Scientific discoveries made by people over 50 years old. The greatest scientists in history. Discoveries made by women scientists

At all times, there has been an opinion in the world that the female sex and science are incompatible things. However, women scientists who have contributed to human development at all stages of history challenge this unfair treatment.

Scientists women of the ancient world

Even when civilization was at its very beginning, representatives of the fairer sex rarely had the opportunity to engage in science. Most women scientists lived in ancient Greece, despite the strict patriarchy that reigned there.

The most famous representative of the scientific community was Hypatia, who lived in this country at the end of the 4th - beginning of the 5th century AD. e. She was the daughter of the famous scientist Theon of Alexandria, as a result of which she had access to education. In addition to the fact that she taught subjects such as philosophy, mathematics and astronomy in Alexandria, on which she wrote scientific works. Hypatia was also an inventor: she created such scientific devices as the still, the astrolabe and the hydrometer.

Ancient female scientists also lived in other countries. Information about Maria Prophetissa, who lived in the 1st century AD, has reached our time. e. in Jerusalem. Practicing alchemy, following the example of most scientists of that time, she made a significant contribution to the development of modern chemistry. It was she who invented the system for heating liquids in a steam bath and the first prototype of the distillation cube.

Discoveries made by women scientists

Despite strict restrictions on access to knowledge, representatives of the fairer sex continued to work on their inventions. Many scientific concepts, terms, as well as various devices that we use in modern world, was created by women scientists.

So, the first steps in programming belong to the lady. Lady Augusta Ada Byron (1815-1851), daughter of the famous poet, at the age of 17 invented three programs that demonstrated the analytical capabilities of the adding machine. This was the beginning of programming. One of the ADA programming languages ​​is named after her; in addition, representatives of this profession consider the birthday of this unusually smart girl, December 10, to be a professional holiday.

When discussing the topic “The First Women Scientists,” one cannot fail to mention the outstanding representative of her time, Marie Curie (1867-1934). She is the first woman to be awarded twice Nobel Prize, and the only scientist in the world to receive it in two different fields. She and her husband, with whom they had not only a family, but also a creative union, isolated the chemical element polonium. In addition, it belongs to them for which they received the highest award in the field of physics. She earned the next award, in chemistry, herself, after the death of her husband, by continuing hard work and isolating radium in its pure form.

It was her idea to use it in medicine to treat scars and various tumors. When did the first one begin? World War, she was the first to create X-ray machines that could be portable. The chemical element curie, as well as the unit of measurement of radioactivity, the Curie, were subsequently named in honor of the spouses.

List of great women

Hedy Lamarr (1913-2000) - one of the most beautiful women Hollywood, while at the same time possessing undoubted intelligence and ingenuity. Having been married against her will to Fritz Mandl, who was involved in the arms business, she ran away from him to America, where she began her career as an actress. During the war, she developed an interest in radio-controlled torpedoes and offered her development assistance to the National Council of Inventors. Considering the attitude towards female, officials did not want to deal with her. However, due to the great popularity of the actress, they could not simply refuse her. So she was asked to assist the council by selling a huge amount of bonds. Heady's ingenuity helped her raise more than 17 million. She announced that anyone who bought bonds worth at least 25 thousand would receive a kiss from her. In 1942, she, along with composer George Antheil, invented the theory of jumping heights. This discovery was not appreciated then, but in the modern world it is used everywhere: in mobile phones, Wi-Fi 802.11 and GPS.

Barbara McClintock (1902-1992) is a great scientist who first discovered the movement of genes. It was she who first described ring chromosomes, which only many years later began to be used to explain genetic diseases. Barbara received her well-deserved Nobel Prize only 30 years later, at the age of 81. By that time, the already middle-aged woman, a prominent scientist, told the whole world about her research and the results obtained.

Scientists women of Russia

The development of science in Russia is also impossible to imagine without women, who made a huge contribution to it.

Ermolyeva Zinaida Vissarionovna (1898-1974) - an outstanding microbiologist and epidemiologist. It was she who created antibiotics - medicines without which it is impossible to imagine modern medicine. Surprisingly, in order to make her scientific discovery, the 24-year-old girl infected herself fatal disease- cholera. Knowing that if a cure was not found, her days would be numbered, she was still able to cure herself. Much later, 20 years later, during the war, this already middle-aged woman, a prominent scientist, saved besieged Stalingrad from a cholera epidemic. Having been awarded, she then invested all the reward she received into the plane. Soon a fighter jet bearing the name of this amazing woman was already flying across the sky.

