Organization of public education in the second half of the XVIII century. Education in Russia in the second half of the 18th century

The development of education in Russia in the second half of the 18th century was influenced by the enlightened absolutism of Catherine II, which determined not only the growth of the network of educational institutions, but also the priority of the class principle in their recruitment. Catherine II carefully studied the experience of organizing education in the leading countries of Western Europe and the most important pedagogical ideas of her time. The humanitarian ideal, which originated in the Renaissance, was taken as the basis: it proceeded "out of respect for the rights and freedom of the individual" and eliminated "from pedagogy everything that is in the nature of violence or coercion" (PN Milyukov). On the other hand, Catherine's educational concept required the maximum isolation of children from the family and their transfer into the hands of a teacher. However, already in the 80s. the focus was once again shifted from education to education. The Prussian and Austrian education systems were taken as a basis. It was supposed to establish three types of general education schools - small, medium and main. They taught general subjects: reading, writing, knowledge of numbers, catechism, sacred history, the beginnings of Russian grammar (small school). In the middle one, an explanation of the Gospel, Russian grammar with spelling exercises, general and Russian history, and a brief geography of Russia were added. In the main one - a detailed course in geography and history, mathematical geography, grammar with exercises in business writing, the foundations of geometry, mechanics, physics, natural history and civil architecture.

The class-lesson system of Comenius was introduced, attempts were made to use visualization, in the upper grades it was even recommended to evoke independent work of thought in students. But basically, didactics was reduced to memorizing texts from a textbook. The relationship between the teacher and the students was built in accordance with the views of Catherine: for example, any punishment was strictly prohibited.

In 1764, in Moscow, on Solyanka, a state-owned "Educational Home for Foundlings and Homeless Children" was opened - the first Moscow specialized agency for orphans. This institution was supposed to receive the bulk of its funds from charitable collections. The Empress herself donated 100,000 rubles for the laying of the building and allocated 50,000 annual revenues from her funds, urging her subjects to follow her example. Education took place according to the method of the famous teacher I.I. Betsky, who sought to create a “new breed of people” through closed educational institutions - educated and hardworking. The level of the educational process in the Orphanage was high; the institution was popular in the city, so it is no coincidence that it was under him that “French classes” were opened to train future governesses.

In 1764, a decree was issued on the founding of the Educational Society noble maidens for 200 people at the Smolny convent in St. Petersburg - the Institute of Noble Maidens.

Girls from 4-6 years of age were taken away from home for 15 years. Education was mainly humanitarian, but the beginnings of mathematics and physics were also given, the pupils were intensively taught foreign languages, music, housekeeping, needlework. From the graduates of the institute, educated teachers, wives and ladies-in-waiting were obtained. In 1765, the first public school for women in Russia was opened in St. Smolny Institute. Before that, girls were brought up in families, monasteries or private boarding schools.

In 1779, with the money of Prokopy Akinfievich Demidov, the Moscow Commercial School was opened for the children of merchants and commoners.

In 1786, the Charter on Public Schools was issued, according to which public schools of two levels were established in each provincial town. The first stage was represented by "small schools" with a two-year term of study, the second - "main" ones, consisting of four classes. Literacy, reading, arithmetic and the Law of God were taught in the "small" schools. “The main schools were intended to train the teaching staff of the “small” schools. The first "main" public school was opened in Moscow on October 5, 1786. Teachers had to be trained for the system of comprehensive schools. For this purpose, in 1783, the Main Public School was opened in St. Petersburg, from which the teacher's seminary, the prototype of the pedagogical institute, separated three years later. Until the end of the 18th century, there were no pedagogical educational institutions in Russia. Only at the end of the century, in 1786, the Main Public Schools were established in the provincial cities, in which teachers were trained for district schools. Catherine's reform was not completed, but, nevertheless, it played a significant role in the development of Russian education. The school reform of the 1780s was the first attempt to create a state system of public education. The basis new school the principles of all-estate and free education were laid down. But to create an education system, the necessary funds were not enough and, most importantly, there was still no need for education among the general population.

The development of pedagogical thought in Russia in the second half of the 19th century (N.A. Korf, Bunakov, Tikhomirov)

The most significant development of pedagogical thought in Russia of the New Age fell on the second half of XIX century. The government is seriously engaged in the restructuring of the school system. Pedagogical journalism is being formed, scientific pedagogical societies and pedagogical journals are being created.

In November 1855, new rules for admission and study at universities were adopted, where restrictions on the number of university students were lifted. However, they did not suit students and teachers. The students insisted on the right to form independent corporations. In 1856, the Academic Committee was restored, which began preparing new school regulations. The work of the committee was influenced by the activities of N.I. Pirogov, K.D. Ushinsky. In June 1863, a new university charter was approved. Universities received greater autonomy, with university management transferred to the Councils of Professors. The charter rejected class-estate discrimination in education. The determining condition for admission to the gymnasium is the property status. Students were required to pay tuition fees.

The children of needy parents were exempted from the fee. Russia in the late 1850s. there are Sunday schools, schools for children from the people, schools based on new pedagogical ideas and principles. D.A. Tolstoy Minister of Education from 1866 to 1880 was head of the Holy Synod. He curtailed the autonomy of the universities, seeking to establish tight government control over universities and other educational institutions. There were changes that served as an impetus for the development of women's education in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kyiv, Kazan. In the second half of the 19th century, both in Russia and in a number of Western countries, there is an intensive development of pedagogical thought.

In Russia, with the abolition of serfdom, various laws were issued on the free education of peasants and social elements of the lower class. In addition, there is a development of rules for teaching in schools and universities, on the rights of pupils, students and teachers. A number of laws are also passed regarding the power of governing educational institutions. A number of improvements in the education system allows us to judge the high development of the leading teachers who developed these improvements.

N.F. Bunakov is a teacher who shared the principles of the organic connection of school work with folk life, attention to the student and trust in the personality and work of the national teacher The characteristic, "indisputable motive of life modern man is his national feature: to recognize himself as a citizen famous country and to strive for the good of one's fatherland as for personal advantage is one of those respectable qualities that no one will dispute. “The school ... must maintain in its students a sense of nationality,” the scientist formulated, emphasizing the importance in educating the national feeling of teaching native nature, national geography, history, native language and literature. It is possible to influence the souls of children with an ideal, and there is nothing bad or unreasonable in this, - the teacher-educator believes. Student and teacher in a folk school. These problems interested N.F. Bunakov. From the very first days of accepting students, the school should become a “serious”, “interesting, entertaining” matter for them. The student does not just work, assimilating a new experience for himself, but works independently. Reflecting on the being of a student and a teacher at school, N.F. Bunakov comes to the view of the folk school, already noted in Russian pedagogy, as something integral and moral - alive at the same time. The condition for maintaining the moral "structure of school life" is the teacher's knowledge of the life of each of his students. Let's finish the appeal to the legacy of N.F. Bunakov with his idea of ​​the uselessness or even harmfulness of using "punishments and rewards" in school. Punishments and rewards have a bad effect on both the student and the teacher. “Sublime” and “beneficial” ideal (fatherland, kindness, conscience, labor, people and this is the whole human universe) understanding and development of children's spirituality, fostering a sense of catholicity in the human soul (collectivity that preserves the right of the individual with his will to God to question and answer ), presenting life to children as a serious, independent spiritual action-feat (teaching as an analogue of such a life), trusting and following the child’s soul in its desire to joyfully, with interest, peer into the world created by God; the existence of the school as a living conciliar spirituality (teachers and children), which follows the rules, but obeys only the heart - the teacher and the child; view of the teacher as a living phenomenon of Russian culture (and science, in particular); understanding the education of a student through the prism of absolute values ​​- these ideas were introduced into Russian pedagogy by N.F. Bunakov.

