The main characteristic of the era of enlightenment. Main ideas of the Enlightenment

At the end of the 17th century, the Age of Enlightenment began, which covered the entire subsequent 18th century. The key features of this time were freethinking and rationalism. The culture of the Enlightenment took shape, which gave the world

Philosophy

The entire culture of the Enlightenment was based on new philosophical ideas formulated by thinkers of that time. The main rulers of thought were John Locke, Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Goethe, Kant and some others. It was they who determined the spiritual appearance of the 18th century (which is also called the Age of Reason).

The Enlightenment believed in several key ideas. One of them is that all people are equal by nature, each person has his own interests and needs. To satisfy them, it is necessary to create a hostel that is comfortable for everyone. Personality is not born on its own - it is formed over time due to the fact that people have physical and spiritual strength, as well as intelligence. Equality must first and foremost consist in the equality of all before the law.

The culture of the Enlightenment is a culture of knowledge accessible to all. Leading thinkers believed that only through the spread of education could social unrest be ended. This is rationalism - the recognition of reason as the basis of human behavior and cognition.

During the Enlightenment, debates about religion continued. The dissociation of society from the inert and conservative church (primarily the Catholic one) grew. Among educated believers, the idea of ​​God as a kind of absolute mechanic who brought order to the originally existing world spread. Thanks to numerous scientific discoveries, the point of view has spread that humanity can reveal all the secrets of the universe, and mysteries and miracles are a thing of the past.

Art movements

In addition to philosophy, there was also the artistic culture of the Enlightenment. At this time, the art of the Old World included two main directions. The first was classicism. It is embodied in literature, music, and fine arts. This direction implied following ancient Roman and Greek principles. Such art was distinguished by symmetry, rationality, purposefulness and strict compliance with form.

Within the framework of romanticism, the artistic culture of the Enlightenment responded to other requests: emotionality, imagination, creative improvisation of the artist. It often happened that in one work these two opposing approaches were combined. For example, the form could correspond to classicism, and the content - to romanticism.

Experimental styles also appeared. Sentimentalism became an important phenomenon. It did not have its own stylistic form, but it was with its help that the then ideas about human kindness and purity, which is given to people by nature, were reflected. Russian artistic culture in the Age of Enlightenment, just like European culture, had its own vibrant works that belonged to the movement of sentimentalism. This was the story of Nikolai Karamzin “Poor Liza”.

Cult of nature

It was the sentimentalists who created the cult of nature characteristic of the Enlightenment. Thinkers of the 18th century looked for in it an example of the beautiful and good that humanity should strive for. Incarnation better world turned out to be parks and gardens that were actively appearing in Europe at that time. They were created as a perfect environment for perfect people. Their composition included art galleries, libraries, museums, temples, and theaters.

The Enlightenmentists believed that the new "natural man" must return to his natural state - that is, nature. According to this idea, Russian artistic culture during the Enlightenment (or rather, architecture) gave Peterhof to its contemporaries. The famous architects Leblon, Zemtsov, Usov, Quarenghi worked on its construction. Thanks to their efforts, a unique ensemble appeared on the shores of the Gulf of Finland, which included a unique park, magnificent palaces and fountains.

Painting

In painting, the artistic culture of Enlightenment Europe developed in the direction of greater secularism. The religious principle was losing ground even in those countries where it had previously felt quite confident: Austria, Italy, Germany. Landscape painting replaced the mood landscape, and the intimate portrait replaced the formal portrait.

In the first half of the 18th century, French culture of the Enlightenment gave birth to the Rococo style. Such art was built on asymmetry, it was mocking, playful and pretentious. The favorite characters of the artists of this movement were bacchantes, nymphs, Venus, Diana and other figures of ancient mythology, and the main subjects were love ones.

A striking example of French Rococo is the work of Francois Boucher, who was also called “the first artist of the king.” He painted theatrical scenery, illustrations for books, and paintings for rich houses and palaces. His most famous paintings: “Toilet of Venus”, “Triumph of Venus”, etc.

Antoine Watteau, on the contrary, turned more to modern life. Under his influence, the style of the greatest English portrait painter, Thomas Gainsborough, developed. His images were distinguished by their spirituality, spiritual sophistication and poetry.

The main Italian painter of the 18th century was Giovanni Tiepolo. This master of engravings and frescoes is considered by art historians to be the last great representative of the Venetian school. The capital of the famous trading republic also gave rise to the veduta - the everyday cityscape. The most famous creators in this genre were Francesco Guardi and Antonio Canaletto. These cultural figures of the Enlightenment left behind a huge number of impressive paintings.