Anna Adamovna Krausskaya (1854-1941) made a huge contribution to the development of anatomy. She received the title of professor without defending a dissertation and became the first woman in Russia to be awarded such an honorary scientific status.

Vasilyevna (1850-1891), a Russian mathematician and mechanic, made an equally significant contribution to science.

She did a lot for these branches of science, but the main discovery is considered to be research on the rotation of a heavy asymmetrical top. It is interesting that Sofya Vasilievna became the only lady at that time to receive the title of professor higher mathematics V Northern Europe. By personal example, this wise Russian woman teaches that success and knowledge do not depend on gender.

World-renowned learned ladies

Almost every country can boast of great women who have brought about significant changes in science.

Among the representatives of the fair sex, about whom the whole world knows, sounds the name of Rachel Louise Carson (1907-1964), a biologist who was closely involved in the problems environment. In 1962, this already middle-aged woman, a prominent scientist, developed an essay on the topic of the effects of pesticides on Agriculture which excited scientific world. Her book, The Silent War, led to a furious attack from the chemical industry, which spent huge amounts of money harassing Rachel. It was this book that became the impetus for the creation of many social movements on environmental protection.

Charlotte Gilman (1860-1935) is one of the founders of the feminist movement in the world. Thanks to her outstanding talent as a writer, she was able to draw public attention to the oppressed position of women.

Unrecognized research by women scientists

Public opinion persistently demeaned and exaggerated the role of women. The learned ladies did not intend to stop their research, although they found many obstacles along the way. In particular, obtaining scientific titles, unlike their male colleagues, was very difficult for them.

Rosalind Franklin's (1920-1958) DNA research was a great success, but was never recognized during her lifetime.

Also, few people know that the origins of creation nuclear weapons stood a representative of the fairer sex - Lise Meitner (1878-1968). She split the uranium nucleus and concluded a chain reaction capable of generating a huge release of energy.

The possibility of creating the most powerful weapon in the world caused a tremendous resonance in society. However, being a staunch pacifist, Lisa stopped her research, refusing to make a bomb. The result was that her work was not recognized, and her colleague Otto Hahn received the Nobel Prize instead.

Discoveries of women scientists

It is difficult to overestimate the contribution that women scientists have made to the development of world science. At the origins of many modern theories It was the representatives of the fairer sex who stood, whose names were often not made public. In addition to the listed achievements, women made such discoveries as:

• first comet - Maria Mitchell (1847);
• common evolutionary roots of man and ape - Jane Goodall (1964);
• periscope - Sarah Mather (1845);
• car muffler - El Dolores Jones (1917);
• dishwasher - Josephine Garys Cochrane (1914);
• typo corrector - Betty Graham (1956), and many others.

Contribution to world science

It is unthinkable to imagine science and its development by the craziest representatives of the fairer sex who promoted it at all stages of human development. Women scientists around the world have contributed to fields such as:

• physics;
• chemistry;
• medicine;
• philosophy;
• literature.

Unfortunately, the names of all the ladies who worked for the benefit of humanity have not reached us, however, we can say with confidence that their work is worthy of respect.

Attitudes towards women scientists in the modern world

Thanks to representatives of the fairer sex, who have proven their right to engage in science over and over again, modern society has finally recognized the equality of the sexes. Today, men and women work side by side, continuing to work towards the development of humanity. Get academic degree or a reward for women no longer seems impossible, but the path to such an attitude was long and difficult.

The smartest women of the 20th century

Famous women scientists still work today.

Lina Solomonovna Stern, a biochemist and physiologist, became the first woman admitted to the USSR Academy of Sciences.

Skorokhodova Olga Ivanovna is an elderly woman, a prominent scientist. The essay on the characteristics of the deaf-blind is still cited in scientific circles. A talented defectologist, the only deaf-mute female scientist in the world.

Dobiash-Rozhdestvenskaya Olga Antonovna, Russian and Soviet historian and writer, who became a corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences.

Ladygina-Kots Nadezhda Nikolaevna is the first scientific zoopsychologist in Russia.

Pavlova Maria Vasilievna, the first paleontologist.

Glagoleva-Arkadyeva Alexandra Andreevna, physicist scientist. This lady gained worldwide fame and became a Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences.

Sergeevna, translator and linguist, who founded the Society of Oriental Studies, of which she later became the honorary chairman.