The system of education in Western Europe during the Reformation and Counter-Reformation. Jesuit education system

In the XVI century. in Western and Central Europe a broad social movement of the Reformation unfolded, which took the form of a struggle against the Roman Catholic Church. The Reformation formulated its own understanding of the nature and ways of human education, which differed from the views of the humanists of the Renaissance and Catholic orthodoxy. The religious anthropologism of the reformist teachings ran counter to the secular humanism of Renaissance pedagogy. Unlike the Roman Catholic Church, which professed truth as an unchanging reflection of divine providence, the Reformation intended to supplement truths that were divine in origin.

The Reformation proclaimed the principle of individuality, the "selfhood" of a person who bears personal responsibility before God. The critical and humanistic spirit of the Reformation had important implications for the school and pedagogy. In fact, the Reformation merged with the Renaissance in an effort to move the human personality to the center of education, to attach to national culture, language, literature, encourage secular education.

In the Reformation movement, moderate and radical currents were traced. The leader of the latter, Thomas Münzer (1490 - 1525), advocated the destruction of the old school, which makes it difficult for the people to access education. Basic teaching aid folk school the Catechism was announced in German. The Catechism was translated by Luther himself. Education in educational institutions of elementary education took place within the framework of religious dogmas (Roman Catholic or Protestant). Clericalism was a significant brake on the development of school education.

There was not even a hint of physical education in the schools. The children were constantly hit. Whipped all without exception. In elementary schools verbal mnemonic teaching reigned supreme.

Teaching aids designed specifically for children did not actually exist until the 16th century. The spread of elementary education was slow and difficult. Elementary education could only be obtained in the cities. Ignorance reigned in the countryside. Complete primary education was available only to the top of society. A significant part of the children did not even receive the rudimentary education. Educational institutions of higher general education XV - the first third of the XVII century. were genetically connected in one way or another with previous city and church schools.

The struggle for the unity of faith increased interest in the school as an apparatus for educating the masses, not only in the Protestant Reformation movement, but also in the Catholic one that replaced it, from the end of the 50s of the 16th century. The Counter-Reformation acted as a force opposing Lutheranism. The Catholic reaction was directed not only against reformist religious movements, but also against secular humanistic culture. Founder of the Jesuit Order, well-educated Spanish religious figure, former officer Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556), based on the practice already available in history, believed that success in the cause he defended could be achieved through an all-encompassing educational activity. The counter-reformation began to create in European countries public free primary schools. And in order to attract the ruling classes to itself, it launched an active activity in the direction of secondary and higher education. The Jesuit education system, having gained great popularity, existed for quite a long time. Many of its elements have been preserved in Western schools today. Interest in their system of education and upbringing was represented by such methods as interclass and intraclass competition, competitions, theatrical performances, school self-government and much more. Then all this was combined by the Jesuits with a sophisticated system of lying and playing on human passions, authoritarianism and formalism. Developing fanatical devotion to the Roman Catholic religion, the Jesuit education system, despite certain achievements in the field of education, turned out to be essentially reactionary, leading a person away from the ideal of a self-developing creative personality.

In its own way, only the Renaissance became the most unique of the epochs, which raised a person to an unprecedented height. In its own way, interpreting the ancient view of the development and upbringing of a person, the humanism of the Renaissance had significant influence to determine the type of education in modern times. Within the same historical period The Renaissance and the Reformation defined the relationship between the individual and society in different ways. If humanism preached the harmonious development of a free individual, through which he sought to transform society, which the Enlightenment later inherited from him, then the Reformation was based on the ideal of a community subordinating the individual. And if the humanists sought to dominate the minds of people through education, then the reformers of the church managed to rule over the people themselves with the help of education. By the end of the XVI century. the humanistic worldview was almost completely pushed aside by the ideology of the Reformation and was revived only in the Enlightenment.

The militant organ of the counter-reformation was the Order of the Jesuits ("Society of Jesus"). This order was founded by Ignatius Loyola in 1540. The Jesuits, unlike the monks of other orders, lived in the world, often being politicians, diplomats, courtiers, educators and teachers, doctors.
The struggle against the Reformation in Spain was led by King Philip II himself.

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Plan

Introduction

1. Education system in the second half of the 18th century

2. Activities of I. I. Betsky

3. Activities of N. I. Novikov

4. Activities of A. N. Radishchev

List of used literature

Introduction

The period of the highest development of schooling in Russia in the 18th century. turned out to be the reign of Catherine II (1762-1796). For the first time, a European-educated person turned out to be the head of state. Catherine showed a special interest in the problems of upbringing and education. In 1762, she wrote: "The passion of this year is to write about education ... the formation of an ideal person and a worthy citizen."

Russian politicians, scientists, teachers took part in the discussion of issues of upbringing and education within the framework of the pan-European Enlightenment movement. The works of Russian enlighteners proclaimed the ideas of the development of the national education system, public education, the expediency of studying and using Western pedagogy in compliance with their own traditions.

Russian educators got involved in the pan-European controversy about education. At the same time, they expressed their original opinions. In their writings, they carried out the idea of ​​free development of the personality (E. R. Dashkova - "On the meaning of the word "education", A. A. Prokopovich-Antonsky - "On education", V. V. Krestinin - "Historical news about moral education. .. ", E. B. Syreyshchikov - "On the benefits of moralizing in the education of youth", Kh. A. Chebotarev - "A word about the methods and paths leading to enlightenment", M. M. Snegirev - "A word about the benefits of moral education" The authors rejected the thesis of J.-J. Rousseau's predominant "natural education" and insisted on the priority of social education. At the same time, they did not share the opinion of Helvetius about the omnipotence of social influence and the insignificance of the role of heredity in education.

The ideas of the European Renaissance and Enlightenment enjoyed the special attention of the Russian Empress. Catherine sought to use the achievements of European pedagogical thought in the implementation of her projects. She carefully studied "Thoughts on Education" by J. Locke, the pedagogical theories of M. Montaigne, F. Fenelon, J.-J. Rousseau. Having conceived the reform of the school system, Catherine turned to D. Diderot, who drew up the "Plan of the University for Russia". In the 1770s Catherine was especially interested pedagogical activity I. B. Bazedova.

Over time, Catherine's pedagogical preferences have evolved. If at the beginning of her reign the empress demonstrated her commitment to the ideas of the French Enlightenment, then at the end of her life she moved away from liberal hobbies. When faced with a choice between the ideals of the Enlightenment and the elimination of danger to the throne, Catherine did not hesitate. Evidence of this is the fate of the outstanding Russian educators N. Novikov and A. Radishchev. The first, on suspicion of a Masonic conspiracy against the Empress, was thrown into the Peter and Paul Fortress. The second because he dared to publicly condemn the autocracy, was sent into exile in Siberia.

1. Education system in the second half of the 18th century

A kind of manifesto of Russian pedagogy of the late eighteenth century. became a collective treatise of professors of Moscow University "Method of teaching" (1771). The treatise proclaims important didactic ideas about active and conscious learning.

The priority of school policy in the second half of the XVIII century. was the satisfaction of the cultural and educational needs of the nobility. Having got rid of compulsory service, the nobility sought to fill their leisure time with familiarization with the cultural achievements of Europe. The craving for a new Western education intensified.