Theater

The 18th century is the golden age of theatre. During the Age of Enlightenment, this art form reached the height of its popularity and prevalence. In England, the greatest playwright was Richard Sheridan. His most famous works, “The Trip to Scarborough,” “The School for Scandal,” and “The Rivals,” satirized the immorality of the bourgeoisie.

The theatrical culture of Europe during the Enlightenment developed most dynamically in Venice, where 7 theaters operated at once. The traditional annual city carnival attracted guests from all over the Old World. The author of the famous “Tavern”, Carlo Goldoni, worked in Venice. This playwright, who wrote a total of 267 works, was respected and appreciated by Voltaire.

The most famous comedy of the 18th century was The Marriage of Figaro, written by the great Frenchman Beaumarchais. This play embodied the mood of society, which had a negative attitude towards the absolute monarchy of the Bourbons. A few years after the publication and first performances of the comedy, a revolution occurred in France that overthrew the old regime.

European culture during the Enlightenment was not homogeneous. In some countries, their own art arose national characteristics. For example, German playwrights (Schiller, Goethe, Lessing) wrote their most outstanding works in the genre of tragedy. Moreover, the theater of the Enlightenment in Germany appeared several decades later than in France or England.

Johann Goethe was not only a wonderful poet and playwright. It is not without reason that he is called a “universal genius” - an art connoisseur and theorist, scientist, novelist and specialist in many other fields. His key works are the tragedy "Faust" and the play "Egmont". Another outstanding figure of the German Enlightenment, not only wrote "Cunning and Love" and "Robbers", but also left behind scientific and historical works.

Fiction

The main literary genre of the 18th century was the novel. It was thanks to the new books that the triumph of bourgeois culture came, replacing the old feudal ideology. The works of not only artistic writers, but also sociologists, philosophers, and economists were actively published.

The novel, as a genre, grew out of educational journalism. With its help, thinkers of the 18th century found a new form for expressing their social and philosophical ideas. Jonathan Swift, who wrote Gulliver's Travels, put into his work many allusions to the vices of his contemporary society. He also wrote “The Tale of the Butterfly.” In this pamphlet, Swift ridiculed the then church order and strife.

The development of culture during the Enlightenment can be traced by the emergence of new literary genres. At this time, the epistolary novel (a novel in letters) arose. This was, for example, Johann Goethe’s sentimental work “The Sorrows of Young Werther,” in which the main character committed suicide, as well as Montesquieu’s “Persian Letters.” Documentary novels appeared in the genre of travelogues or travel descriptions (“Travels in France and Italy” by Tobias Smollett).

In literature, the culture of the Enlightenment in Russia followed the precepts of classicism. In the 18th century, the poets Alexander Sumarokov, Vasily Trediakovsky, and Antioch Cantemir worked. The first shoots of sentimentalism appeared (the already mentioned Karamzin with “Poor Liza” and “Natalia, the Boyar’s Daughter”). The culture of the Enlightenment in Russia created all the prerequisites for Russian literature, led by Pushkin, Lermontov and Gogol, to experience its golden age already at the beginning of the new 19th century.

Music

It was during the Enlightenment that the modern musical language emerged. Johann Bach is considered its founder. This great composer wrote works in all genres (opera was the exception). Bach is still considered an unsurpassed master of polyphony today. Another German composer, George Handel, wrote more than 40 operas, as well as numerous sonatas and suites. He, like Bach, drew inspiration from biblical stories (characteristic titles of the works: “Israel in Egypt,” “Saul,” “Messiah”).

Another important musical phenomenon of that time was the Viennese school. The works of its representatives continue to be performed academic orchestras and today, thanks to which modern people can touch the heritage left by the culture of the Age of Enlightenment. The 18th century is associated with the names of such geniuses as Wolfgang Mozart, Joseph Haydn, Ludwig Van Beethoven. It was these Viennese composers who rethought previous musical forms and genres.

Haydn is considered the father of the classical symphony (he wrote more than a hundred of them). Many of these works were based on folk dances and songs. The pinnacle of Haydn's work is the cycle of London symphonies, written by him during his trips to England. The culture of the Enlightenment, or any other period of human history, has rarely produced such prolific artists. In addition to symphonies, Haydn wrote 83 quartets, 13 masses, 20 operas and 52 keyboard sonatas.

Mozart not only wrote music. He played the harpsichord and violin unsurpassedly, mastering these instruments in the most early childhood. His operas and concerts are distinguished by a wide variety of moods (from poetic lyrics to fun). Mozart's main works are considered to be his three symphonies, written in the same year, 1788 (number 39, 40, 41).