Lermontova Yulia Vsevolodovna, who fully justified her famous name, however, in a different area. She was the first woman chemist to be awarded a PhD.

Klado Tatyana Nikolaevna is the first female aerologist both in Russia and in the world.

Having become the first in their field, they set a worthy example to many. Both the Fatherland and world science, appreciating the contributions they made.

Conclusion

Despite the difficulties, women scientists worked hard to prove their right to equality. And the movement of progress that they made possible is difficult to overestimate. These smartest women immortalized their names in their discoveries, becoming an example of perseverance and courage.

One of greatest physicists modern times Stephen Hawking died on March 14, 2018 at the age of 77. When discussing the scientific works of an English physicist in the scientific community, one can often hear a comparison of Stephen Hawking with Albert Einstein and Isaac Newton. What scientific discoveries did a talented researcher specializing in the study of the Universe deserve such a flattering comparison with?

Family of scientists

It would not be an exaggeration to say that fate itself destined Stephen Hawking for a career as a scientist. The future outstanding physicist was born on January 8, 1942 in the family of a successful scientist specializing in medical research. It is not surprising that the boy’s father wanted his son to follow in his footsteps, continuing the family business. But young Stephen was more interested in mathematics, physics and astronomy from childhood. The boy passionately wanted to know how the Universe really works. We must pay tribute to Stephen Hawking's father. Seeing his son's passion for technology, he did not ruin his fate by insisting that he study medicine. Instead, he encouraged him to study mathematics as best he could. And his expectations were justified. The son not only succeeded in exact sciences, having received the title of professor at Oxford, his discoveries in the field of physics entered the golden fund modern science. True, even at the age of 20 young man Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis was discovered, which over time turned the scientist into a disabled person confined to a wheelchair. However, despite serious illness, Stephen Hawking stubbornly continued to make one scientific discovery after another.

"The Theory of Everything"

While exploring the peculiarities of the origin and development of the Universe, Stephen Hawking made perhaps the most important discovery in the field of modern astrophysics. Using Albert Einstein's equations for general relativity, Stephen Hawking was the first in the world to mathematically describe the state of the Universe at the moment of its birth. In fact, an English scientist proved that the Universe had a beginning. True, in this case the question arises of what existed before her birth. Unfortunately, Stephen Hawking did not have time to answer this question. Nevertheless, based on the study of the most complex scientific disciplines quantum mechanics and quantum gravity, a talented physicist tried to accomplish the impossible - to create a “Theory of Everything.”

Look into a black hole

The second world-class scientific discovery made by Stephen Hawking at the end of the 20th century was associated with the life activity of black holes in the Universe. Before the appearance of theoretical calculations by Stephen Hawking, it was believed that black holes irreversibly absorb absolutely “everything” - from matter to various types of energy - and do not have an event horizon. This statement was refuted by the scientific works of Stephen Hawking, in which the physicist clearly proved that black holes are capable of not only absorbing, but also emitting different kinds elementary particles, as well as information flows due to quantum processes occurring inside them.

Fashion writer

With special credit modern society Stephen Hawking is given his active life position on the issue of popularization of science. A rare scientist who is immersed in the most complex research in the field quantum physics, astronomy and mathematics, is able to clearly explain the subject of his research to the average person. Stephen Hawking managed to do this, writing 14 popular science books during his life that sold millions of copies. But the most popular among readers was his essay “ Short story time", published in 1988. In the book, the scientist tried to tell his readers in an accessible language about what space and time are, black holes, how new Galaxies appear, when the Universe was born and after what time the Universe will die. The work turned out to be so entertaining that it was more fascinating to read than any detective story. Subsequently, together with his daughter Lucy, Stephen Hawking created a book with similar content, adapting it for young children. Thanks exclusively to Stephen Hawking, kids all over the world were able to learn how the world in which they live actually works.

Some research works better for young scientists, others -

more mature. An unbiased, fresh look at things comes from

greater ease when you are not yet overloaded with knowledge and

constrained by established thinking skills. Monotonous, annoying

work is less boring if you haven't had time to do it yet

too much. Endless hours of standing in front of a laboratory or

the operating table is easier when the legs have not yet worn out

over many decades of their operation. Brand new

original idea comes, as a rule (though not always), to

initial period scientific activity, i.e. when the most

the first and therefore most difficult obstacles on the way to

confirmation of this idea can be overcome relatively

benefits when it comes to complex problems

coordination and development of a vast field of science. In this case

the most significant qualities are those that

formed with age: observation practice, familiarity with

a variety of methods, broad knowledge of literature and the ability

leadership combined with the experience of understanding your colleagues. For

large-scale work of this kind is also necessary

significant technical and financial resources and a large staff

employees. The progress of such work is accelerated if the material lying in it

certain recognition in the world. In this case, representatives

other fields of knowledge will be more likely to delve into

specific aspects of the problem being developed.