A very remarkable event was the dispute about the priority of Greek-Latin education. According to the testimony of the future US President J. Adams, who served in 1781-1783. in the American diplomatic mission in Russia, in St. Petersburg, "there was no good place for learning Latin and Greek.

The stronghold of Greek-Latin education, the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, is entering a new period of its development. The teaching of Russian and Greek is being strengthened; the teaching of Hebrew and new languages ​​is introduced, as well as a number of educational subjects (philosophy, history, medicine). The Academy becomes exclusively a spiritual and educational institution and ceases to meet the requirements of the new time. Universities take its place.

If under Peter I there was a mandatory ("instruction") program, according to which the nobles had to acquire certain scientific and technical knowledge, now only children of small landed nobles studied in the corresponding schools. The nobility preferred to learn secular manners, enjoy the theater and other arts.

Such a turn negatively affected the state of educational institutions, headed by St. Petersburg and Moscow universities. Thus, M. V. Lomonosov testifies that at the St. Petersburg Academic University "neither the image nor the likeness of the university is visible." Professors usually did not give lectures, students were recruited from other educational institutions as recruits; recruits most often "were not in a good condition to take lectures from professors." A similar picture was at Moscow University. It had 100 students when it opened; 30 years later - only 8. Classes were held on average 100 days a year.

This did not mean that scientific and pedagogical life stopped at the universities. Foreign and domestic scientists were involved in lecturing. Among the latter are S. N. Kotelnikov (Professor of Mathematics), A. P. Protasov (Professor of Anatomy), N. V. Popov (Professor of Astronomy). Professors of Moscow University and the Academy of Sciences published Russian translations of the pedagogical works of J. Locke, J. A. Comenius, J.-J. Rousseau. They were the authors of manuals for schools and home teachers, as well as projects for school reforms. Thanks to their activities, original educational literature on various branches of knowledge (native language, mathematics, geography, natural science, etc.) was created. In the works of professors of Moscow University and scientists of the Academy of Sciences ("On the benefits of sciences ..." by A. N. Popovsky, "Word about ... human concepts" by D. S. Anichkov, etc.), important questions of moral, mental and physical education. Thus, the expediency of using Western pedagogical experience and Russian folk pedagogical traditions was emphasized.

Significant progress was made by special military educational institutions - land and sea cadet corps. The charter of 1766 divided the training program in the cadet corps into three groups of sciences: 1) leading to the knowledge of subjects necessary for civil rank; 2) useful or artistic; 3) "leading to the knowledge of other arts." The sciences of the first group included moralizing, jurisprudence, and economics. To the sciences of the second group - general and experimental physics, astronomy, general geography, navigation, natural science, military sciences, drawing, engraving, architecture, music, dancing, fencing, sculpture. To the sciences of the third group - logic, mathematics, eloquence, physics, sacred and secular world history, geography, chronology, Latin and French, Mechanics. Such an extensive program was only partially implemented. A very significant number of hours were spent in French.

In the second half of the XVIII century. private educational institutions have been developed for nobility. They used the public school curriculum.

The higher nobility raised their children at home. At first, the Germans were educators, then the French began to replace them more and more often. The first foreign tutors in the majority turned out to be insolvent teachers. As stated in the decree of 1755, "many, having not found good teachers, take in people who have spent their whole lives as lackeys, hairdressers and other similar crafts."

There are two stages in the history of school projects and reforms of the Catherine era. At the first stage (1760s), the influence of the French pedagogical tradition is noticeable. At the second stage (from the beginning of the 1780s) - the influence of the German school and pedagogical experience.

In 1763, Catherine appointed Ivan Ivanovich Betsky (1704-1795) as her chief educational adviser. Betskoy was well acquainted with the pedagogical ideas of the West. He drew up reports and charters, first of all, "The General Plan of the Orphanage" (1764) and "A Brief Instruction ... on the Education of Children", where in the interpretation of issues of physical, mental and moral education, he follows Rousseau and Locke. Betsky owns projects for the education of "ideal nobles".

In addition to the plans of Betsky, in the 1760s. several more projects were put forward: on the establishment of various schools (1764), the organization of state gymnasiums (1767), the commission on schools (1768), etc.

Professor of Moscow University F. G. Dilthey also drew up a plan for the establishment of a system of primary (trivial) schools, gymnasiums, universities and institutions for the training of representatives of the serfs as educators for noble children ("slave" or "uncle" schools). It was envisaged to create two "uncle's schools" - in Moscow and St. Petersburg, more than 20 "trivial schools" for the nobility and free classes, where they would prepare for admission to the gymnasium, 9 four-year gymnasiums for the nobles and free commoners, 2 new universities.

The project of "state gymnasiums" or "children's educational academies", presented in 1767 by the Commission for drawing up a plan for educational reform, provided for the organization of closed state educational institutions for children from 5-6 years of age to 18 years of age "without distinction of rank" (excluding serfs). It was planned to open gymnasiums of 4 types: general education, civil, military and merchant. In all types of gymnasiums, it was proposed to pay special attention to the study of trade and industry, and foreign languages. The introduction of compulsory primary education for boys was also envisaged.

Several projects were prepared by the "Private Commission on Schools" created in 1768: 1) on lower village schools; 2) about the lower city schools; 3) about secondary schools; 4) about schools for non-believers. It was planned to establish elementary schools everywhere in villages and large villages - lower village schools; build buildings at the expense of parishioners; recruit teachers from local priests; pay for the work of teachers in kind and money at the expense of parents. Schools were for boys. At the request of parents, girls could be admitted to schools and taught for free. Religion and reading were to be compulsory subjects. The lower city schools were also arranged at the expense of the townspeople. Schools were for boys and girls. The program included religion, reading and writing. Schools for non-Christians were supposed to attend the population of the eastern outskirts. The programs were planned similar to those of the first two types of schools. It was proposed by teachers to make representatives of the respective confessions; training to be conducted in the native language for "gentiles".

Projects of the 1760s on the public education system, on the establishment and state support of urban and rural schools remained unfulfilled due to lack of funds. The government's interest in school reform was blunted by the peasant uprising and the wars that Russia waged in 1768-1774. But by the early 1780s. the question of school reform has again become topical.

In 1782, Catherine appointed a "Commission for the Establishment of Public Schools." In the same year, the Commission proposed a plan for the opening of primary, secondary and higher educational institutions, which was used in the "Charter of public schools Russian Empire"(1786). Serbo-Croatian thinker and teacher Fyodor Ivanovich Yankovich de Marievo (1741-1814) took an active part in the development of these documents. Lomonosov's nephew M. E. Golovin (1756-1790), a graduate of St. Petersburg University F. V Zuev (1754-1794), Professor of Moscow University E. B. Syreyshchikov (died in 1790) and others.

The "Charter ..." proclaimed education as the "single means" of the public good. The document argued that education should begin from "infancy" so that "the seeds of necessary and useful knowledge in youthful years increased, and in men's, having matured, they brought fruit to society. "The compilers of the "Charter ..." positively resolved the extremely important issue of teaching in the "natural", i.e., Russian, language.

According to the "Charter ..." of 1786, small and main public schools were opened in the cities. These were free mixed schools for boys and girls, outside the control of the church. They could be used by the middle strata of the urban population. Small schools were supposed to prepare literate people who knew how to write and count well, who knew the basics of Orthodoxy and the rules of conduct. The main schools were obliged to give broader training on a multi-subject basis. Small schools were designed for two years of study. They taught reading, writing, numbering, sacred history, catechism, the beginnings of civics, arithmetic, Russian grammar, calligraphy and drawing. Schools were maintained at the expense of city governments.

