "objects" (material and spiritual) that provide a person with internal balance, or those that are necessary to satisfy needs, maintain internal balance. This is an important behavior factor. Thanks to the hierarchy of values, a person manifests his attitude, behaves, and reacts in different ways. A combination of her actions in various situations is created. Values ​​are created and developed in the course of cultural development. They are acquired in public life - in the course of socialization. A person develops - his system of values ​​is formed. A developed value system is the result of proper socialization. The value system determines the choice of means to satisfy needs, interests, determines the direction in needs. And how the system of values ​​is modified in different situations, this is recognized as "models" of actions, behaviors established within a certain culture.

Patterns of activity and patterns of behavior are also elements of the mechanism for the formation and functioning of social relations. Behavior patterns are certain patterns of behavior used in certain situations, that is, "how one should behave and act in various conditions and situations." The pattern of behavior expresses a certain regularity of the course of phenomena established and accepted in a given culture. It is an established pattern of social behavior. This is a desirable model associated with values ​​that need to be accepted. The adopted models become a style, a principle, and in a certain way act on the organization of human communities.

Ultimately, culture exerts an influential force on the formation of personality through the creation and functioning of social institutions, social systems. In the process of social development, forms of organizing joint activities of people have been historically formed, according to which the latter, in the course of their life, in mutual actions, use (and should) accepted social norms and socio-cultural patterns that determine sustainable forms of social behavior. A person does not choose these norms and patterns, but fixes them and acts according to them.

Socialization, the establishment of values, samples and models, institutional factors are the most important ways in which culture influences the course of social life. Together with economic fundamentals it gives people symbols, values, defines, and also responds to needs, after satisfying basic biological needs. In the course of socialization, the individual plays both a passive (assimilation of social experience, perception of values) and an active role (the formation of a certain system of orientation, attitudes).

The process of socialization in sociology is also considered as a dual process of the internal and external character of the individual's action. Internality in human behavior is manifested in the transformation of external factors of the social environment into internal processes of consciousness and the orientation of a person to external influencing life factors as a dominant. Externality turns out to be in the objectification of the external world of a person in his practical activity, and the system of his own manifestations of conscious action with the external world is a dominant feature. Thus, culture is something that is acquired by a person in the process of socialization. And socialization is how culture is assimilated by a person. It is both a mechanism and a process.

The influence of the natural factor on the level of wealth of society, demographic growth, the speed of historical development throughout history has been exceptionally strong. That is why the image of nature has always been the most important in the spiritual life of society, people deified it, sang about it, feared it and were grateful to it for its generosity. Global climatic changes (glaciation, warming, drying up of the steppe, etc.) played an important role in the formation of mankind and its history. The natural environment was able to enormously speed up or slow down various processes. This has been reflected in various theories, which are discussed below. In the early periods of history, the life of an individual and human collectives depended on the characteristics of nature to an incomparably greater extent than today. However, even modern society, having solved many important problems, not only failed to escape the influence of nature, but unexpectedly faced global and very complex environmental problems. The life of modern man, despite the enormous successes of science and civilization, is still connected by countless threads with nature (through food, water, air, microorganisms, etc.) and depends on it. In the end, everything you have modern man besides knowledge and information, made from natural material, albeit transformed. The study of the mutual influence of nature and society in the past and present is one of the most important tasks of both historical and many other sciences.

1. SYSTEM "SOCIETY - NATURE"

Natural (geographical) environment. Society cannot exist outside the natural (geographical) environment. This Wednesday is a complex set of different conditions (climate, topography, soils, minerals, and much more). The influence that it has on the life of society is called the natural (geographical) factor. . It is quite clear that in relation to each specific society, the natural environment will be part of the planet, in relation to humanity in general - the entire globe and the space surrounding it (including outer space). Society and nature form single system, because between them there is: a) metabolism; b) mutual influence; c) mutual transformation; d) the formation of common for both elements. Some researchers, in order to analyze social development proper, have repeatedly tried to take the natural environment out of the "brackets" of society as something external, but most often such attempts for social science turned out to be not particularly productive.

The structure of the natural environment in terms of its relationship with society, it can be represented as consisting of three parts: 1) cultivated nature, that is, included in the economic turnover; 2) "reserve”, that is, not yet used, but suitable for economic needs at a given level of development; 3) uncultivated, that is, unsuitable for economic needs with available opportunities. Cultivated nature, with the further influence of people, begins to turn into artificial geographic environment or even technosphere.

In general, the role of natural factors in production is decreasing, and the role of artificial ones is growing, although new spheres of nature are constantly being mastered: space, the depths of the sea, etc. Thus, in a certain sense, history appears as a transition from the natural environment (biosphere) to the social and to what is often called the technosphere. But, unfortunately, until now, the attitude of man to nature often resembles the actions of a barbarian who, in order to find a stone for construction, breaks down a temple. Unfortunately, one researcher's morbid humor that the process of civilization is "a transition from a wild place to a rubbish pit" also remains true.

Changing the natural environment occurs in two senses: a) absolutely (physically), including under the influence of man (plowing the land, clearing forests, etc.); b) relatively, in connection with the growth of the technical capabilities of society (for example, earlier oil was extracted only on land, now it is also from the bottom of the seas). When a new level of human development is reached, new sources of natural wealth open up for it. Thus, one and the same nature as a geographical environment will change with the development of society, both absolutely and relatively. And with the growth of population density, the level of science, technology, the size of states, etc., the former boundaries set by the geographical environment are overcome, and its structure changes.

Two types of influence of nature on society: direct and indirect. Direct influence is not mediated by society, it is expressed: a) in the genetic changes of people under the influence of various natural factors or due to the selection of certain qualities, for example, when eating a particular food; b) in destabilizing phenomena, both negative (catastrophes, climate deterioration, epidemics, etc.) and positive (for example, climate improvement). Indirect influence is realized through public relations, labor, the distribution of wealth obtained from the use of nature, social consciousness, etc. Therefore, the influence of the same natural factor on different societies (and the same society in different eras) can cause different reactions depending on the level of development of society, its structure, historical moment, and a number of other circumstances.

The more complex the interaction of nature and society, the less the direct influence of nature on society and the more indirect. At the same time, the direct influence is either constant if the surrounding nature does not change (then society, once adapted to it, already functions according to certain rules), or this influence is associated with very sharp changes (during catastrophes, etc.), which causes strong but not systemic changes in society. Indirect influence turns out to be much more systemic and, as a result, more important, since any technological or major social changes, as well as changes in demographic proportions in society, inevitably change to some extent: a) the relationship between people about the possession of certain natural resources ; b) the relationship between people and nature, including psychological and technological. The latter may be associated, for example, with a more or less careful attitude to nature, more or less intensive use of its resources.

The aspect of the more important (but not so obvious at first glance) indirect influence of nature on society was underestimated by the thinkers of the past, who mainly tried to find direct forms of the influence of nature on society (for example, arguing that the climate shapes the character of the people). That is why it is so important to study the mechanisms and channels by which the natural environment indirectly influences the structure of society.

The growing complexity of the interaction between nature and society, including the growth of indirect influence, can be represented as a complication of the productive forces (see Diagram 1), where with each level the role of nature in the direct provision of people with the products of labor becomes less, but the degree of complexity of the interaction between nature and society increases.

natural level characteristic of a hunting-gathering society; socio-natural- for agrarian and handicraft; socio-technical level- for industrial; scientific information- for modern.

The role of the natural environment is the greater, the greater the place it occupies in the composition public system, especially as part of the productive forces. In other words, the role of the geographical environment is greater, the older the period.

However, although in some aspects the dependence of society on nature is decreasing, another type of dependence between nature and society must be taken into account: the more complex and larger the society, the more dangerous the change in natural conditions becomes. As the complexity and integration of society grows, changes in the natural environment can cause more and more global consequences, since due to the complexity of society, any fluctuations can lead to stress and destruction of the system. That is why climate change in the XXI century. can be very dangerous for humanity. And although, of course, society has many opportunities to eliminate the consequences, but, firstly, not all consequences can be eliminated, and secondly, such elimination will require monstrous costs and great sacrifices.