Another great classic, Beethoven, was fond of heroic subjects, which was reflected in the overtures “Egmont”, “Coriolanus” and the opera “Fidelio”. As a performer, he amazed his contemporaries by playing the piano. Beethoven wrote 32 sonatas for this instrument. Most The composer created his works in Vienna. He also owns 10 sonatas for violin and piano (the Kreutzer Sonata is the most famous).

Beethoven suffered from severe hearing loss. The composer was inclined towards suicide and in despair wrote his legendary “Moon” sonata. However, even a terrible illness did not break the artist’s will. Having overcome his own apathy, Beethoven wrote many more symphonic works.

English Enlightenment

England was the birthplace of the European Enlightenment. In this country, earlier than others, back in the 17th century, a bourgeois revolution took place, which gave impetus to cultural development. England has become a clear example of social progress. Philosopher John Locke was one of the first and main theorists of the liberal idea. Under the influence of his writings, the most important political document of the Enlightenment era was written - the American Declaration of Independence. Locke believed that human knowledge is determined by sensory perception and experience, which refuted the previously popular philosophy of Descartes.

Another important British thinker of the 18th century was David Hume. This philosopher, economist, historian, diplomat and publicist updated the science of morality. His contemporary Adam Smith became the founder of modern economic theory. The culture of the Age of Enlightenment, in short, preceded many modern concepts and ideas. Smith's work was exactly like that. He was the first to equate the importance of the market with the importance of the state.

Thinkers of France

French philosophers of the 18th century worked in opposition to the then existing social and political system. Rousseau, Diderot, Montesquieu - they all protested against the domestic order. Criticism could take a variety of forms: atheism, idealization of the past (the republican traditions of antiquity were praised), etc.

The 35-volume Encyclopedia became a unique phenomenon of the culture of the Enlightenment. It was composed of the main thinkers of the “Age of Reason”. The inspirer and editor-in-chief of this epoch-making publication was Julien La Mettrie, Claude Helvetius and other outstanding intellectuals of the 18th century who contributed to individual volumes.

Montesquieu sharply criticized the arbitrariness and despotism of the authorities. Today he is rightly considered the founder of bourgeois liberalism. Voltaire became an example of outstanding wit and talent. He was the author of satirical poems, philosophical novels, and political treatises. Twice the thinker went to prison, and even more times he had to go on the run. It was Voltaire who created the fashion for freethinking and skepticism.

German Enlightenment

German culture of the 18th century existed in conditions of political fragmentation of the country. Progressive minds advocated the rejection of feudal remnants and national unity. Unlike French philosophers, German thinkers were cautious about issues related to the church.

Like the Russian culture of the Enlightenment, Prussian culture was formed with the direct participation of an autocratic monarch (in Russia it was Catherine II, in Prussia it was Frederick the Great). The head of state strongly supported the progressive ideals of his time, although he did not renounce his unlimited power. This system was called “enlightened absolutism.”

The main Enlightenment figure in Germany in the 18th century was Immanuel Kant. In 1781 he published the fundamental work “Critique of Pure Reason”. The philosopher developed a new theory of knowledge and studied the capabilities of human intelligence. It was he who substantiated the methods of struggle and legal forms changes in social and political system, excluding gross violence. Kant made a significant contribution to the creation of the theory of the rule of law.

The Age of Enlightenment is one of the most important periods not only in European history, but also in world culture. Her first ideas originated in

England and immediately spread to France, Germany, Russia and other European countries. Most historians date this ideological era to the end of the 17th and beginning of the 19th centuries, but the time of manifestation of its thoughts in different countries and fields of science and art varies.

Representatives of the Enlightenment

In the 18th century, such writers and philosophers as Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau, Montesquieu and other cultural figures became prominent representatives of French educational literature. Their works were aimed at issues of a socio-political nature and received pan-European significance. German philosophers of the Enlightenment, such as Kant and Nietzsche, worked to solve moral and religious problems. In England, Locke, Berkeley and Hume developed the ideas of spiritualism, deism and skepticism. The American Age of Enlightenment was very different from the European Age. The actions of America's educators were aimed at fighting the English colonies and breaking with England in general.

Principles of the Age of Enlightenment

Despite some differences in views, the Age of Enlightenment as a whole

was aimed at understanding the natural principles of human life (law, religion, etc.). All existing relationships and forms were subject to criticism from the point of view of a natural and reasonable beginning. Much attention was paid to morality, education and pedagogy, in which the ideals of humanity were preached. The question of human dignity has taken on acute forms.

Signs of the era

There are three main features of the Age of Enlightenment:

1. The theory of equality of all before humanity and the law. People are born equal in their rights, the satisfaction of their individual interests and needs is aimed at establishing fair and reasonable forms of coexistence.