Education in the main public schools lasted five years. In addition to the small school program, the curriculum included the gospel, history, geography, geometry, mechanics, physics, natural science, architecture; for those who wish - Latin and living foreign languages: Tatar, Persian, Chinese (teaching of Western European languages ​​was not provided). In the main schools it was possible to acquire a pedagogical education.

Official representatives of the church were eliminated from the schools. Teaching (including catechism and sacred history) was entrusted to civilian teachers.

"Charter ..." approved the class-lesson system. The teacher was charged with the duty to work simultaneously with the whole class. After the presentation of the new material, it was necessary to conduct a "question". A rule was established for the students: the one who wanted to answer had to raise his left hand. The school has a timetable, a blackboard, chalk, a class journal of success and student attendance. Certain start and end dates were set.

The reform undertaken in accordance with the charter of 1786 was an important stage in the development of the school business. The number of public schools grew rapidly: by the end of the XVIII century. out of 500 cities, 254 had schools. They were attended by 22,000 students, including 1,800 girls. This accounted for a third of all students in educational institutions in Russia. However, in fact, the children of peasants could not use these schools. Due to the lack of teachers, insufficient state support, many schools gradually reduced the quality of education, and some, having barely opened, ceased to exist.

2. Activity I. And. Betsky

In 1764, Betskoy presented to Catherine II a report on the general reorganization of the upbringing of children in Russia, which subsequently received the force of law and was published under the title “General Institution for the Education of Both Sexes of Youth”. The report spoke of the need to educate in Russia “a new breed of people - educated nobles who are able to humanely treat the peasants and fairly manage the state, and raznochintsy - the “third rank of people” capable of developing industry, trade, craft. For this, it was necessary, Betskoy believed, to organize closed educational institutions in which children from the age of five or six should stay for 10-12 years. They should be isolated from others so as not to be subjected to “the corrupt influence of the environment.

From the Empress Betskaya he received the task of transforming the existing educational institutions and opening new ones. He changed the organization of teaching and educational work in the cadet corps and gymnasiums, lengthened the periods of stay of pupils in them. He also opened a number of new educational institutions for different classes, except for serfs, including the Institute for Noble Maidens (Smolny Institute) in St. Petersburg for noblewomen with a department for girls from the bourgeoisie.

I. I. Betskoy believed it possible to create a new breed of people through education. Overestimating the role of education in public life, he argued that "the root of all evil and good is education." He hoped that the first new people brought up in closed educational institutions would pass on the views and habits instilled in them to their children, who, in turn, to future generations, and so gradually, peacefully, the morality and actions of people would change, and consequently, society would improve. and public life. Class limitations made him believe in the omnipotence of education.

The main means of moral combat nutrition, "education of the heart", Betskoy considered "rooting the fear of God", isolating children from the environment, positive examples. He proposed to keep children prone to industriousness, to create in them the habit of avoiding idleness, to be always courteous and sympathetic to poverty and misfortune. One should also, he said, instill in children a tendency to neatness and frugality, teach them how to run a household.

Betskoy gave very great importance physical education, the main means of which he considered fresh air, as well as “amusement with innocent amusements and games, so that thoughts always lead to encouragement, eradicating everything that can be called boredom, thoughtfulness and sorrow.” He demanded that cleanliness be observed, physical exercises and labor activities that develop the physical strength of children. He compiled a manual on the physical education of children called “A Brief Instruction Selected from the best authors with some physical notes on the upbringing of children from their birth to youth, ”which, on the basis of a decree of the Senate, was sent around the cities of Russia to all educational institutions.

Concerning the issues of mental education, Betskoy pointed out that the process of learning should be pleasant for children, carried out without coercion, based on children's inclinations. The youth should be taught, in his opinion, "more from looking and listening than from rejecting lessons." Betskoy warned that forcing children to study could lead to a dulling of children's abilities, and insisted on a categorical prohibition of physical punishment. In the “General plan of the Moscow Orphanage” it was said on this occasion: “Introduce the law once and for all and strictly affirm that never and for no reason should children be beaten.”

Betskoy demanded to carefully choose the educators who should replace the parents of the children, demanded that the educators be Russian, “conscientious and worthy people of example”, he talked about creating a friendly family from all those living in the orphanage. But, proclaiming progressive ideas, Betskoy cared little about their implementation in the children's institutions created by the government.

Betsky's views had an imprint of class, noble narrowness. First of all, this was manifested in his demand that “the fear of God be rooted in the hearts of children”, in his illusory belief that it was possible to improve the estate-serf system through education, as well as in his demand to isolate children from the surrounding reality, placing them in closed educational institutions.

In 1763, the first educational house in Russia was opened in Moscow. Betskoy was appointed his trustee.

Pupils of the house were divided by age: from 2 to 7 years. from 7 to 11, from 11 to 14. Until the age of 2, children were in the hands of nurses, after which they were transferred to “common quarters”, where they were brought up in games and labor activities. Labor training continued throughout the entire stay of the child in the foster home. Boys were taught gardening and gardening, and crafts, girls - housekeeping, knitting, spinning, lace, sewing, ironing, cooking. From the age of 7 to 11, children attended school, where they studied for only one hour a day, learning to read and write. From 11 to 14 years old, children studied catechism, arithmetic, drawing and geography at school. They were given a very small amount of knowledge, with the exception of a few pupils who were considered especially gifted. Inside each age group The children were divided into three subgroups. The first included those who showed great ability to learn. They were supposed to be trained more subjects, and upon reaching the age of 14 send them to continue their studies at Moscow University or the Academy of Arts. Naturally, under the conditions of the serfdom, a very small number of children fell into this subgroup. Most of the pupils were waiting for hard physical work. The second subgroup included children who showed skill in handicrafts; of them trained skilled craftsmen. The third subgroup included children allegedly only capable of physical labor, who, at the end of their stay in an orphanage, were determined to be domestic servants for merchants and landowners. Their plight was to some extent mitigated by the decree by which young men and women were released from. educational houses. could not be made serfs. The decree stated that if a young pupil married a serf or a girl married a serf, they would have to bring freedom to those with whom they married and to their future children.

In 1770, a branch of the Moscow Orphanage was opened in St. Petersburg, which soon became an independent St. Petersburg Orphanage; later educational homes opened in provincial towns.

Institutions for the care of orphans and homeless children existed on charitable funds collected in various ways, including donations from rich people. In order to strengthen the exploitative system, the rich and noble sometimes resorted to handouts, bestowing their "alms" on the working masses exploited by them.

The creation of charitable philanthropic societies was caused by various considerations. Highest value had a desire to eliminate the danger threatening the peace of the oppressors from the presence in the country of homeless people thrown out of the life of people who, due to their unsettled position, are in opposition to the existing system. The actions of other benefactors were driven by personal motives: some wanted to become famous during their lifetime, while others, doing “good deeds on earth in accordance with the requirements of Christian morality, counted on the afterlife in “paradise”. The pride of the tsarina and other members of the “educational societies” in charge of the orphanages was flattered by the statutes and documents regulating the work of the houses created by Betsky and Barsov, a professor at Moscow University. But the benefactors and “benefactors” did not mean to actually follow the requirements formulated in these documents.