Forms of relationship between nature and society. There are five main forms of relationship between man and nature: a) adaptation; b) unconscious negative or positive influence (characteristic of all periods, especially pre-industrial); c) cultivation for economic and other purposes (arose with the advent of Agriculture); d) influence on natural processes with the help of science (arose in industrial production); e) conscious regulation of the functioning of the natural environment in order to preserve it (some elements of such influence are currently being formed).

These forms often appear as different aspects of the same actions. After all, wherever people lived, they somehow not only adapted to the environment, but also adapted it to some extent. At first - only the places of their direct habitat, then over the centuries - millions and millions of hectares of arable land, and today the question is how to plan the impact on nature on a global scale. Before the invention of agriculture, people used mainly the first two forms of relationship with nature. The invention of agriculture led to the beginning of the cultivation of the natural environment (plowing, clearing, irrigation, etc.). In the era of industrial production, people began to use science and the laws of nature they discovered to consciously influence natural processes, and in the modern period, ecological methods of regulating nature are being formed (but they are still in their infancy).

Gradually, the role of transformation grows, and adaptation decreases, but does not disappear.. As new levels of human achievement in its relationship with nature, new opportunities and sources of wealth open up.

THE ROLE OF THE NATURAL FACTOR IN HISTORY

In the era of the appropriating economy, adaptation (adaptation) man to nature It was main driving force development, thanks to which people settled almost all over the planet. The whole way of life - the size of collectives, tools of labor, methods of managing, basic social relations - depended on the surrounding natural conditions, with the change of which it was necessary either to adapt again or move. For many millennia there was a glaciation on Earth. Adapting to the cold climate, man invented warm clothes, food preparation, learned to hunt the largest animals. As a result, people already had a sufficient level of development of productive forces and sociality, so that part of the collectives could not only survive in more severe conditions, but even prosper on the basis of obtaining a certain surplus of production. Warming has also brought huge changes. Then, about 14–10 thousand years ago, the climate changed a lot. Warming began, glaciers retreated, resulting in large mammals became smaller. People in a number of regions switched to individual hunting (Markov 1979: 51; Child 1949: 40), invented bows, traps, nets, harpoons, axes, etc., which ensured the autonomous existence of small groups and even individual families. Primitive people generally achieved relative prosperity and, according to the theory of M. Sahlins (1999), even managed to achieve relative abundance. Gradually, people settled almost all over the planet. The nature of the relationship between people and the environment varied significantly, but in general it was adaptive to the natural environment (see, for example: Leonova, Nesmeyanov 1993; see also: Grinin 2006: 82–83).

Agrarian-handicraft society. Agriculture first appeared in the Middle East. The transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture (as well as the transition to irrigated agriculture) required special conditions. Thus, the cultivation of wild-growing cereals, according to V.I. Gulyaev (1972), could occur only in mountainous arid regions with a warm subtropical climate, with an abundance of natural microdistricts in a relatively narrow area, which had the richest and most diverse flora. Here we see an important pattern regarding the interaction of nature and society: for the primary transition to a new level of development until the last centuries of history, society required special natural conditions.

In the agrarian era, the nature of the relationship between nature and society is changing due to the transition to a fairly meaningful and active transformation environment on a large scale (artificial irrigation, cutting down and burning forests, plowing virgin lands, fertilizing, etc., not to mention the creation of cities, roads, etc.). The use of natural forces is also expanding significantly, including the power of animals, wind and water (previously only fire was actively used). Natural raw materials are transformed into completely new things and materials (metals, fabrics, pottery, glass). The transition to a productive economy and its development led to a huge demographic growth. The population of the earth has increased tenfold.

During the industrial period society overcomes many of the limitations set by nature and strengthens its own influence on it. People are mastering the forces of nature, previously completely or mostly inaccessible to them (the energy of steam and electricity), creating new materials (with the help of chemistry), developing new mechanisms based on the laws of physics, defeating previously incurable diseases. Huge areas are used for cities, roads, mining. During this period, the idea is affirmed that man conquered nature and became its master. As a result of predatory exploitation, many species of animals were exterminated, many forests were cut down, many million hectares of soil were spoiled, etc.

Contradictions between management and nature as a result of its predatory exploitation begin to escalate.

In the modern period of the scientific information society human influence on nature has become global. People have mastered new types of energy (including nuclear), created a huge amount of new materials and genetically modified organisms. The volumes of mining and environmental pollution have become colossal. At the moment, humanity is facing gradual climate change, which can lead to very big problems. The growth of the negative impact on nature has increased so much that the attitude towards nature is gradually changing. An ecological consciousness is being formed, measures are being taken to preserve nature (systems of reserves have arisen, emission standards are being introduced, etc.).

2. DEVELOPMENT OF IDEAS ON THE ROLE OF THE NATURAL FACTOR

Early ideas

Antiquity. The image of nature has always been the most important in the spiritual life of society. However, the comprehension of these relationships at the philosophical and theoretical level arose relatively late. Nevertheless, interesting observations about the role of the geographical environment can be found in some ancient Eastern thinkers, and especially in ancient philosophers and historians. Because in ancient societies historiography played an important role (see: Grinin 2010: Lecture 2), as well as the beginnings of political science, political economy and social philosophy, it becomes clear why ancient authors touched upon the problems of the conditionality of social phenomena by the geographical environment. Among the ancient writers, Aristotle (384-322 BC), Polybius (200-120 BC), Posidonius (c. 135 - c. 51 BC) deserve special mention. e.), as well as the geographer Strabo (64/63 BC - 23/24 AD), the physician Hippocrates (460-370 BC) and the architect Vitruvius (I century BC). Ancient authors noted the influence of the environment and especially climate on the physical type of peoples, their customs and mores, the level of development of society and its political forms, types of occupations, and population. At the same time, the nature of Greece and the Mediterranean was considered the most favorable for human life. A number of ideas of ancient authors, especially concerning the influence of climate on the nature of the population and its customs, were developed in modern times by J. Bodin and C. Montesquieu.

In the Middle Ages the problem of the role of the geographical environment was given very little influence due to the dominance of the theology of history. The only exception was perhaps Ibn Khaldun(1332–1406), prominent Arab historian and sociologist, and some Chinese authors. Ibn Khaldun explained the differences in life, way of life, mental make-up, character and customs of certain tribes and peoples by differences in the natural, mainly climatic, conditions of their existence.

Return to the problems of the role of the geographical environment. Only work Jean Bodin(1530–1596) Six Books on the State introduced the question of the role of the geographical factor into the arsenal of the theory of history, although this question became truly important for the theory of history only during the 18th–20th centuries. In the views of Boden, as well as his ancient predecessors, there is a lot of naive and incorrect. But it is important that for the first time he considered in sufficient detail and systematically the question of the influence of nature on society, expressing the following ideas, which were later developed by Montesquieu:

1. The conditionality of the mental make-up of the people by the totality of the natural-geographical conditions in which this people develops. Bodin, in particular, noted the dependence of the temperament of the people on latitude and longitude. Boden divides the peoples into northern, southern and those living in the middle lane, he prefers the mental warehouse of the latter.

He also notes (which the ancient authors did not have) the influence of longitude, emphasizes such features of the climate as greater or lesser humidity, proximity to the sea.

2. Dependence of laws and institutions on climate. Bodin believed that the temperament of the people influences legislation and customs. Thus, legislation to a large extent depends on geographical conditions, since different nature requires different socio-political institutions.

3. Features of the influence of natural conditions on a particular people, according to Boden, can be weakened or eliminated by social factors, as well as by human will and education. Thus, Bodin does not act as an absolute determinist.

The development of views in the eighteenth century.