2. Superiority of the mind. Based on scientific achievements, the idea has developed that society and the Universe obey reasonable and logical laws, all the mysteries of the universe have been solved, and the dissemination of knowledge can get rid of all social problems.

3. Historically optimistic attitude. The Age of Enlightenment was built on the belief in the possibility of changing humanity for the better and transforming socio-political foundations in a “rational” way.

conclusions

As the Age of Enlightenment showed, the philosophy of this period greatly influenced the development of further theories about aspects of human life. His ideas formed the basis of democracy and political freedom as basic values modern society. Liberalism, being a modern socio-political movement, arose on the basis of Enlightenment theories. The American Declaration of Independence and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen are based on Enlightenment principles. However, the principles of the Enlightenment did not escape criticism. With the advent of postmodernism, certain aspects of philosophy began to be perceived as deficiencies. The activities of the educators seemed unrealistic. Inattention to tradition and excessive specialization were condemned.

For a hundred years - from 1689 to 1789 - the world changed beyond recognition.

Enlightenment, intellectual and spiritual movement of the late XVII - early XIX centuries in Europe and North America. It was a natural continuation of the humanism of the Renaissance and the rationalism of the early modern era, which laid the foundations of the enlightenment worldview: the rejection of a religious worldview and an appeal to reason as the only criterion for knowledge of man and society. The name was fixed after the publication of I. Kant’s article. Answer to the question: what is Enlightenment? (1784). The root word is "light", from which the term "enlightenment" is derived.

The most important representatives of the culture of the Enlightenment are: Voltaire, J.-J. Rousseau, C. Montesquieu, K.A. Helvetius, D. Diderot in France, J. Locke in Great Britain, G.E. Lessing, I.G. Herder, I.V. Goethe, f. Schiller in Germany, T. Payne, B. Franklin, T. Jefferson in the USA, N.I. Novikov, A.N. Radishchev in Russia. The Age of Enlightenment is also called by the names of great philosophers: in France - the century of Voltaire, in Germany - the century of Kant, in Russia - the century of Lomonosov and Radishchev.

The Enlightenment originated in England at the end of the 17th century. in the writings of its founder D. Locke (1632–1704) and his followers G. Bolingbroke (1678–1751), D. Addison (1672–1719), A.E. Shaftesbury (1671–1713), F. Hutcheson (1694–1747) formulated the basic concepts of the Enlightenment doctrine: “common good”, “natural man”, “natural law”, “natural religion”, “social contract”.

In the 18th century, France became the center of the educational movement. At the first stage of the French Enlightenment, the main figures were S.L. Montesquieu (1689–1755) and Voltaire/

In the second stage of the French Enlightenment, the main role was played by Diderot (1713–1784) and the encyclopedists.

The third period brought forward the figure of J.-J. Rousseau (1712–1778).

The period of the late Enlightenment (late 18th – early 19th centuries) is associated with the countries of Eastern Europe, Russia and Germany. German literature and philosophical thought gave new impetus to the Enlightenment. German enlighteners were the spiritual successors of the ideas of English and French thinkers, but in their writings they were transformed and took on a deeply national character.

In the artistic culture of the Enlightenment there was no single style of the era, a single artistic language. Various stylistic forms simultaneously existed in it: late baroque, rococo, classicism, sentimentalism, pre-romanticism. The ratio of different types of art changed. Music and literature came to the fore, and the role of theater increased. There was a change in the hierarchy of genres.

During the Age of Enlightenment, there was an unprecedented rise in the art of music. The pinnacle of the musical culture of the Enlightenment is the work of I.S. Bach (1685–1750) and V.A. Mozart (1756–1791).

The educational movement, having common basic principles, developed differently in different countries. The formation of the Enlightenment in each state was associated with its political, social and economic conditions, as well as with national characteristics.

The new natural science entails a change in the picture of the world. Becomes the center of interest empirical study the surrounding world. Only in the 18th century did the understanding become generally accepted solar system, proposed by Copernicus back in the 16th century. The earth is no longer the center of the universe; a person in a new worldview becomes just a grain of sand in the Universe, but at the same time, thanks to his mind, he subjugates this Universe to himself. The Aristotelian concept of form is replaced by a mechanical-atomistic worldview: the world consists of unchanging space, things consist of particles that mechanically interact with each other. Man no longer perceives substantial forms, but only material units, which are the basic elements of the universe. The consequence of this mechanistic explanation of nature is the fundamental opposition between the finite and the infinite, between matter and spirit, the sensory and the supersensible. Thus, it departs far not only from the previous scholastic metaphysics, but also from the picture of the world in original Lutheranism (with its “ftnitum capax infmiti”). Behind this new picture of the world is the conviction in the ability of the human mind to embrace the world and master it, to establish the laws of the world order, as well as the rules of human coexistence. A rationalistic explanation of nature and a rationalistic moral teaching arise as consequences of a new attitude. The Age of Enlightenment is characterized by a naive faith in man and his capabilities.