All these qualities come only with time. That's why

leading cross-cutting research in broad areas

knowledge is best achieved by mature and experienced scientists. However,

this kind of work is excellent training for young members

research group. No matter how gifted a young man is,

he can't just bring himself to open a new original

fact. He should start with a job that would give him

opportunity to observe and reflect. Inspiration is just

comes in the process of such activity, and with just one effort

you cannot force his will. Therefore, I strongly recommend to young people

scientists begin their careers as part of a group and, in addition,

conduct your own original research on any topic,

which seems to them worthy of attention.

The real tragedy is over-specialization,

increasing with age, as well as forced distraction

attention from the chosen field of activity. The combination of these two

factors have the most paralyzing effect on the elderly

scientists. Over time they become more and more adept at

their specialty, but, as I already said, the whole society seems to

conspires to destroy them with their own fruits

own success. They must perform honorary

representative functions, managing large institutions,

the creation of which they had previously attempted; they are forced to spend

time to look at the (often very mediocre) works of young people

colleagues applying for degrees, awards, etc.; they are invited

talk or write about your past achievements. They, be

maybe they even managed to accumulate some capital and acquire

some property, but it takes time, and besides

a fair amount to manage it all. So it turns out that

a scientist has no time to think about that specific scientific work, For

which he is fully prepared to perform and which he

The history of mankind is the history of scientific discoveries that made this world more technologically advanced and perfect, improved the quality of life, and helped to understand the world. This review contains 15 scientific discoveries that had a key impact on the development of civilization and which people still use today. .

1. Penicillin

As you know, Scottish scientist Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin (the first antibiotic) in 1928. If this had not happened, people would probably still be dying from things like stomach ulcers, tooth abscesses, tonsillitis and scarlet fever, staph infections, leptospirosis, etc.

2. Mechanical watches

It is worth noting that there is still a lot of controversy regarding what can be considered the first mechanical watch. However, as a rule, their inventor is considered Chinese monk and the mathematician I-Sin (723 AD). This innovative discovery allowed people to measure time.

3. Screw pump

One of the most important ancient Greek scientists, Archimedes is believed to have developed one of the first water pumps, which pushed water up a tube. This completely transformed irrigation.

4. Gravity

This is good famous story- Famous English mathematician and physicist Isaac Newton discovered the force of gravity after an apple fell on his head in 1664. His discovery explains why things fall to earth and why planets revolve around the sun.

5. Pasteurization

Discovered by French scientist Louis Pasteur in the 1860s, pasteurization is a heat treatment process that destroys pathogenic microorganisms in certain areas. food products and drinks such as wine, beer and milk. This discovery had a huge impact on public health.

It is common knowledge that modern civilization grew thanks to the industrial revolution, the main reason for which was the steam engine. In fact, this engine was not invented overnight, but rather it was gradually developed over about a hundred years thanks to 3 British inventors: Thomas Savery, Thomas Newcomen and (most famously) James Watt.

7. Electricity

The fateful discovery of electricity belongs to the English scientist Michael Faraday. He also discovered the basic principles of electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism and electrolysis. During his experiments, Faraday also created the first generator that produced electricity.

8. DNA

Many people believe that American biologist James Watson and English physicist Francis Crick discovered DNA in the 1950s, but in fact, deoxyribonucleic acid was first identified in the late 1860s by Swiss chemist Friedrich Miescher. Then, in the decades following Miescher's discovery, other scientists conducted numerous scientific research, which helped to understand how organisms pass on their genes and how they control the functioning of cells.

9. Pain relief

Crude forms of anesthesia such as opium, mandrake and alcohol were used as early as 70 AD. But it was not until 1847 that the American surgeon Henry Bigelow determined that ether and chloroform could be anesthetics, thereby making painful surgical operations much more tolerant.

10. Theory of relativity

Two interrelated theories of Albert Einstein - special relativity and general theory relativity - were published in 1905. They transformed theoretical physics and astronomy in the 20th century, replacing Newton's 200-year-old mechanical theory. This theory became the basis for much of modern science.