Enlightenment ideas. J. J. Rousseau, A. Turgot, C. Montesquieu. Thinkers of the 17th century, being busy searching for general social laws similar to the laws of physics and geometry, did not leave detailed theories about the influence of the geographical environment. But the philosophers of the Enlightenment in France and in other countries, exploring the nature of man, began to pay more attention to the role of climate and nature in the life of society. This was also facilitated by the fact that during the time of the great geographical discoveries accumulated a huge number of different facts related to such influence. In particular, J. J. Rousseau (1712–1778) developed the theory of a natural man (savage) who lives in harmony with nature, believing that civilization further adversely affects human society. Considerable attention was paid to the question of the role of climate, soils, natural communications, etc., by those educators who studied the historical stages in the development of the economy and material art (crafts), progress, and other problems. It is also worth remembering that in the XVIII century. theories of the stages of economic development of mankind also appear: from hunting and gathering to shepherding, from it to agriculture, and from the latter to trade and industry (see: Grinin 2010: Lecture 8). The authors of these theories, of course, could not ignore the role of the natural factor in the transition from stage to stage. In particular, A. R. Turgot (1727–1781), in his Reflections on the Creation and Distribution of Wealth, comes to the important conclusion that historical forms and the scale of social organization is determined by the prevailing means of obtaining the means of subsistence. Hunters and gatherers live in small groups as they require a large area. Shepherd peoples, having received a more generous source of food, have a larger population than hunters, and a higher level of development of society. Agriculture makes it possible to feed an even larger population, as a result of which cities and crafts appear, etc. But although Turgot noted a certain influence of natural geographical conditions on the development of society, he did not share the views on their decisive influence.

The most famous study of the relationship between geographical and socio-political factors, in fact, theory of geographical determinism, gave Charles Montesquieu(1689–1755) in his essay On the Spirit of the Laws.

The most important idea of ​​Montesquieu natural factors determine the form of government and laws. The list of important factors that shape the character of the people and the state now includes soil, landscape, size of territory, etc. The hot climate and high soil fertility, according to Montesquieu, contribute to the development of laziness, which in turn leads to the formation of despotism as a form of government . Infertile soil and a temperate climate form the desire for freedom. The philosopher is right in pointing out some obvious relationships and relationships (correlations), for example, between the size of society and the form of government. In fact, a republic is more likely to develop on a small territory, and a despotism on a large one, than vice versa. But forms of government change faster than natural conditions (in the 19th century, republics were formed in large states), which means that theory needs to be changed.

The main disadvantage of the Montesquieu theory. The brilliant form of presentation of Montesquieu and his wide erudition ensured great interest in his ideas. However, the lack of historical facts, as well as the nihilistic attitude towards them characteristic of the Enlightenment, clearly showed the limited possibilities of using the Montesquieu method. Its main drawback (like its predecessors and some later adherents of the idea of ​​the geographical factor) was in attempts to find direct (and invariant) forms of the impact of nature (climate, territory) on society and people.

To overcome this shortcoming, it was necessary to see the mechanisms through which nature influenced social institutions, as well as how, when a higher level of material life and production was achieved, the previous restrictions and factors were removed, new aspects of the geographical factor began to influence, how new systemic relationship between geographic environment and society.

To a certain extent, A. Barnave advanced in this direction, but, unfortunately, his ideas remained unknown to his contemporaries.

A. Barnav(1761–1793). Montesquieu's ideas were actively discussed and reasonably criticized, and the problem he raised was developed in the works of some philosophers. Among them was, in particular, Barnave - one of the most interesting and profound French philosophers of the Enlightenment. He developed, in today's language, the theory of the factors of historical development. He was looking for causes, the cumulative action of which constitutes the "nature of things", which are in a certain relationship with each other, but act and interact differently. The first among such factors, in his opinion, is the geographical environment, which has both direct and indirect influence on all other factors. However, compared with Montesquieu, Barnave took a step forward, because, unlike him, he believed that the influence of the geographical environment on people's lives is manifested mainly not through the psyche, but through their economic activity, determining the specific material conditions of this activity and the direction of social development. Anticipating the ideas of T. Bockl, he pointed out that soils are one of the main reasons for changing the nature of society, including due to the peculiarities of the distribution of wealth. An important conclusion of Barnave was that the impact of the geographical environment on the economic and political system is passive (and to a certain extent indirect), while the dominant species economic activity actively and directly forms the type of distribution of the main social wealth. He notes that the geographical environment can accelerate or slow down the transition to a new level of development, in particular from the agricultural to the industrial stage of development. According to Ilyushechkin (1996), the views of A. Barnav can be called geographical and economic materialism.

The development of views in the first half of the XIX century.

The geographical factor among other factors of the historical process. In the 19th century Philosophers and philosophizing historians moved from searching for the unchanging foundations of human nature to searching for the historical roots of contemporary phenomena, the reasons that contribute to the organic (and systemic) development of society (for more details, see Grinin 2010: Lecture 9). Among various factors(such as the "spirit of the people", the development of law, class and racial struggle, forms of ownership, economic and demographic development, great personalities) took a prominent place and geographic factor. One of the main tasks of researchers was to explain why, under the same natural conditions, different peoples (as well as the same people in different eras) demonstrate different successes and forms of socio-political life.

geographic determinism. Historical and geographical school in Germany made a great contribution to the analysis of the role of the geographical environment, but it was dominated by geographical determinism, that is, the desire to explain all the features of society by its geography. The views of geographical determinism, the French eclectic philosopher Victor Cousin (1792-1867), who himself did not belong to a school of geography, presented it as follows: “Give me a map of the country, its outlines, climate, waters, winds - all its physical geography; give me its natural fruits, flora, zoology, and I undertake to say in advance what kind of person this country is, what role this country will play in history, and not by chance, but out of necessity, and not in one era, but in all eras. .

Carl Ritter(1779–1859), one of the founders of modern geography, was the largest representative historical and geographical school. In his most important work "Earth science in relation to nature and to the history of people, or universal comparative geography" he considers the problem of the influence of geographical conditions on the history of mankind. Ritter's strength was that he was a professional geographer, brilliantly knowing the features of each region of the Earth, his weakness was that he was not familiar enough with history.

The main ideas of K. Ritter:

1. Pre-established harmony between nature and the people inhabiting the area. According to Ritter, the geographical features of a certain area exactly coincide in their influence on a person with the features of the people who should inhabit this area. In other words, every nation develops according to the divine plan. Here Ritter caught the circumstance that during long-term residence in a certain territory, people very closely adapt to nature, in particular, they educate and cultivate those qualities of character that are best suited to the environment. But, of course, we should not talk about pre-established harmony, but about adaptation, which always - both in the animal and in the human world - strikes with its correspondence.

2. The uniqueness of each nation depends on the characteristics of the geographical environment where it lives. Due to the diversity of the geographical environment, each people has certain specific conditions and institutions inherent in it alone.

3. The need for slow change. Since the geographical environment changes extremely slowly, the history of peoples is determined by the same basic factors. The slowness and gradualness of changes in the geographical situation, according to Ritter, should serve as the basis for the slowness and gradualness of historical development.

4. The idea of ​​close interaction between nature and culture, interconnectedness of all elements that form a historically specific geographical area.

Advantages. If the predecessors in this area (Bodin, Montesquieu, and others) very primitively considered the direct influence of climate and relief (heat or cold, mountainous or flat terrain) on the character of a particular people, then Ritter analyzes the entire set of geographical conditions and more often speaks of a hidden or indirect rather than direct influence. This approach was undoubtedly an important step forward. He was characterized by reliance on numerous facts, systematic in the study of certain individual aspects.

Disadvantages. Ritter sought to discover permanent, unchanging factors on the basis of which it would be possible to prove the need to avoid any major changes in society (this approach was generally characteristic of the historical school in Germany). Ritter, like other representatives of the geographical school, underestimated the results of cultural diffusion and mutual influence of different societies and peoples. Often, the impact of the natural environment was presented in such a way that this or that people lived in isolation as a culturally independent unit (for more details, see Kosminsky 1963). If Ritter considered the Earth as a single organism, then instead of a single humanity he saw separate peoples, the uniqueness of which is predetermined by the peculiarities of the geography of their habitat. Significant shortcomings include the desire to rely in explanations on mystical ideas.

Ritter's ideas influenced the formation of a new direction in social thought - geopolitics.

The development of views in the second half of the XIX century.