The Age of Enlightenment took place in Europe under the sign scientific discoveries and philosophical understanding of changes in society, which were supposed to bring freedom and equality to the people, and destroy the privileges of the Church and the aristocracy. 17th-century discoveries in the natural sciences supported the idea that reason and scientific methods could create a true picture of the world. The world and nature seemed to be organized according to strict and absolute laws. Faith in authorities has given way to consistent skepticism. Traditional class structure society had to change new form state based on the power of reason and law.

The Enlightenmentists believed that every person is born free, that primitive society was the most correct. Their ideal was the kingdom of Reason. Rousseau's Social Contract is characteristic, in which he says that, having gotten rid of class, people will create a society in which everyone will limit their freedom for the sake of social harmony. The state will become the bearer of the general will.

The culture of the Enlightenment was characterized by a tendency toward rapid secularization. Natural science in a new guise contributes to an immanent explanation of the world. Secular culture grows independently of churches and denominations. The state is also freed from religious purposes and connections with Christian denominations.

The Enlightenment represents not only a historical era in the development of European culture, but also a powerful ideological movement based on the belief in the decisive role of reason and science in the knowledge of the “natural order”, corresponding to the true nature of man and society.

Enlightenment advocates advocated the equality of all before the law, the right of everyone to appeal to higher authorities, the deprivation of the Church of secular power, the inviolability of property, the humanization of criminal law, support for science and technology, freedom of the press, agrarian reform and fair taxation. The cornerstone of all Enlightenment theories was the belief in the omnipotence of reason.

The successes of the Enlightenment became possible only because another powerful social force entered the historical stage - the bourgeois class

The Age of Enlightenment was a major turning point in spiritual development Europe, which influenced almost all spheres of life. The Enlightenment expressed itself in a special state of mind, intellectual inclinations and preferences. These are, first of all, the goals and ideals of the Enlightenment - freedom, welfare and happiness of people, peace, non-violence, religious tolerance, etc., as well as the famous freethinking, a critical attitude towards authorities of all kinds, rejection of dogmas - both political and religious.

The Age of Enlightenment is characterized by the confrontation between two antagonistic styles - classicism, based on rationalism and a return to the ideals of antiquity, and romanticism, which arose as a reaction to it, professing sensuality, sentimentalism, and irrationality. Here we can add a third style - Rococo, which arose as a negation of academic classicism and Baroque. Classicism and romanticism manifested themselves in everything - from literature to painting, sculpture and architecture, and Rococo - mainly only in painting and sculpture.

Attempts to explain the behavior of the human masses by the natural and logical course of history, striving for new progressive forms of life, independent of the power of rulers, aroused the ire of reactionary circles. Many Enlightenment thinkers were harshly persecuted. Their writings were burned. But the idea of ​​progressive historical development people and their culture as factors determining the consciousness of individuals, strengthened and enriched in the next era, having a profound impact on research in the field of psychology.

Dictionary

Atheism– godlessness; denial of the existence of God and the associated denial of religion.

Deism(Latin deus - God) - a religious and philosophical view, widespread during the Enlightenment, according to which God, having created the world, does not take any part in it and does not interfere in the natural course of its events. Opposes theism and pantheism.

Determinism(lat. determinare - I determine) - a philosophical doctrine about the objective, natural relationship and interdependence of the phenomena of the material and spiritual world.

Materialism– a philosophical direction that asserts that matter is primary in relation to consciousness and exists outside and independently of consciousness.

Mechanism– a philosophical view that explains the laws of development of nature and society through the laws of mechanics and mechanical motion.

Mechanics– a branch of physics that studies the balance and movement of material bodies in space.

Education – political ideology, philosophy and culture of the era of the collapse of feudalism and the establishment of capitalist society. The term was first used by Voltaire. The Enlightenment was seen as a necessary historical era in the development of mankind, the essence of which lies in the widespread use of the human mind to realize social progress.

Fatalism(Latin fatum - fate, fate) - a worldview that considers every human act as an inevitable realization of primordial predestination, excluding free choice and chance.

PRACTICAL CONSPECTION

1). XVIII century went down in history as the Age of Enlightenment. The Enlightenment is a special ideological and cultural movement that originated in England; J. Locke was at its origins. The development of Enlightenment philosophy also took place in other European countries: Germany, France, Russia. But the figures of the French Enlightenment gained the greatest fame: S. L. Montesquieu, Voltaire, J.-J. Rousseau, D. Diderot, J. O. La Mettrie, C. A. Helvetius, E. B. de Condillac, P. A. Holbach.