The life of children in foster homes was very difficult. A lot of children were recruited in each house, sometimes up to 1000 people. A huge accumulation of children of pre-preschool and preschool age at a time when medicine did not yet have the means to combat infectious diseases, led to horrific infant mortality. In the Petersburg House in 1764, out of 524 children, 424 died, sometimes out of 100 children 83-87 and even more than 90 died. and this event had a very hard effect on the fate of the pupils. The people called the royal charitable institutions for the charity of small children “angel factories”.

The meager material resources allocated to orphanages made it impossible to organize the care of children and their upbringing in accordance with the requirements of medicine and pedagogy. In view of the widespread embezzlement and extortion on the part of employees and officials in feudal Russia, the pupils of the houses did not receive even the meager allowance that they were supposed to. Due to the government's lack of concern for the training of educators, the houses were staffed with unqualified personnel, in most cases ignorant people worked in them, receiving miserable remuneration for their work. “The educators were far from those humane requirements that I. I. Betskoy preached, they treated the children of the people roughly and cruelly, which was supported by the entire system of estate-serf relations.

3. Activity H. And. Novikov

A prominent place in the history of Russian education in the second half of the XVIII century. belongs to Nikolai Ivanovich Novikov (1744-1818). Novikov was educated at Moscow University, and an important period of his educational and book publishing activity is connected with the same outstanding educational institution in Russia, culminating in his arrest and imprisonment in the Shlisselburg Fortress for 15 years. (Condemned by Catherine II in 1792, four years later he was released by Paul I.)

During the St. Petersburg period of his activity, Novikov took an active part in the creation of public schools independent of the state, mobilized a public initiative to organize schools for the unprivileged class. In the satirical magazines “Painter”, “Drone and “Purse” published by him, Novikov promoted the idea of ​​equality of people, respect for human dignity, sharply criticized noble education.

From 1779 to 1789 Novikov was at the head of the largest book publishing and bookselling business in Russia based on the university printing house. Among the numerous publications, textbooks, alphabets, primers and other teaching aids for children occupied an important place. Novikov was the creator and editor of the first Russian magazine for children, Children's Reading for the Mind and Heart. This edition was actually the beginning of the publication of children's literature in Russia, and the published 20 books (issues) of the magazine were a window into Big world for several generations. The educational and educational value of this journal was highly appreciated by S. T. Aksakov, V. G. Belinsky, N. I. Pirogov.

The publications of N. I. Novikov contributed to the formation of progressive pedagogical thought in Russia. Thus, in the article “On the Socratic Method of Teaching,” the problem of creating pedagogy as a science was first put forward. In his other article “On Aesthetic Education”, for the first time, the task of aesthetic education of children was considered as part of a broad process covering all aspects of the formation of a child’s personality.

Of particular importance was the article “On the upbringing and instruction of children. For the dissemination of generally useful knowledge and general well-being”. This is, without a doubt, the most important pedagogical work of that time, in which the issues of physical, mental and moral education are deeply and thoroughly considered. In the section “On the Formation of the Mind,” Novikov formulated a number of important rules, the psychological and pedagogical value of which was not devalued by the subsequent development of pedagogical thought.

Rule one: do not extinguish the curiosity of your children or pets.

Rule Two: Exercise your children or pets in the use of the senses; teach them to feel right.

Rule three: beware of giving children false or not quite well-defined ideas about any thing, no matter how unimportant it may be. It is much better for them not to know very many things than it is unfair to imagine them; much. it is better for you to completely refuse to answer some of their questions than to give an ambiguous and insufficient answer.

Rule Four: Do not teach children anything that they cannot comprehend due to their age or lack of other knowledge assumed at the same time.

Rule Five: Try not only to multiply and spread their knowledge, but also to make it solid and true.

All these rules were well substantiated in the article and were supported by many results of careful observation of the development of children.

The activities and views of N. I. Novikov were of great importance for the development of social and professional-pedagogical thought in Russia.

4. Activity A. H. Radishcheva

Alexander Nikolaevich Radishchev (1749-1802) is the founder of the Russian revolutionary enlightenment. He not only courageously stood up for the interests of the serf peasantry, but also rose to the understanding of the need for a revolutionary struggle against tsarism. Radishchev justified the peasant war led by Pugachev, he developed the theory of the people's revolution and considered the uprising of the people the only way liberation of Russia from serfdom and autocracy. V. I. Lenin called Radishchev the pride of the Russian people.

A. N. Radishchev attached great importance to properly delivered education. In his book “Journey from St. Petersburg. to Moscow, Radishchev painted a painful picture of the suffering of peasant children. He showed how, due to serfdom, their abilities, cheerfulness, and sociability, characteristic of peasant children, are dulled. He passionately resented the existing inequality in Russia in the education and development of children.

Radishchev considered the goal of education to be the formation of a citizen capable of fighting for the happiness of his people and hating their oppressors. In his work “A Conversation that there is a son of the fatherland,” Radishchev said that the main task of education is to educate a person of high morality, who loves his homeland most of all, who devotes himself to the struggle for the good of the people. Radishchev believed that only a revolutionary fighting against the autocracy can be a true patriot.

Putting before education a revolutionary task - the formation of a “son of the fatherland”, Radishchev radically diverged from the official tsarist pedagogy in understanding patriotism. While in. state institutions (cadet corps, institutes, schools, educational homes) tried to train faithful servants of the autocracy from children, and the church, false patriots defending the exploitative system, Radishchev raised the question of educating a true patriot, fighting autocracy, not sparing his life in that case, if this sacrifice "brings strength and glory to the fatherland." real son fatherland hates with all his heart servility, deceit, lies, treachery, avarice ... atrocity and fights with the bearers of these vices.

Criticizing Russian (Betskoy) and Western European teachers (Rousseau and others), who at that time demanded that children be isolated from the surrounding life, the revolutionary Radishchev emphasized: “A person is born for a hostel ... He said that removing children from real life contributes to education of individualists, people who think only about their personal interests, who are not able to participate in the reorganization of society, to be ideological fighters.

A. N. Radishchev introduced revolutionism and materialism into pedagogical theory. He argued that man is a part of nature, a material being, that mental development child occurs along with the growth of the child's body.

Pointing out that all children have natural gifts for development and upbringing, Radishchev at the same time believed that the formation of a person's personality is not determined by his nature; but the circumstances of life, the social conditions in which he is. Unlike Betsky, he did not believe that it was possible to change society through education. On the contrary, he argued that only in a reasonable society can education be properly organized.

Radishchev stood for such an organization of education that would contribute to the development in the child public interest, aspirations for the common good; said that in the development of a full-fledged human personality, the active participation of the pupil in the fight against everything inert in the name of a better future plays an important role. He argued that the character of a person is formed by his activity for the common good, constant opposition to unjust laws, inert orders, ignorance of selfish people.

A. N. Radishchev was the initiator of a new, revolutionary morality based on hatred for the oppressors, the desire to fight them in the name of the happiness of the common people.

Insisting on the need to vaccinate children true love to the homeland, to the people, A. N. Radishchev strongly opposed the scornful attitude towards the national culture characteristic of the nobles, against their excessive enthusiasm for the French language. He believed that a true patriot should know his native language perfectly, that the honor and dignity of a true citizen require him to fight decisively against those who do not believe in the strength of their people.

Outlining a wide range of general educational knowledge that a person should master, Radishchev pointedly kept silent about religion. He believed that the autocracy and the church together, "union", as he said, oppress society, that religion dulls human abilities, paralyzes people's will to fight.