Geographical determinism, especially in the Ritter version, of course, could not satisfy for a long time social science, as the unscientific and falsity of such a view became more and more obvious. As Ritter's student E. Reclus (1995: 221) wrote, "the naive faith in a benevolent nature that protects us in our lives" was destroyed, and more productive views came to replace it. By the middle of the XIX century. it was confirmed or re-elucidated that nature strongly (and even fatally) influences the political and military structure of societies; geographical location may impede or encourage war, trade, and other contacts; the natural environment influences production, forms of ownership, religion, etc. One of the main achievements was the position that the natural factor is capable of colossally slowing down or accelerating development. It was important to see specific forms the influence of the geographical environment on different societies, to understand the mechanisms of such influence, since nature does not directly affect relations. One of the most important tasks was to find out the optimal limits of the influence of the geographic environment, to unite geographic and production (as well as demographic) factors into a single concept. The last task is still relevant today.

Henry Buckle(1821-1862) spent his whole life preparing to write the history of world civilization, but managed to write only two volumes of The History of Civilization in England. Of particular interest are the first and second chapters of this work. In them, he outlines the problems of the influence on the organization of society and the characters of people of such factors as climate, food, soil, etc. Like the enlighteners of the 18th century. and representatives of the geographical school, Buckle sought to somehow directly connect the geographical environment with customs, religion, legislation, and forms of government.

But he also has new ideas, which ensured a long life for his work and were developed, in particular, by L. I. Mechnikov and F. Ratzel:

1. Wealth as a result of the interaction of nature and society. Buckle took a step forward in order to find mechanisms for the indirect influence of the geographical environment on the social life of society. According to Buckle, "the fertility of the soil" determines the possibility of accumulating wealth in society (by wealth, he actually means the volume of the product produced). The accumulation of wealth is in many respects the most important consequence of natural influence, since it determines the possibilities of population growth, exchange, forms of property and distribution in society, division of labor, growth of knowledge, which ultimately leads to the development of civilization.

2. Buckle begins to see that the degree of influence of the geographical environment is not constant, depends on the level of development of the society. In particular, he notes that among less civilized peoples, the increase in "wealth" goes chief in a way from external natural forces (“soil fertility”), and among the more civilized - from rational activity leading to the accumulation of knowledge. The first increment has a limit, the second does not have such a limit, which removes restrictions on further accelerated development. Buckle concludes: if earlier the richest countries were those whose nature was most abundant, now the countries in which man is most active have become the richest.

3. Uneven development of societies. The difference in wealth, population and culture, resulting from the fertility of soils and geographical features, Buckle quite logically explains some of the reasons for the uneven development of civilizations.

Lev Ilyich Mechnikov(1838-1888) in his work "Civilization and the Great Historical Rivers", like his associate E. Reclus (1830-1905), tried: a) to get away from what they called geographical fatalism; b) to identify such forms of interaction between nature and society that would explain the progressive course of human development.

Philosophical and historical concept of L. I. Mechnikov. humanity goes through the following stages in its development, related to its relationship to the most important aspect of the geographical environment - water: first, people move on to the development of great rivers, irrigation; then the river period is replaced by the sea, but people master only the inland (Mediterranean) seas. The third period - oceanic - begins with the period of great geographical discoveries. Although such a picture does not reflect the diversity of the existence of human societies, it reflects one of the most important lines of the historical process.

Mechnikov's new approaches:

1. Drawing attention to the study of an understudied aspect of the geographical environment- large rivers, on the banks of which the first civilizations arose. Pointing to the role of the great rivers - the Nile, the Tigris and the Euphrates, the Huang He and the Yangtze, the Indus and the Ganges - in the transition from barbarism to civilization, Mechnikov showed an important milestone in the development of mankind and its individual societies, in fact, a certain regular repetition in the history of individual peoples.

2. The theory of the historical process is built on the basis of the changing role of the geographic environment rather than the unchanging one. The historical value of natural conditions changes over the centuries and at different stages of civilization. Man gradually frees himself from the absolute power of the environment, and as he develops, many natural conditions begin to be used, which were previously useless or even harmful. This was an important step forward in the development of the theory of the role of the geographic environment.

3. Geographical environment as a catalyst or a brake on development. Mechnikov developed the important idea that the natural factor is capable of colossally slowing down or accelerating development.

4. The way of interaction between the environment and society can be different. According to L. I. Mechnikov, the nature of civilization depends on the form of adaptation to environmental conditions that a given people practices.

5. The geographical environment exerts, first of all, an indirect influence "through labor and the nature of adaptation to nature."

The disadvantages of the approach Mechnikov, however, quite excusable, were: a) exaggeration of the role of cooperation in the process of mastering the natural environment and underestimation of the importance of conquests and conflicts; b) misunderstanding that the transition to civilizations required special natural conditions, without which neither labor nor cooperation could produce an effect; c) not taking into account the fact that in pre-industrial societies the environment often placed absolute barriers to development for many peoples.

Marxist school didn't contribute too much great contribution in the development of the theory of the geographical environment. In addition to Marx (see below), it would be worth highlighting only G. V. Plekhanov (1856–1918), who, in particular, in his work « On the question of the development of a monistic view of history" (1895) pointed out the special role of the geographical environment (albeit in a rather general form) in the development of hunter-gatherer societies, in their transition to agriculture and cattle breeding, and also in influencing the fate of states. Plekhanov also explains the differences in the level of development of different societies by the natural factor. “The difference in the results (stages of cultural development) achieved by different human societies is explained precisely by the fact that the surrounding conditions did not allow different human tribes to equally use their ability to“ invent ”in business” (Plekhanov 1956: 614). (Note that although this explanation is partly fair, it is still one-sided.)

Marxists recognized the importance of the natural environment, but believed that its role was only that it could slow down or accelerate the development of society. This position stemmed from the fact that the main factors of development, according to Marxism, are internal, in particular class struggle and revolution. And since the natural environment is an external factor, its role, although it can be significant, is, as a rule, not decisive for society. In fact, this underestimated the role of the geographical environment for pre-industrial societies, for which the natural environment acted as a shaping force. An important merit of Marxism: he accepted the idea that the role of the geographical environment changes with the development of society. So, for example, G. V. Plekhanov wrote: “The relationship between a social person and the geographical environment is extremely changeable. It changes with each new step achieved by the development of man's productive forces. As a result, the influence of the geographic environment on a social person leads to different results in different phases of the development of these forces” (cited in Anuchin 1982: 38).

It should be noted, however, that Marx made a significant contribution to the development of the question of the influence of nature on the form of society and social relations. He pointed out the most important channel of their interaction through the inclusion of a part of the natural environment ( subject of labor) in the composition of the productive forces (which also includes the means / tools of labor). The subject of labor- those are natural objects to which labor is directed (cultivated soil, deposits, exploited forests, etc.). Unfortunately, this idea has not been developed in this aspect until recently, and in the 1960s–1970s. many Marxist scholars even came up with a proposal not to consider the object of labor as part of the productive forces, since this allegedly leads to concessions to geographical determinism (see: Socialism ... 1975: 40–41).

The influence of geographical theories on the development of historical science in the 19th century. The general ideas that took place in the development of historiography throughout the 19th century were associated with the desire to: a) put into circulation the largest number facts and find ways to verify them; b) focus primarily on national histories; c) find key aspects of the theory that would help explain the features national history(national spirit), the current state of society and its institutions (for more details, see Grinin 2010: Lecture 9). Therefore, many historians assigned to the analysis of the role of the natural environment great place, because they saw in the peculiarities of the geography of their country one of the keys to understanding the "spirit" of its people and the main intrigue of its history. In particular, Russian historians (A.P. Shchapov, S.M. Solovyov, V.O. Klyuchevsky and others) analyzed the problems of changing the mentality of the Russian people in connection with the resettlement from steppe zone into the forest in the XII-XIV centuries, developed the concept of the struggle between the "forest" (that is, Russian lands) and the "steppe" (nomads) and the impact of this on the entire national history.

Change in the direction of research in the last third of the 19th - early 20th centuries.