At the center of the ideology of the Enlightenment - belief in the limitless possibilities of the mind and common sense. The Enlightenment figures were convinced that the development of reason could have a decisive impact on all aspects of society. Just as knowledge of the laws of nature helps to master and transform it, so knowledge of the laws of social life can contribute to its reasonable restructuring. Having known human nature, it can be improved by reasonable upbringing and education.

It should be taken into account that the enlighteners cultivated not just reason, but scientific mind. It is the development of science, in their opinion, that contributes to the solution of economic, political and social problems. The need for the comforts of life also stimulated scientific discoveries. Hence the desire to popularize and disseminate philosophical and scientific knowledge.

According to educators, the causes of social ill-being are rooted primarily in people’s ignorance, obscurantism, and religious fanaticism. Therefore, the progressive development of society is possible only through education and enlightenment of people, hence the name of the era. Therefore, they considered their main task to be the promotion of knowledge aimed at cultivating courage of thought and independence of judgment among the people. This idea is brilliantly expressed by I. Kant: “Have the courage to use your own mind!” - this, therefore, is the motto of the Enlightenment.

The ideology of the Enlightenment expressed the interests of the new progressive class - the bourgeoisie. Enlightenment philosophers ideologically prepared the Great French Revolution of 1789–1794.

Science and progress are the main slogans of this era. The mind must be freed from all prejudices.

The main ideas of the Enlightenment:

ü rationality, naturalness, free-thinking, skepticism

ü belief in the omnipotence of the human mind and social progress

ü criticism of feudalism and church ideology

ü orientation towards secular culture

ü attention to pedagogy and education issues

ü attention to problems of social order

The transformation of society was conceived by educators as the result of gradual development, in which the main role was played by the spread of education among the people. A change in the social system must follow the knowledge and dissemination of truth, dispelling the darkness of ignorance and eliminating delusions. The peaceful, gradual transformation of society was associated, first of all, with the reforms carried out by the “enlightened monarch.” The educators expected the philosopher-sovereign to patronize education, combat prejudice, and promote social progress.

The outstanding monument of the Enlightenment is the great 35-volume "Encyclopedia", or "Explanatory Dictionary of Sciences, Arts and Crafts"(1751–1788), which, as Diderot put it, became a symbol of the “age of philosophy.” The idea of ​​the Encyclopedia was to create a general picture of all the knowledge that humanity had acquired by the middle of the 18th century, and to determine the place of each specific knowledge. The prospects were exciting: to show the possibilities of man's conquest of nature, on which he had so far only depended. The credo of the creators was set out in the Introduction to the Encyclopedia prepared by d'Alembert. The reader was invited to think independently and seek truth in the natural sciences, in history, and not in the Bible or church sermons. A person holds his own happiness in his hands; he is capable of achieving anything if he frees himself from the shackles that prevent him from moving forward.

The ideological inspirer and organizer of the publication of the Encyclopedia was the philosopher D. Diderot. If for advertising purposes Diderot loudly announced the names of all the great people who agreed to participate in the Encyclopedia, then the great people themselves took a very modest part in this matter. Thus, Rousseau wrote 390 articles on music and political economy, Fontenelle, Buffon and Montesquieu promised a lot, but did nothing. Voltaire also turned out to be stingy: he wrote only 45 literary and historical articles. Baron Holbach, a specialist in mining and metallurgy, was a more reliable author. Less known, but very talented and versatile, Chevalier de Jaucourt wrote 17 thousand articles on a variety of topics, often making copies of sources!

Teaching about nature. In this era, knowledge from the laboratory comes out into the world. There is universal confidence in the power of the human mind, its limitless possibilities, and in progress that creates conditions for economic and social prosperity. The Age of Enlightenment considers itself the era of reason and light, the revival of freedom, the flourishing of sciences and arts. In the 18th century The connection between science and practice and its social usefulness are more strongly emphasized.

New spheres of activity of knowledge in the 18th century. become sciences: botany, biology, anatomy, chemistry.

The 18th century is the century of mechanics and mathematics. This led to a mechanistic understanding of nature. The system of educational views on nature was outlined by Paul Holbach in his book “The System of Nature” (1770). P. Holbach philosophically generalized the achievements of mechanics, and his “System of Nature” became a philosophical compendium (a single system) of ideas about the world and man. If for Spinoza nature is God, then for Holbach nature is only nature. If for Newton God is the cause of motion (the launch of celestial mechanics), then Holbach affirms the self-motion of nature as the only substance. Formed materialistic understanding nature. Nature itself is nothing more than matter modified by movement. Holbach gives definitions of matter, space, time, etc. Matter, according to his definition, in general is everything that affects our feelings in some way.