11. X-ray radiation

German physicist Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen discovered X-rays in 1895, when he studied the phenomena accompanying the passage of electric current through gas extremely low pressure. For this pioneering discovery, Roentgen was awarded the first ever Nobel Prize in Physics in 1901.

12. Periodic table

In 1869, Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev, while studying the atomic weights of elements, noticed that chemical elements can be formed into groups with similar properties. As a result, he was able to create the first periodic table, which became one of the most important discoveries in the field of chemistry.

Infrared radiation was discovered by British astronomer William Herschel in 1800 when he studied the heating effect of different colors of light using prisms and thermometers. IN modern days Infrared light is used in many fields including tracking systems, heating, meteorology, astronomy, etc.

Today it is used as a very accurate and effective diagnostic device in medicine. And nuclear magnetic resonance was first described and measured by the American physicist I. Rabi in 1938. For this discovery he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1944.

15. Paper

Although predecessors modern paper, such as papyrus and amate, existed in the Mediterranean and pre-Columbian America, respectively, these materials were not real paper. The process of making paper was first recorded in China during the Eastern Han period (25-220 AD).

Today, man makes discoveries not only on earth, but also in space. That's just it. They are truly impressive!

Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin at the age of 47, while married for the thirteenth time.

What is the relationship between a person’s age and his scientific achievements? It is known that mathematicians make their major discoveries very young. Evariste Galois, who lived during the French Revolution, published his first work when he was less than 18 years old, and two years later he died in a duel. Isaac Newton considered the period when he was 22 - 23 years old, best age for inventions. He became a professor of mathematics at Cambridge University at the age of 26. James Watson, who discovered the double helix of DNA with Francis Crick, wrote his name in human history at the age of 25. Later he failed to do anything equal in science. Sadi Carnot ("Carnot cycle"), published his famous book "Reflections on driving force fire" when he was 28 years old. Einstein said that major contributions to science can be made before the age of 30. He published the theory of relativity at the age of 26.

The biographies of 280 great scientists were studied at the University of Canterbury in New Zealand. 65% of them (mostly men) made the most significant discoveries in their careers before the age of 35. The head of the study, Satoshi Kasanawa, simultaneously studied the actions of criminals, and it turned out that the “productivity curve” of famous scientists is almost identical to the similar curve of male criminals, whose peak activity is usually located between late adolescence and early adulthood. Scientists, like criminals, greatest success achieve in their youth, and after 35 years, having married, they do not make either great discoveries or great robberies.

Casanava explains this phenomenon by the fact that both scientists and criminals are driven by the desire to impress representatives of the opposite sex, and marriage seriously dulls in men the passion for science, as well as the passion for crime: in five years married life Only a quarter of the 280 great scientists included in the study published significant scientific works that became the last of their careers. According to Casanava, young and single men experience high level testosterone, thanks to which they are able to take risks and create. When a man starts a family, testosterone levels drop, and both creative and criminal activity decrease.

Casanava's theory looks very tempting. In relation to criminals, perhaps, it is fair. In any case, about age. Robbers and raiders must be young and physically agile. Fraudsters only become more cunning over the years. As for scientists, quite a lot of facts contradict it. For example, mathematician Leonhard Euler, member Russian Academy sciences under Peter I, continued to create, already being a blind old man. Louis Pasteur suffered a stroke at the age of 42 and made all his major discoveries while semi-paralyzed. Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin at the age of 47.

It also raises doubts that scientific discoveries They do it in order to attract the attention of people of the opposite sex. Scientific activity is fascinating in itself. There is a fairly well-founded opinion that creativity is the sublimation of sexual energy. Many scientists were ascetics. Others had a turbulent personal life - just remember Lev Landau. Marriage did not interfere either. Alexander Fleming, for example, by the time he discovered penicillin, was already married for the thirteenth time.

There are too few female scientists in Casanava's sample to draw strong conclusions about his theory, but a number of examples suggest the opposite trend. So, Marie Curie received doctorate at the age of 36 years. By that time she had been married for 8 years. After 7 years, she managed to obtain pure radium. Rosalind Franklin conducted the X-ray diffraction studies of DNA molecules that proved crucial to Watson and Crick's discovery of the double helix when she was in her 30s. She was never married at all.

Despite all the temptingness of the New Zealand scientist’s theory, the influence of sex hormones on the productivity of scientists cannot be considered proven.