During this period, there were significant changes in the methods and approaches of philosophy, ethnography, history and other social disciplines due to the great successes of the natural sciences. Among the most important points, we note the growth of progress in biology and the spread of the method of analogy of society (social organism) with a biological organism. One of the first such method was applied by the outstanding English philosopher Henry Spencer(1820–1903). It became clear that society as an organism, firstly, constantly adapts to the environment and its changes, and this external influence makes society evolve and change. Together with the works of G. Spencer (but especially with The Origin of Species by natural selection» Ch. Darwin), the idea of ​​“natural” social selection as a factor of social evolution also appeared. It consisted in the fact that in the process of adaptation to natural conditions and as a result of the struggle for resources, etc., the most adapted societies survive, while the unadapted are destroyed or perish. As a result, there is not just a selection of forms capable of development, but on the whole there is a social progress. In many ways, especially for the early periods of history, this is true and helps to explain both the causes and directions of social development (for more details, see Grinin 2007; Grinin and Korotaev 2009: ch. 1). However, the ideas of the survival of the fittest societies and social groups began to be unduly transferred to modern wrestling classes and states (the so-called social Darwinism arose, which was used to justify the inequality of peoples and races, as well as social exploitation). The ideas of natural selection among states and the analogy of a society (state) with an organism influenced the emergence new science- geopolitics, which also combined interesting and fruitful approaches with reactionary conclusions.

Ratzel and the beginning of geopolitics. German scientist and traveler Friedrich Ratzel(1844–1904) was one of the founders of political geography. He continued to develop the ideas of the geographical school on the influence of the environment on the forms and characteristics of the socio-political organization. According to his not unreasonable opinion, for example, natural borders (mountains, sea) contribute to the emergence of isolated social groups with underdeveloped political power, and the plains - to centralization and strong power to protect against nomadic raids, later turning into a large socially and culturally integrated state organization.

The main ideas of F. Ratzel:

1. Considering states as social organisms, that operate under the conditions of selection. The survival of states (nations or cultures) is related to their ability to expand and improve their geographical position. The growth of states contributes to the differentiation of the world into strong (viable) and weak countries.

2. Innovative was the analysis of the problem of the spatial location of states and the influence of geographical location on the political status of the state.

3. Consideration of borders as peripheral organs of the state. Ratzel explored the geographical transitional zones where land and sea meet, and identified their influence on the formation and structure of states.

Disadvantages. The fascination with the method of analogy inevitably led to exaggerations and biologization speculations, especially when explaining the spatial expansion or reduction of states. The works of Ratzel laid the foundations of a new science - geopolitics (among the classics of which one can mention R. Kjellen, K. Wittfogel, K. Haushofer, H. Mackinder, etc.).

3. MODERN RESEARCH (XX - early XXI century)

The challenge of nature and the response of society. Arnold Toynbee(1889-1975), one of the most famous philosophers of the history of the twentieth century, became famous for his theory of civilizations, set out in the 12-volume work "Comprehension of History". Toynbee did not deal specifically with the problems of geographic factor analysis, but he has methodological approaches that can be useful for this problem as well. In particular, this refers to his idea, formulated briefly: "challenge - response." From time to time, society faces complex problems (“challenge”) that need to be solved in one way or another (give an “answer”). The whole future fate of society (people, civilization) often depends on the nature of the answer. But the nature of the answer is not predetermined, it largely depends on the characteristics of society and sometimes on the characteristics of a particular moment.

Carl Wittfogel(1896-1988) became famous with the book "Oriental Despotism" (1957). In this work, Wittfogel comes to the conclusion that the economic and geographical conditions of the ancient irrigation societies (Egypt, Babylon, China, India, Mexico, Peru) determined the development of despotism and the absence of private property in them. Despotism arose from the need to organize large masses of people for irrigation (the construction of dams, dams, canals, etc.) and agricultural work in order to obtain high yields. Wittfogel identifies three main types of despotism. The first consists of the political regimes of the ancient "hydraulic societies" of Egypt, Babylon, China, India, Mexico, Peru, etc., which have the most pronounced signs of despotism. Despotisms of the second type are formed in states where agriculture is not conditioned by artificial irrigation. The state builds roads, collects taxes, and maintains public order. Byzantium is a classic example. Despotisms of the third kind - societies like Tsarist Russia and Sultan's Turkey. The functions of the state are limited in them to the collection of taxes and organizational activities. K. Wittfogel considers this to be the minimum necessary to maintain despotism.

Study of the "society - nature" system and the channels of interaction between them. IN domestic science in the 1970s–1980s there were ideas about the inclusion of part of the geographical environment in the composition of the productive forces. Later they were developed into a more coherent theory based on the concept natural production basis of society(for details see Grinin 1997: 42–78; 2006: 21–26) . The fact is that natural elements, such as energy sources (fire, solar heat, wind energy) and natural communications (rivers, seas), which constitute, as it were, the “lower floor” of the productive forces, or their natural level (see diagram 2).

This approach makes it possible to better take into account the capabilities of pre-industrial societies (which are often belittled) and make comparisons between past and present societies. On the other hand, the poorer nature is, the stronger the technical and technological part of the productive forces must be developed in order to compensate for this scarcity. The idea of ​​the natural-production basis of society, therefore, makes it possible to take into account both the close relationship between the productive forces and the natural environment, and the mobility of the role of each of them in the life of society, depending on the era, the characteristics of nature and cultural interaction.

Other areas of research in the twentieth century.(only a few are listed):

1. Global forecasts related to the analysis of natural resource scarcity and global problems. The most famous are reports to the Club of Rome in the 1960s–1980s. (D. H. Meadows, D. L. Meadows, E. Pestel, M. Mesarovic and others), dedicated to the limits of the extensive growth of mankind due to limited resources (see: Meadows et al. 1991; 1999; Tinbergen 1980; Pestel 1988; Mesarović, Pestel 1974; see also: Peccei 1984; 1985). In general, the general idea can be expressed in the words of A. Peccei: “Man… imagined himself as the undivided master of the Earth and immediately began to exploit it, neglecting the fact that its size and physical resources are completely finite” (Pecchei 1985: 295).

2. Attempts to find new aspects of the direct impact of nature on society weren't successful. The most famous in this regard are the theories of the physicist A. L. Chizhevsky (1897–1964), who connected the rise of social activity and cataclysms (wars, revolutions, epidemics) with 11-year peaks of solar activity, and the historian L. N. Gumilyov (1912 -1992), who suggested that the birth and activity of ethnic groups (peoples) in a certain place and at a certain time are associated with the action of the unclear nature of the cosmic factor that influences the emergence of a special socio-psychological energy ( passionarity) . This hypothesis does not carry the necessary heuristic beginning. The idea that the life span of any ethnic group is 1500 years, that each ethnic group goes through the same phases of life, also seems rather far-fetched. but general idea Gumilyov that the nature of ethnic groups (especially in the pre-industrial period) is very closely related to the characteristics of the climate and landscape of the territory where they appeared and lived, is not without foundation.

3. Studies of the transformations of societies in connection with changes in natural conditions, including various reactions of societies (for example, nomadic) to the drying up and moistening of the steppes, agricultural civilizations - to cooling and warming, primitive societies - to changes in flora and fauna as a result of glaciation and warming.

4. Study of the dynamics of climate change and other natural aspects (soils, seas, coasts, etc.) over long time periods; as well as the impact on societies of catastrophes and other negative factors (for example, epidemics). Two very famous works in this direction are "History of the climate since the year 1000" by E. Le Roy Ladurie and "Epidemics and peoples" by W. McNeill.

5. Study of the role of the natural factor in the process of epochal evolutionary changes, for example, the agrarian revolution (G. Child, J. Mellart, V. A. Shnirelman), the origin of states (R. Carneiro), etc.

6. The influence of the natural factor on the features of the formation and development of various civilizations, as well as the eastern and western ways of development of world history.

7. Connection of natural conditions with demographic processes.

There are a number of other areas of research into the history of interaction between society and the natural environment. However, despite this, this problem has not yet been studied enough.

Anuchin, V. A. 1982. The geographical factor in the development of society. M.: Thought.

Grinin, L. E.