The government of Catherine II took all measures to hide the works of Radishchev from society, to eradicate the memory of him in the minds of the Russian people. However, the angry voice of the great patriot, who courageously called for a revolutionary struggle against serfdom and autocracy, was heard by the progressive Russian people. His works, banned by the government, were secretly distributed in manuscript form.

A. N. Radishchev played an enormous role in the development of social thought and pedagogical theory in Russia, in the development of the Russian revolutionary movement and progressive pedagogy.

List of used literature

1. A. N. Dzhurinsky - History of pedagogy: Proc. allowance for stud. pedagogical universities. - M.: Humanit. Ed. Center VLADOS, 2000. -432 p.

Education and pedagogical thought in Russia in the second half of the 18th century.

Catherine II

Catherine showed a special interest in the problems of upbringing and education. The ideas of the European Renaissance and Enlightenment were of particular interest to the Russian Empress. Having conceived the reform of the school system, Catherine turned to D. Diderot, who drew up the "Plan of the University for Russia". turned out to be the reign of Catherine II (1762-1796).

The priority of school policy in the second half of the XVIII century. was the satisfaction of the cultural and educational needs of the nobility. The nobility preferred to learn secular manners, enjoy the theater and other arts. Significant progress was made by special military educational institutions - the Land and Naval Cadet Corps.

The charter of 1766 divided the training program into three groups of sciences:

leading to the knowledge of subjects necessary for civil rank;
useful or artistic: physics, astronomy, geography, navigation, etc.;
leading to the knowledge of other arts: logic, mathematics, eloquence, Latin and French, mechanics, etc.
In the second half of the XVIII century. private educational institutions with public school programs are developing.

In 1763, Catherine appointed Ivan Ivanovich Betsky (1704 - 1795) as her chief educational adviser, who played a significant role in the development of education in Russia. II Betskoy was born in Stockholm, where his father Ivan Yuryevich was a prisoner of the Swedes. Born as a result civil marriage, I.I. Betskoy was considered in Russia to be the "illegitimate" son of Trubetskoy, who awarded him the truncated surname Betskoy. He spent his first years in Sweden, then was brought to Russia, where he was brought up in his father's family. In 1721 he received a service in the College of Foreign Affairs. In 1728 he received the rank of lieutenant. In 1747, with the rank of major general, he retired and went on a trip to Europe, where he got acquainted with the ideas of Helvetius, Rousseau, Diderot. In 1762, Betskoy was returned to Russia and appointed a confidant of Catherine II. He was entrusted with the creation of a system of educational institutions. In 1762, I.I. Betskoy headed the Academy of Arts, at which the Educational School already existed. The name of Betsky is associated with the establishment in 1763 of the first in RussiaEducational home.

In the House, children from the age of 14-15 were taught various crafts. Five years later, they could marry. When leaving the house, the pupils received full uniforms and the rights of free people. Following the example of the Moscow Orphanage, an Orphanage was organized in St. Petersburg. That was 1772. It was proposed to organize the same houses in all major cities, which were supported by donations. II Betskoy accepted the ideas of the French enlighteners and tried to implement them in Russia. His activity, first of all, was connected with the drafting of bills concerning the education and upbringing of Russian youth. He comes to the need for closed educational institutions for children from 6 to 20 years old, in order to create a "special breed of people" free from vices. modern society. True education is that it is necessary to inspire respect for oneself. According to the reports and charters of Betsky, the following were opened:

Educational house in Moscow (1764)
Educational house in St. Petersburg (1772)
School at the Academy of Arts for boys (1764) and at the Academy of Sciences (1765)
Educational Society for Noble Maidens at the Smolny Monastery in St. Petersburg (1764)
Commercial School (1772).
All these were strictly class closed educational institutions.

Education in them was considered from four sides:

physical (a healthy mind in a healthy body);
physical and moral (Idleness is the mother of all vices, and diligence is the father of all virtues);
moral (removing the student from what may have a shadow of vice);
teachings (development of mental forces as a means for obtaining a piece of bread).
"Rootless babies and children" were admitted to the Orphanage in St. Petersburg. The treasury allocated an insignificant amount for the maintenance of the house, which did not cover the costs. Then the need for charity was announced, and the money was collected. Initially, the Orphanage was located at the Smolny Monastery, then it was transferred to the large palace of Princess Natalia (part of the house number 35 a on Shpalernaya Street). On May 14, 1797, Emperor Paul I issued a decree on giving independence to the St. Petersburg Orphanage. In the same 1797, he was housed in buildings on the Moika River embankment, purchased from General Field Marshal Razumovsky (now 5th Corps) and Count Bobrinsky (2nd Corps).

I.I. Betskoy imagined the upbringing of children in this house as follows:

up to 2 years of age, children are in the care of nurses and nannies,
from 3 to 7 years old boys and girls live together and get used to easy work,
from 7 to 11 years old they go to school together for one hour every day, learn to read, comprehend the basics of faith. In the same years, boys learn to knit caps, nets, etc., and girls practice spinning, knitting, lace, etc.,
from 11 to 14 years old, boys and girls learn to write, numbers, study arithmetic, geography, drawing, do household chores and crafts; girls sew, cook, iron; boys get used to gardening, yard work, etc.;
at the age of 14-15, education ends, and pupils begin to engage in the craft that they themselves have chosen.

Students were divided into three groups according to their natural gifts:

1. People capable of sciences and arts
2. People capable only of crafts and needlework
3. People capable only of the simplest work.
The main principle of teaching: to lead children playing and with pleasantness. The leading place was given moral education- removal of the child from any vice. With a good upbringing, punishments are superfluous, since they make children pretend, vindictive, gloomy, but if necessary, punishment can be: deprivation of a walk, standing in one place. Never hit a child. The purpose of education: the creation of "a special breed of people free from the vices of society."

At the Orphanage for poor women in childbirth there was a hospital with 20 beds. This hospital served only 6 people. Those born in this hospital were transferred to the Orphanage, later this order was canceled - they gave only those babies who were abandoned by their mothers. The admission of the child to the Orphanage was not accompanied by paperwork. About 3,000 children come here every year. The most distinguished pupils continued their education in the capital's gymnasiums, but in 1837 this order was canceled.

Below is an excerpt from I.I. Betsky: "General institution for the education of both sexes of youth" (1764).

“It is clear that education is the root of all evil and good: the latter can be achieved successfully only by choosing means, moreover direct and thorough. to fulfill the institutions of an educational school for both sexes of children, to accept here no older than 6 years and to bring education with vigilant labors up to 18-20 years. and to put idleness to shame, to teach economics, to deepen their inclination towards cleanliness and neatness. But first, one should consider his inclinations and desire and leave the choice to him. Eradicate should be everything that can be called boredom, thoughtfulness, regret. But before the organization of schools one should adopt the rule: either do and make the whole and perfect, or leave it like that and not start.
The projects of 1760 on low village schools, on the public education system remained unfulfilled due to lack of funds.

In 1782, Catherine appointed a "Commission for the Establishment of Public Schools". In the same year, the Commission proposed a plan for the opening of primary, secondary and higher educational institutions, which was used in the "Charter of the Public Schools of the Russian Empire" (1786).

The Serbo-Croatian thinker and teacher, director of the public school in St. Petersburg Fedor Ivanovich Jankovich de Marievo took part in the development of these documents. The charter proclaimed education as the "single means" of the public good. It was argued that education should begin from infancy. The charter decided positively teaching in the "native", that is, Russian language. According to the charter, the cities opened:

small public schools
main public schools.
These were free, mixed schools for girls and boys outside the control of the church. They could be used by the middle strata of the urban population.