Mechanics at that time it was not just a separate, special science, it spoke on behalf of science in general (it was identified with science). Therefore, its methods formed the basis of a universal methodology. In general, the understanding of nature was mechanistic. Philosophy developed in that period in close connection with mechanics; it comprehended the achievements of mechanics, and it is no coincidence that one of the dominant forms of philosophy was mechanistic materialism.

Mechanism – a special way of viewing objects and phenomena. Created general approach to objects as a result of philosophical understanding of the achievements of mechanics. The mechanical form of movement is recognized as universal. All complex forms of movement are reduced to mechanical. The biological is reduced to the physical, and the physical to the mechanical. Thinking comes down to physiology, and physiology again to mechanics.

Another limitation of mechanism is the mechanistic interpretation of causality, the so-called mechanical determinism– the idea that all processes in the world are strictly determined by their physical (more precisely, mechanistic) causes. Determinism - a doctrine that affirms the regularity and causality of all phenomena of nature and society.

Determinism can turn into fatalism. Fatalism – faith in fate; a worldview according to which everything must happen as divine predestination wants it, blind fate (fatum), and man is powerless to resist fate. A mechanistic understanding of causation is associated with the inevitability or necessary predetermined nature of consequences; accidents are not considered as associated with ignorance alone.

The spread of fatalism to the area of ​​social phenomena leads to the denial of human freedom and responsibility for one’s actions.

Evolutionary ideas. The writings of enlighteners contain some evolutionary ideas. The successes of Carl von Linnaeus (1707 - 1778) in classifying new factual material accumulated by botany and zoology, as well as paleontological research, prepared the idea of ​​evolution organic world. The largest representative of evolutionism, Georges Louis Buffon (1707 – 1788), together with his collaborators, created the grandiose “Natural History” (36 volumes, 1749–1789), which told about the three kingdoms of nature: mineral, plant and animal. Buffon owns the article “Nature” in the Encyclopedia.

Chevalier de Lamarck (1744 – 1829) put forward the first theory of the evolution of living beings: from “ciliates” - that’s what he called living single-celled creatures - more and more complex organisms arise up to modern species. Lamarck became the founder of transformism, according to which living beings adapt to changes in their environment and pass on newly acquired qualities to their offspring. During his lifetime, Lamarck was completely unknown. 30 years after his death, his name was glorified by the British biologist Charles Darwin (1809 - 1882).

At the end of the century, the Kant-Laplace cosmogonic hypothesis was developed. In the 18th century New branches of physics are being intensively developed - the study of heat, electricity, magnetism, chemistry and biology are developing.

Advances in the natural sciences and technological advances contributed to the development of production. In the 18th century many engineers realized the possibility of practical application of scientific discoveries in the field of physics - laws on the equilibrium of bodies, flight trajectories, resistance of materials, as well as the use of new substances (for example, rubber) or more accurate measuring instruments. The inventions of that era were marked by the eternal desire of man to conquer new spaces - the exploration of the depths of the sea, air ocean: diving suit (1715), balloon– hot air balloon (1783), parachute. Technological imperfection and ridiculous appearance did not prevent many of the projects presented then from anticipating the inventions of subsequent centuries.

The doctrine of man and society. French educators are characterized by a naturalistic understanding of man. Man is understood as a natural being, all of whose properties and needs are bodily and determined by nature, and the mind and common sense look the same as natural light. “We are small animals with two legs and two arms, like monkeys, less agile than them, just as comical and with a lot of ideas. We obey all the general laws of nature."(Voltaire).

Appealing to the natural equality of people, educators also substantiate the struggle for social equality. According to their conviction, one must listen to nature, because it never deceives and is always right.

About education. Special meaning Enlighteners attached importance to human upbringing. For the French, upbringing and education, in fact, constituted the meaning of the Enlightenment. It was assumed that if people were placed in the same conditions and given equal opportunities, then under the influence of upbringing and education they would ultimately acquire a similar moral and enlightened character. At the same time, according to Helvetia, despite the fact that people’s abilities are equal from birth, chance plays an important role, which can disrupt the plans developed, giving a completely different result. Rousseau I didn’t agree with him. He believed that people's abilities are not the same by nature. This circumstance influences the final result more than chance. But the result still depends on upbringing.

The glorification of the “natural state” formed the basis of Rousseau’s pedagogy. He believed that the best inclinations of children are suppressed by a society where inequality, enslavement, and corruption reign. Since society interferes with the proper upbringing of children, they need to be raised in the lap of nature, in accordance with natural requirements. The child needs to be helped to realize his own experience, which alone can teach him something. Rousseau's pedagogical ideas influenced Goethe and L.N. Tolstoy.