1997. Formations and civilizations. Philosophy and Society 3: 42–78.

2006. Productive forces and the historical process. Moscow: Komkniga.

2011. From Confucius to Comte. Formation of the theory of methodology and philosophy of history. M.: URSS. In the press.

Ilyushechkin, V.P. 1996.The theory of the staged development of society: History and problems. Ch. 1. M.: Vost. lit.

Isaev, B. A. 2006. Geopolitics: textbook allowance SPb.: Peter.

Mukitanov, N. K. 1985. From Strabo to the present day. The evolution of geographical representations and ideas. M.: Thought.

Society and nature: historical stages and forms of interaction / otv. ed. M. P. Kim. Moscow: Nauka, 1981.

Rozanov, I. A. 1986. Great catastrophes in the history of the Earth. M.: Science.

Smolensky, N. I. 2007. Theory and methodology of history. ch. 8.3. M.: Academy.

McNeill, W.H. 1993. Plagues and Peoples. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Monticello.

Wittfogel, K.A. 1957. Oriental Despotism. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Further reading and sources

Aron, R. 1993. Stages of development of sociological thought/ per. from fr. Moscow: Progress-Univers.

Barnave, A. 1923. Introduction to the French Revolution. Reader on French materialism. T. 2. (pp. 187–212). Pg.

Barulin, V. S. 199. social philosophy. Part 2. Ch. XI. M.: publishing house of Moscow State University.

Bodin, J. 2000. Method of easy knowledge of history. M.: Science.

Buckle, G. 2007. History of civilizations. History of Civilization in England. Moscow: Direct-Media.

Geopoliticians and geostrategists: reader: at 5 o'clock / ed. B. A. Isaeva. SPb.: Balt. state tech. university, 2003–2004.

Hippocrates. 1994. About air, waters and localities. B: Hippocrates Selected books. M.: Svarog.

Grinin, L. E., Markov, A. A., Korotaev, A. V. 2008. Macroevolution in wildlife and society. Moscow: LKI/URSS.

Gumilyov, L. N. 1993. Ethnogenesis and biosphere of the Earth. M: Michelle.

Zubov, A. A. 1963. Man inhabits his planet. M.: Geography.

Kosminsky, E. A. 1963. Historiography of the Middle Ages: V century. - mid 19th century M.: MSU.

Le Roy Ladurie, E. 1971. Climate history since 1000. Moscow: Hydrometeorological Publishing House.

Meadows, D. H., Meadows, D. A., Randers, J., Behrens, S. V. 1991. Limits to Growth. M.: MSU.

Meadows, D. H., Meadows, D. L., Randers, J. 1999. Beyond the Tolerable: A Global Catastrophe or a Sustainable Future? New post-industrial wave in the West/ ed. V. L. Inozemtseva (p. 572–595). Moscow: Academia.

Mellart, J. 1982. Ancient Civilizations of the Near East. M.: Science.

Mechnikov, L. I. 1995. Civilizations and great historical rivers. M.: Progress.

Montesquieu, C. L. 1999. About the spirit of laws. M.: Thought.

Pestel, E. 1988. Beyond growth. M.: Progress.

Peccei A.

1984. One hundred pages for the future. Future in the present: Sat. / per. from English. M.

1985. Human qualities. M.: Progress.

Plekhanov, G. V.

1956. On the development of a monistic view of history. In: Plekhanov, G. V., Selected philosophical works: in 5 vols. Vol. 1 (pp. 507–730). Moscow: Gospolitizdat.

Nature and development of primitive society / ed. I. P. Gerasimova. Moscow: Nauka, 1969.

Roman club. History of creation, selected reports and speeches, official materials / ed. D. M. Gvishiani. M.: URSS, 1997.

Strabo. 1994. Geography/ per. with other Greek G. A. Stratanovsky, ed. O. O. Kruger, total. ed. S. L. Utchenko. Moscow: Ladomir.

Tinbergen, Ya. 1980. Redefining the international order/ per. from English. M.: Progress.

Turaev, V. A. 2001. Global problems modernity. M.: Logos.

Turgot, A. R. Zh. 1961. Reflections on the Creation and Distribution of Wealth. In: Turgot, A. R. J., Selected economic works. M.: Sotsekgiz.

Bell, D. 1979. The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism. New York: Basic Books, Inc., Publishers.

Klimenko, V. V., Tereshin, A. G. 2010. World Energy and Climate in the Twenty-first Century in the Context of Historical Trends: Clear Constraints to the Future Growth. Journal of Globalization Studies, Vol. 1. No. 2, November: 30–43.

Mesarovic, M. D., Pestel, E. 1974. Mankind at the Turning Point: The Second Report to the Club of Rome. Laxenburg: IIASA.

Other used literature

Velichko, A. A. 1989. Correlation of climate changes in the high and low latitudes of the Earth in the late Pleistocene and Holocene. Paleoclimates and glaciations in the Pleistocene/ ed. A. A. Velichko, E. E. Gurtova, M. A. Faustova, p. 5–19. M.: Science.

Gulyaev, V. I. 1972. Ancient Civilizations of Mesoamerica. M.: Science.

Grinin, L. E.

2007. The problem of analysis driving forces historical development, social progress and social evolution. In: Semenov, Yu. I., Gobozov, I. A., Grinin, L. E., Philosophy of history: problems and prospects(pp. 183–203). Moscow: KomKniga; URSS.

2010. Theory, Methodology, and Philosophy of History: Essays on the Development of Historical Thought from Antiquity to the Middle of the 19th Century. Lectures 1–9. Philosophy and Society 1: 167–203; 2: 151–192; 3: 162–199; 4: 145–197.

Grinin, L. E., Korotaev, A. V. 2009. Social macroevolution. Genesis and transformations of the World-System. M.: LIBROKOM.

Evteev, S. A., Perelet, R. A. (ed.) 1989. Our common future. Report of the International Commission on Environment and Development. M.: Progress.

Leonova, N. B., Nesmeyanov, S. A. (ed.) 1993. Problems of paleoecology of ancient societies. Moscow: Russian Open University.

Markov, G. E. 1979. History of economy and primitive culture in primitive communal and early class society. M.: Publishing House of Moscow University.

Podolny, R. 1977. Children of the earth. M.: Thought.

Reclus, E. 1995. Preface to the book: Mechnikov, L. I. Civilization and great historical rivers. Moscow: Progress, 1995.

Sahlins, M. D. 1999. Economics of the Stone Age. M.: OGI.

Socialism: dialectics of productive forces and production relations / ed. V. G. Marakhova. M.: Thought, 1975.

child, G. 1949. Progress and archeology. M.: State. publishing house in. liters.

In many respects (wealth of subsoil and soil, convenience of conditions for laying communications), the dependence of the economy on nature continues to be very strong today. By the way, the countries with the largest population (China, India, Bangladesh, etc.) are precisely those states where intensive farming on fertile soils has long since emerged.

In historical science, to designate the nature surrounding society, the concept is traditionally used. geographical environment, and to denote the influence of nature on society - geographical factor. Therefore, in this lecture, we will use the concepts of "natural environment" and "geographical environment", "natural factor" and "geographical factor" as synonyms (although in principle the concept of the natural environment/factor is wider than the geographical environment/factor).

The concept of "reserve of the geographic environment" facilitates the analysis of society's opportunities, incentives and barriers to its development, and a number of other problems. Thus, the huge stock of land in the United States allowed the formation of the American path of development of agriculture, which created a basis unprecedented in breadth for a powerful upsurge of the most modern industry. If the mode of production has already become a brake on progress, then the presence of a reserve allows ruling groups lagging country, unwilling to change anything, delay its development. The same boundlessness of land in North America fueled slavery in the southern states until it was destroyed by force. The expansion of the land fund in Russia played the same role for the preservation of noble feudal landownership (for more details, see Grinin 1997: 63–64).

Just as the biological needs of people are satisfied in an increasingly social way (for example, initially clothes were needed only to protect against the cold, then prestigious, fashionable clothes appear for every occasion), and the natural environment is increasingly being replaced by an artificial one. But just as biological needs cannot be reduced to zero (and sometimes they make themselves very powerful and rude), so it is impossible to reduce the role of the natural environment to zero. There is no need to say that the process of interaction between society and nature is continuous.