Small schools: they trained literate people who could read and count well, who knew the basics of spelling and rules of conduct. These schools were designed for two years of study. They taught reading, writing, numbering, calligraphy, drawing, civics, etc. They were kept at the expense of city governments.

Main schools: provided broader training on a multi-subject basis. The duration of their studies was five years. In addition to the small school program, the curriculum included: history, natural science, architecture. For those who wish: Latin and living foreign languages: Tatar, Persian, Chinese. It was also possible to get a pedagogical education. Representatives of the church were removed from the schools. The charter approved the class-lesson system. The teacher had to work simultaneously with the whole class. After presenting the new material, it was recommended to conduct a survey. To answer, the student had to raise his left hand. The class schedule and student attendance record appear. Start and end dates have been set.

A prominent figure in Russian state pedagogy was Fedor Ivanovich Yankovich de Marievo (1741 - 1814).

Education F.I. Jankovic de Marievo received at the University of Vienna, where he studied chamber sciences, jurisprudence. In 1773 he was appointed the first teacher and director of public schools. He knew Russian well. That is why he was invited by Catherine II to organize public education in Russia. He translated various statutes and instructions for teachers into Russian, remade and published textbooks: "Russian primer", "Guide to arithmetic", etc.

He worked in Russia in the field of public education for more than 20 years. Main theoretical basis were set out in the "Guide to teachers of the first and second grades of public schools of the Russian Empire" (1783)

The guide was drawn up according to the Austrian model and contained the following recommendations: you need to teach everyone collectively, that is, the same thing at the same time. To do this, students need to be divided into classes and not everyone should be taught separately, but the whole class. When a student reads or answers, the whole class watches him. Books should be the same for everyone.

The combined instruction and reading reformed schooling. Previously, each student studied on his own, he was given special tasks, each had different books. Now the teacher studied the lesson with the class, read himself and the students read, wrote on the blackboard, the students wrote, and the class carefully followed the answer when answering. Methods were developed for teaching arithmetic, which should have been learned only after learning to read. It was recommended that the teacher himself solve an example of the problem on the blackboard, then the best student solves the problem at the blackboard, then all the students solve the problem. A teacher must possess a number of virtues: to be peace-loving, to be decent, to have constant cheerfulness of mind and body, to be patient and attentive, to be fair. Corporal punishment is forbidden, punishments in the form of deprivation of pleasant things are allowed. But this system was used to a limited extent. Why?

there were no teaching staff - only one teacher's seminary in St. Petersburg was opened in the whole of Russia, and that one was soon closed. The training of teaching staff was entrusted to the main schools. The Teachers' Seminary trained a total of 420 teachers who worked in various educational institutions. Often they were poorly prepared and, as a result, they invited foreigners (school of pastor Ernest Gluck).
the public was not involved in the cause of education (such as N.I. Novikov were removed from the field of action). Foreigners worked as tutors and teachers. Noble people sent their sons abroad - all this increased foreign influence on the Russian education system. As an example, the "Charter for teachers' seminaries, the main public schools" from Felbiger can serve.
Nikolay Ivanovich Novikov
(1744 - 1818)
Journalist, publicist, publisher. He considered the publishing house to be his real business: he put the best years and strength of his mind and heart into the printing house and the bookshop. It was as a book publisher that Novikov did a great service to Russian education. The printing company organized by him in 1784 published school and other educational books. Among the published books, an important role was given to pedagogical topics. These were his own compositions, works of foreign authors. After the release of N.I. Novikov from the Shlisselburg fortress, where he was imprisoned by Catherine II for "free-thinking", he failed to establish publishing activities on the same scale. Novikov financed two private schools and people's trips abroad.

He outlined his pedagogical views in the treatise "On the Education and Instruction of Children" (1783). In education, he identified the main directions: physical, moral, mental. Such education contributes to the formation of a person and a citizen.

“Education has three main parts: physical education, which touches one body, moral education, which has the object of education of the heart, that is, the education and management of the natural feeling and will of children, and reasonable education for enlightenment or education of the mind. Thus, educate your children happy people and useful citizens." Novikov was for public education.

It was in the 18th century that the traditions of family education were transformed, the traditions of religious education were changing, etc. The reason for this was the change in society. The influence of the French experience (closed educational institutions at monasteries) is characteristic, it was applied in the creation of the Smolny Institute, and the influence of ideas is expressed. J-J. Rousseau ("Emil, or on Education"), J. Locke ("Thoughts on Education"), D. Diderot and others, the influence of the German experience.

It should be noted that the period 1730 - 1765. - this is the period of the struggle of M.V. Lomonosov for public education. The struggle of M.V. Lomonosov was expressed, first of all, with the German dominance at Moscow University.

Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov
(1711 - 1765)
Russian scientist, philosopher, poet. The son of a peasant in the Arkhangelsk province. He studied at the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy (1731-1735). In 1736, among the 12 best students, he was sent to study in St. Petersburg, and then abroad to continue his education. Adjunct in physics at the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, professor of chemistry. The initiator of the creation of Moscow University.

As a scientist, Lomonosov was distinguished by a breadth of interests, enriched physics, chemistry, astronomy, geography, geology, mechanics, history, philosophy with his discoveries, trying to use science to develop productive forces and improve the country's welfare. Protecting the interests of the Fatherland, the struggle for the development of science and education characterize Lomonosov as an educator.

The outstanding merit of Lomonosov, the first Russian academician, was the creation of a Russian university. During the Petrine reforms in the first quarter of the 18th century. Significant steps forward were made in the development of science, and a secular school was created. The St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, opened in 1723, became the leading center of the new school and scientific knowledge.

For the training of scientists in Russia, a university and a gymnasium were established at the Academy. However, neither the gymnasium nor the academic university could cope with the task. Under these conditions, M.V. Lomonosov and his like-minded people spent a lot of effort and energy in order to satisfactorily organize the work of educational institutions at the academy. This activity led Lomonosov to the idea of ​​the need to create a university in Moscow. And in 1755 the university was established. The decree on the founding of Moscow University was signed by Empress Elizaveta Petrovna on Tatyana's Day, January 12 (25), 1755, and published on January 24 (February 14). The grand opening ceremony took place on April 26 (May 7), 1755, at the same time the gymnasium at the university began to work (until 1812). The university began its work in the center of Moscow on Red Square in the building of the former Main Pharmacy, by the end of the 18th century. The university moved to a new, purpose-built building across the Neglinnaya River, not far from the Kremlin. Initially, the university had three faculties: law, medicine, philosophy..

7 years before the opening of Moscow University, in St. Petersburg, M.V. Lomonosov for the first time in Russia gave a lecture to students in his native language. From the moment the university was founded, lectures were delivered in Russian. Moscow University from the first days of its work was distinguished by a democratic composition of students and professors. Solving the problem of preparing students for studying at the university, Lomonosov emphasized that "a university without a gymnasium is like arable land without seeds." Moscow University has played a huge role in popularizing scientific knowledge. In April 1756, a printing house and a book crush were opened at the university. At the same time, the non-governmental newspaper Moskovskie Vedomosti (3) July 14, 1756 began to appear. But only towards the end of the 18th century. Moscow University firmly stood on its feet and was able to unite the best minds of Russia.