The artificial environment can both favor the development of the economy and communications, society as a whole, and slow it down, since often instead of the natural obstacles of society, others are created: social borders, customs, prohibitions on resettlement, etc. As a very shining example we can recall the closure to external contacts in the XVIII-XIX centuries. China, Korea and Japan.

For example, with a sparse population, there may be a factor of excess land, and with a dense population, a factor of land shortage arises in the same territory, which leads to numerous social and technological changes (changes in land relations, including forms of personal dependence, for example, for rent debts; in the ways of cultivating the land, the growth of market relations, the growth of social inequality, etc.).

Such channels can be cultivated land (soil) and deposits, some communications (river and sea, for example), which form the whole life of society. The location of water sources in irrigation societies also has a very strong influence. In industrial societies, the established network of communications largely determines the geography of the location of cities, etc. Much depends on the level of wealth and the so-called relatively surplus product, which occurs, for example, in conditions of fertile soils (accordingly, in conditions of poor soils, much less of such an surplus product is produced ). The level of wealth in society, in turn, affects the distribution system and the structure of social stratification (in particular, a layer of landed aristocracy and peasants may appear, one way or another dependent on it, or a powerful state with a bureaucracy, to which land is distributed for service). In conditions of poorer soils, a military stratum more often arises, which receives land for military service. Different soil fertility has a tremendous impact on the density and population, which, in turn, is reflected in the level of state organization. Much also depends on the convenience of contacts and the location of society in relation to its more or less close neighbors.

In this respect, the influence of humans is not too different from that of animal communities.

Thus, irrigation (cultivation) can lead to soil salinization, deforestation - to a change in the water balance, abandonment of arable land - to the appearance of forests and climate change.

The maximum of glaciation and cooling occurred approximately in the period of 20-17 thousand years ago, the temperature fell on average by more than 5 degrees (see: Velichko 1989: 13-15).

Nevertheless, the dependence of a number of societies on nature was so great that there are cases when societies of farmers and pastoralists, under the influence of changed natural conditions, again returned to hunting and gathering. But in general, the “vector” of evolutionary selection turned out to be directed not so much at the ability of societies to adapt to the natural environment, but rather at their ability to survive and thrive in a social environment, which implies the ability to withstand competition with neighbors in the military, commercial, cultural or other spheres.

For example, the followers of A. Saint-Simon expressed the idea that the exploitation of man by man will be replaced by a single form of exploitation: man of nature.

When presenting this section of the lecture, of course, one should take into account the course of development of social ideas in the corresponding eras, the main points of which until the middle of the 19th century. presented by me in the corresponding lectures (see: Grinin 2010: Lectures 1–9). In some places of this lecture I make the necessary references to them, in others they are implied.

We can also mention Herodotus, Democritus, Plato, Lucretius Kara, Tacitus and others.

Thus, for example, he argues that cities that are built on a flat place are less prone to civil strife than cities that are built on hilly places. That is why the history of Rome, which is built on seven hills, is so rich in internecine clashes (see: Kosminsky 1963: 116-117).

But, of course, during this time a number of researchers, especially in France and England, contributed to the development of the ideas of J. Bodin, including in the aspect of the interaction of natural conditions and economic development. It would be especially worth mentioning F. Bacon (1561–1626), U. Temple (1628–1699), B. de Fontenelle (1657–1757), J. B. Dubos (1670–1742).

As I. I. Smolensky rightly points out (2007: 114), it is not the very idea of ​​the influence of climate on people’s lives that turns out to be untenable, which is undeniable, but direct parallels between climate and people’s lives, like this: “the barren soil of Attica gave rise to popular rule there, on the fertile soil of Lacedaemon, aristocratic rule arose, as closer to the rule of one - a rule that Greece at that time did not expect at all. There is a grain of truth in this idea of ​​Montesquieu, but how many places with barren soil did not repeat the achievements of Attica? There were few places with fertile soil, but only in a few places there was a system corresponding to the Spartan helotia.

In particular, from such educators as F. M. Voltaire, K. A. Helvetius, J. Millar. The latter, for example, posed an important problem: why, under the same conditions, different peoples (or the same people) develop differently in different epochs?

In addition to the mentioned enlighteners, a certain contribution to the development of ideas about the role of the natural factor was also made by D. Hume (1711–1776), J. G. Herder (1744–1803), J. Möser (1720–1794).

History of bourgeois sociology of the 19th - early 20th century. - M.: Nauka, 1979. - S. 59.

One of Ritter's students and followers was the famous Russian traveler P.P. Semenov-Tian-Shansky, who popularized Ritter's ideas in speeches in the Russian geographical society and in their publications.

It should be noted that the importance of the differences between “marine” and “continental” civilizations was subsequently pointed out by a number of researchers, in particular J. Pirenne, the author of the seven-volume work “Great Currents of World History” (1945–1957).

Regarding the role of the geographical environment, he wrote as follows: “... we are by no means advocates of the theory of “geographical fatalism”, which proclaims, contrary to the facts, that a given set of physical and geographical conditions plays and should play the same invariable role everywhere. No, the point is only to establish the historical value of these conditions and the variability of this value over the centuries and at different stages of civilization” (Mechnikov 1995: 323).

It was not for nothing that Lenin considered that everything written by Plekhanov on philosophy was the best in all the international literature of Marxism. On the other hand, one should not forget that Soviet Marxists even reproached Plekhanov for exaggerating the role of the geographic environment.

The following approach can be considered quite indicative: “Historical materialism recognizes the great importance of the geographical environment for historical development ... However, historical materialism considers the geographical environment one of the conditions for historical development, but not its cause, and shows that the geographical environment does not directly affect the nature of society. , but indirectly, through the method of production of material goods, which determines the nature of this or that social order"(Soviet Historical Encyclopedia: in 16 volumes - M., 1963. - T. 4. - P. 220). Behind these outwardly correct formulations, however, was hidden, firstly, that the modes of production in Marxism were determined by the type of property, which actually made it impossible to study pre-capitalist societies on this basis; secondly, it was not taken into account that for pre-capitalist societies a number of natural objects(in particular, fauna, flora, land) were the most important part of the productive forces (see below for more on this). Consequently, the volume of the surplus product and the forms of social institutions depended on the abundance or scarcity of the corresponding objects of nature. Even Bockle understood this, but Marxism had difficulty accepting this idea in theory. It follows from this that the geographical environment could very strongly (and even to a decisive extent) influence the forms of society and the direction of its development. Unfortunately, among Marxist scholars, ideas were only occasionally expressed (which were practically never developed) that “the further we go deep into the depths of centuries, the more important is the consideration of the geographical factor” (B. A. Rybakov. Quoted from: Podolny 1977: 122).

See: Kim, M.P. Natural and social in the historical process / M.P. Kim // Society and nature: historical stages and forms of interaction. - M., 1981. - S. 13; Danilova, L. V. Natural and social factors of productive forces at the pre-capitalist stages of social development / M. P. Kim // Society and nature: historical stages and forms of interaction. - M., 1981. - S. 119; Anuchin, V. A. Geographical factor in the development of society. - M., 1982. - S. 325.

Today, we can probably already talk about natural basis of global society.

It can even be assumed that in a number of societies of the past, the volume of gross product per capita was very large and, perhaps, even higher than in a number of modern developing countries, if we consider the "work" of nature. For example, how many million tons of fertilizer did the silt of the great Nile replace for the Egyptians? Indeed, in order to collect such crops today in Europe, colossal costs are needed. And who counted the “horsepower” of Indian elephants or the millions of tons of fuel that the wind saved in sails and mills? Millions of tons of fish are caught in the ocean today. How much energy and cost will future humanity need to grow this amount of fish artificially? IN American steppes back in the 19th century. there were tens of millions of bison. How many countries can boast of such a number of beef cattle? In some Alaskan Indian tribes, each family prepared up to a thousand for the winter. salmon fish(translate to modern prices!). Thus, the huge difference in the structure and development of the productive forces should not obscure the productivity of the economy, since the larger the population and the more exhausted nature, the more one has to "work" for it. And in this regard, the ratio of production volumes between current and former societies will look different. If this is realized, then the basis of ancient societies will appear much more powerful (for more details, see: Grinin 1997: 59–61).

According to the figurative expression of D. Bell, we have grown to a new vocabulary, the key concept in which will be the limit (limit). Limits to growth, environmental plunder, intervention in wildlife, armament limit, etc. (Bell 1979: xxix). As you know, the International Commission on Environment and Development formulated the concept sustainable development, which includes two basic concepts: necessary needs and restrictions (see, for example: Evteev, Perelet 1989: 50).

From lat. passio- passion. Passionarity, according to Gumilev, is characterized by special energy, readiness for a feat, less fear of danger and death, sacrifice, etc. Gumilev also studied the process of formation of peoples (ethnic groups), which he called ethnogenesis, and phases of the life of the ethnic group.

However, these problems: the reasons for the formation of new peoples, the rise and fall of their activity, the reasons why some (few) peoples were able to leave a very bright mark on history, while many others did not, etc., are very interesting and important questions. There is no doubt that Gumilyov's works have intensified interest in them.

The basis of the development of human society is a system that combines three groups of factors: natural, industrial, social.

The functions of the natural environment must ensure the sustainable prosperity of human society. This goal is specified by three groups of sub-goals: environmental, social, economic.

Environmental - ensuring the health and sustainable continuation of the human race as species.

Social - security spiritual development, which ultimately includes the cognitive, artistic and moral development of man.

Economic - the production of material goods and services sufficient to meet environmental and social goals.

Achievement of environmental and social goals is largely achieved at the expense of economic goals.

The basic factor in solving the problems of providing material benefits to a person, improving biological health

and spiritual development of a person is the natural environment, the functions of which are shown in the figure (Fig. 1.5).

The ecological function of the natural environment is the oldest and most important. It existed long before the appearance of the other two functions. In the early stages of his development, man used the gifts of nature, without mediating them through labor. This period of use of "wild" ecological systems is characterized by gathering and hunting. The lack of natural resources was compensated by human migration to places of abundance of water and food, favorable climate.

Human development

Social factors

Maintaining human life as a biological species: habitat, breathing air, food resources, water resources, metabolic resources

Biological factors

Cognitive development: information resource, means of information exchange

Artistic development: development of creative abilities, aesthetic satisfaction, development of a sense of beauty and harmony

Moral development: fostering a sense of humanism, developing a sense of optimism and stability

Environmental factors

Reproduction of means of production: source of objects of labor, means of labor, spatial environment, energy resource, information resource

Reproduction of consumer goods Reproduction of labor power

Rice. 1.5. Functions of the natural environment 32

The impact of the natural environment on the socio-economic system is direct, but at the same time necessary. Professor Ya.Ya. Roginsky identifies five main ways in which the natural environment affects people: the first is a direct impact on people's health, their physical endurance, performance, fertility and mortality; the second - through the dependence of a person on natural means of subsistence, on the abundance or lack of food, that is, game, fish, plant resources; the third is the influence of the presence or absence of the necessary means of labor; fourth - the creation by nature itself of motives that encourage people to act, incentives to act in accordance with the requirements of changing environmental conditions; fifth - the presence or absence of natural barriers that prevent meetings and contacts between groups (oceans, deserts, mountains, swamps). The absence of barriers, on the one hand, could be extremely useful for mutual enrichment of experience, and on the other hand, detrimental in the event of a collision with superior forces of hostile groups. (Roginsky Ya.Ya. Social essence and biological nature ... - M .: Knowledge, 1983).

An analysis of the use of natural resources and indicators of socio-economic development makes it possible to trace a clear relationship between the state of the natural environment (availability of natural resources, environmental quality) and the level of development of the socio-economic system (Fig.

1.6). Forward and backward links can be specified as follows.

Abundance of natural resources and favorable natural conditions stimulate economic growth and promote prosperity social system. However, these same favorable opportunities for the existence of the socio-economic system gradually turn into a kind of brake on the emergence of revolutionary shifts in the system and lead to a certain stagnation.

b) stimulates the involvement of new natural resources

1. Excess, flowering

2. Natural resources. Environment

3. Lack, degradation

1. Heyday

2. Socio-economic system

3. Degradation

Stimulates growth rates of development

a) reduces labor intensity and load on the environment

Leads to the depletion of natural resources, degradation of the natural environment

a) causes a crisis in the system

6) stimulates the search for ways out of the crisis

Slows down revolutionary shifts

The deterioration of the state of the natural environment forces us to look for ways out of the crisis, stimulates the emergence of basic technical ideas and principles, and revolutionary changes in society.

The impact of the socio-economic system on the natural environment.

In the analysis of feedbacks, it is also possible to distinguish positive and negative results of the impact. The development of the productive forces of society makes it possible to involve new natural resources in production or use poorer sources and secondary resources, as well as to reduce the specific need for natural resources per unit of production and reduce the technogenic load on the natural environment.

The increased use of natural resources in the absence of a qualitative development of the productive forces leads to the depletion of natural resources and degradation of the natural environment.

Topic 8. Natural factors in the development of society

The life of society takes place in a certain natural environment and therefore the latter undoubtedly affects the development of society. In this topic, specific natural factors and conditions affecting society are considered. Natural factors of the same kind directly affect the life and health of people and therefore they are classified as environmental determinants. The natural conditions and factors on which the development of the productive forces of society depends include the geographical conditions of its existence (climate, soil, the presence of minerals, forests, rivers, lakes, etc.).

The impact of geographical factors on society has been noted by many historians, geographers, politicians and statesmen. Sometimes this impact was so greatly exaggerated that the geographical environment acted as the main determinant of the development of society; such views are rightly characterized as geographical determinism. Population also has an impact on the development of society and its productive forces, but if until the beginning of the 19th century population growth was assessed positively, then later some economists and sociologists began to see it as negative factor. The most prominent exponents of such negative views were T. Malthus and his followers, the Malthusians. Criticizing their views, it should be shown that demographic processes are determined not so much by biological as by socio-economic factors.

Key points for discussion. What is meant by geographic environment? What is the essence of geographical determinism? Describe the views of C. Montesquieu on the role of the geographical environment. What is G. Bockl's contribution to the understanding of the geographical environment? What role does L.I. Mechnikov assign to the natural environment and riverine civilizations? What is environmental determinism? What effect does population have on the development of society? What is the doctrine of T. Malthus about population? How is the population factor estimated in materialistic understanding stories?

Topic 8. Natural factors in the development of society

Parameter name	Meaning
Article subject:	Topic 8. Natural factors in the development of society
Rubric (thematic category)	History

The life of society takes place in the conditions of a certain natural environment, and in this regard, the latter undoubtedly affects the development of society. In this topic, specific natural factors and conditions affecting society are considered. Natural factors of the same kind directly affect the life and health of people and, in this regard, they are classified as environmental determinants. The natural conditions and factors on which the development of the productive forces of society depends include the geographical conditions of its existence (climate, soil, the presence of minerals, forests, rivers, lakes, etc.).

The impact of geographical factors on society has been noted by many historians, geographers, politicians and statesmen. Sometimes this impact was so greatly exaggerated that the geographical environment acted as the main determinant of the development of society; such views are rightly characterized as geographical determinism. The population also has an impact on the development of society and its productive forces, but if until the beginning of the 19th century population growth was assessed positively, then later some economists and sociologists began to see it as a negative factor.
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The most prominent exponents of such negative views were T. Malthus and his followers, the Malthusians. Criticizing their views, it should be shown that demographic processes are determined not so much by biological as by socio-economic factors.

Key points for discussion. What is meant by geographic environment? What is the essence of geographical determinism? Describe the views of C. Montesquieu on the role of the geographical environment. What is G. Bockl's contribution to the understanding of the geographical environment? What role does L.I. Mechnikov assign to the natural environment and riverine civilizations? What is environmental determinism? What impact does population have on the development of society? What is the doctrine of T. Malthus about population? How is the population factor assessed in the materialistic understanding of history?

Topic 8. Natural factors in the development of society - the concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Theme 8. Natural factors in the development of society" 2017, 2018.