M.V. Lomonosov laid the democratic foundations and traditions in the development of Russian science, schools and education. He waged an uncompromising struggle against the dominance of incompetent foreigners in Russian science: "I have dedicated myself to this, so that I can fight against the enemies of Russian sciences until my death." Lomonosov was against the incompetent interference of church officials in the development of scientific knowledge. He was the initiator of the democratization of the composition of the students of the gymnasium and the Academy of Sciences. The scientist introduced chemistry and astronomy among the compulsory subjects of gymnasium education. He developed the "Regulations" for teachers and students of gymnasiums, which recommend conscious, consistent, systematic teaching, visual learning. Lomonosov put forward the principle of scientificity - the leading principle in teaching. Peru M.V. Lomonosov owns a number of works devoted to the teaching of language and literature, high school, family education, organization issues educational process. They created many study guides and textbooks on the Russian language and literature, physics, chemistry for gymnasiums and universities. "Russian grammar"

"The master of many languages, the Russian language, not only by the vastness of the places where it dominates, but by its own space and contentment is great before everyone in Europe." "If he were the Roman emperor V, skilled in the Russian language, then of course, he would add to that that it was decent for them to speak with all of them, for he would find in it the splendor of Spanish, the liveliness of French, the strength of German, the tenderness of Italian, the richness and strength in images brevity of the Greek and Latin languages".
From a letter to I.I. Shuvalov (1754)

"At the faculty of law: professor of all jurisprudence in general, professor of Russian jurisprudence, professor of politics; at the faculty of medicine: doctor and professor of chemistry, doctor and professor natural history, doctor and professor of anatomy; on philosophical six: professor of philosophy, professor of physics, professor of trading post, professor of poetry, professor of history, professor of antiquities and criticism."
Thus ended the 18th century.

It was the era of state pedagogy, the school is separated from the church. The purpose of education: to educate a secularly educated person with a broad view of the world, preserving the national traditions of a person. In this era, the state education system is taking shape:

parochial schools (1 year)
county schools (2 years)
gymnasium (4 years)
Universities.
In general, in the 18th century, 4 stages in the development of education in Russia can be distinguished:

the first quarter of the XVIII century - the creation of secular educational institutions, practice-oriented in the context of the reform.
1730-1765 - the emergence of closed class educational institutions, the formation of a system of education for the nobility, the struggle of M.V. Lomonosov for public education, the creation of Moscow University.
1766 - 1782 - the development of educational pedagogical ideas, the growing role of Moscow University, the awareness of the need state system public education.
1782 - 1796 - an attempt to create a system of public education.
Literature:

Dzhurinsky A.N. History of Pedagogy: Uch.posobie for teachers of pedagogical universities. - M.: GIC "Vlados". 1999.
History of Pedagogy in Russia: Reader / Comp. Egorov E.F. - M.: ITs "Academy". 1999.
History of Pedagogy: Uch.posobie for st-t ped.in-t / Under the editorship of Shabaeva M.F. - M.: Enlightenment. 1981.
Latynina D.N. History of Pedagogy. Upbringing and education in Russia (X-XX century): Uch.posobie - M.: ID "Forum". 1998.
Pedagogical encyclopedia / Chief editor Kairov A.I. T2. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1965.
Terentyeva A.V. History of national education. Public policy in the field of education in Russia X-XVIII centuries: Uch.posobie. -

A prominent figure in the field of Russian state pedagogy was Fedor Ivanovich Yankovic de Mirievo (1741 -1814).

Under Catherine II, an attempt was made to develop education for the people. The system of public education was borrowed from Austria, and was invited to implement it in Russia in 1782. Fedor Ivanovich Yankovich, a Serb by origin who knew the Russian language. In the same year, a commission was created for the establishment of public schools. Yankovic translated various statutes and instructions for teachers into Russian, as well as translated, revised and published textbooks: Primer, Abbreviated Catechism, Guide to Arithmetic», "Sacred History" "Guide to Russian calligraphy” and others. He has worked in the field of public education in Russia for more than 20 years.

The main theoretical provisions of his views on education are set out by Yankovic in "Guidelines for teachers of the first and second grades of public schools of the Russian Empire"(1783), compiled under the influence of the pedagogy of Ya. A. Comenius. Briefly, they boil down to the following recommendations: students must be taught collectively, those. together all at once to the same; for this they should be separated into classes; when one student reads or answers, the whole class follows the answerer; books should be the same for everyone, and children read everything aloud together from time to time.

Combined instruction and reading reformed schooling. Previously, each student studied on his own, he was given special lessons, the teacher specially listened to each student, each had his own educational book. For example, in the Ryazan numeral school in 1727, 11 students studied calculus, 5 - addition, 1 - subtraction, 1 - geometry techniques, 1 - decimal fractions, etc.

Have been developed teaching methods.

The manual spoke at length about the virtues that a teacher should possess: be peace-loving and decent, patient, diligent, have constant cheerfulness of mind and body; treat students fairly, be considerate to them. Punishment of students may consist only in the deprivation of pleasant things, while corporal punishment is prohibited.

In 1786 it was approved The charter of public schools, according to which two types of public schools were established - the main ones (5 years) and small (2 years). In each provincial town it was supposed to open the main one, in each district, as well as in the villages - small public schools.

The reasons for the extremely limited application of a broadly conceived system of public education were that no funds were allocated from the state treasury, the state took over the management of schools, and left the expenses for schools to the population. Besides, there were no teaching staff- in all of Russia there was only one teacher's seminary in St. Petersburg, and even that was soon recognized as unnecessary and closed. The responsibility to train teachers was assigned to the main schools. When did people with initiative appear and develop vigorous and varied activities, such as II. I. Novikov, not only were they not encouraged, but they were imprisoned as politically unreliable. The clergy were poorly educated. For example, in 1786 in the Kazan diocese, 380 clergy could barely read, while others could neither read nor write at all. But still the clergy was a relatively educated layer.

Finally, one should not forget the general root cause which made it difficult to carry out all the educational reforms of that time - the absence in society awareness the need for education and schools. There were still too many people who were convinced that school only distracted the boy from direct practical work - from the counter, from the plow, from the craft, from the factory. For example, the Kozlovsky merchant, superintendent of the local school, found, that all schools are harmful and that it is useful to close them everywhere. And many were closed, and in those that remained, they recruited students by force. So, in Tambov, children were taken to school with the help of the police, in Vyatka - also "by the power of the authorities."

For these reasons, educational reform proceeded very sluggishly. The teachers were persons sent by the diocesan authorities from among the seminarians.

Due to all these reasons, Yankovic's ideas were not accepted by his contemporaries, his guidelines were not followed, learning has become the rote learning of a textbook by heart.

Despite all the shortcomings and difficulties, by the end of the XVIII century. progress has been made in the development of the school. Although with great difficulty, new beginnings began to penetrate the school, as the following table eloquently testifies.

Statistical data on educational institutions in Russia at the end of the 18th century. one

Note. We are talking about public schools; data on class, departmental educational institutions are not included in the table.

Questions and tasks for self-control

• 1. What new trends in education appeared in the XVIII century. and what are their causes?
• 2. What new types of schools have been created and what is their purpose?
• 3. What role did the Academy of Sciences and the university, academic gymnasiums play?
• 4. How did the activities of M. V. Lomonosov contribute to the development of education in Russia?
• 5. What are the merits in the development of education I. I. Betsky?
• 6. What was the first class (for the nobility) educational institution - the cadet corps?
• 7. How did the development of women's education begin?
• 8. What was characteristic of the folk school?
• 9. Work in groups: make a list of pedagogical events and dates for one of the topics and a test for other groups.

• Kanterev P.F. History of Russian Pedagogy. S. 255.