“You will never be able to create wise men if you kill naughty children. To make a child smart and sensible, make him strong and healthy: let him work, act, run, scream, let him be in constant motion!(Rousseau).

Theory of reasonable egoism. Enlightenment philosophers understood that real life a person thinks more about himself and his personal interests than about justice and the common good. In the 18th century developed theory of rational egoism . Taking care of oneself is the first and most important duty of a person. But unlimited satisfaction of one's needs and interests will cause a clash of interests of different individuals. To prevent this from happening, everyone must somewhat limit their desires and requests, but not for the sake of others, but for their own sake. Then life together will be balanced and free of conflicts. This is egoism, but ennobled and balanced by reason.

Social contract. French enlighteners developed social contract theory. Montesquieu believed that before the advent of the state, there was a “state of nature”, where people freely expressed their instincts and satisfied their needs, regardless of each other, but when such an existence became impossible, people created the state on the basis of a “social contract”, which provided for the mutual recognition of rights and each other's responsibilities and the emergence of public authority.

Montesquieu proposed dividing political power into legislative, executive and judicial power, with the legislative branch being dominant. To avoid abuse, it is necessary that these three powers exist separately and control each other.

Social contract theory has been adjusted Rousseau. The most important additions include the principle of popular sovereignty, according to which power is the property of the people and cannot be alienated from them. Rousseau justifies personal autonomy without opposing it to society. And one more of the most important provisions: Rousseau admits the people's right to "terminate" unjust social contract and the elimination of anti-people government power. In fact, in an elegant philosophical form, he puts forward the idea of ​​​​a revolutionary uprising.

Enlightenment philosophers

Voltaire,real name Francois Marie Arouet(1694 – 1778)

The philosopher, writer, publicist was a typical representative of the upper strata of the “third estate” - the emerging bourgeoisie. Belongs to the older generation of French educators. He harshly criticized religious fanaticism, various kinds of superstitions and delusions, feudal absolutism, and the arbitrariness of the authorities. A brilliant satirical mind, depth of knowledge, and breadth of erudition allowed Voltaire to create vivid pamphlets against the church.

Voltaire – deist, considered God the founder of the surrounding world, the connecting principle of all things, but was convinced that no theory or practice could reliably prove either his presence or his absence.

Deism- the idea of ​​God, according to which God is only the first cause, creates the world, sets it in motion and establishes laws, but further does not interfere with the natural course of natural events, does not influence the surrounding world, man, the course of history.

However, Voltaire saw the need to recognize the existence of God from a moral and aesthetic point of view in order to maintain order in society, to keep people under the threat of God's punishment in obedience and strict moral boundaries. “If God did not exist, he would have to be invented”(Voltaire).

In his philosophical works, Voltaire expresses one of the main demands of the rising bourgeoisie - the equality of people. However, he understands it as political equality, equality before the law and justice. “Freedom consists in depending only on laws”(Voltaire). He considered social and property inequality a prerequisite for maintaining social balance and normal development of society.

Voltaire advocated a humane attitude towards the common people and respect for their rights, but he considered the ideal of the state to be an absolute monarchy led by an enlightened ruler (i.e., he put forward the idea "enlightened absolutism"). He corresponded with “enlightened” monarchs, incl. with Catherine II, and gave practical recommendations on the arrangement of the state.

Voltaire, at the invitation of the Prussian king Frederick II, arrived in Sans Souci in 1750, where he was struck by the hypocrisy of court life. After serving three years in Frederick's service, he obtained leave and left under the pretext of water treatment.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau(1712 – 1778)

Unlike Voltaire, he is a representative of the lower strata of the “third estate”.

Rousseau tried to prove that with the progress of culture there is also a decline in morality, that errors and prejudices, dressed in philosophical and scientific form, drown out the voice of nature and reason.

The central motive of his work is the problem of inequality between people and ways to overcome it. Property inequality, stratification between the poor and the rich, is, according to Rousseau, the first stage of social inequality. The second stage of inequality is associated with the emergence of the state as a result of a social contract. The third stage of inequality appears with the transformation of legitimate power into despotism. If previously the people were deceived by the state and the laws, then the despot deceives the laws and the people. This understanding of the stages of inequality allows Rousseau to morally and legally substantiate the right of the people to rebel against the despot.

Where there is no property, there can be no injustice. This is the natural state of society. It is violated with the advent of property. A direct consequence of the emergence of private property is the contradiction of human interests, competition and the thirst for enrichment at the expense of others.

In a just, ideal society, everyone should have equal rights, and private property should be evenly distributed among all citizens in the amounts necessary for life, but not for enrichment.

In 1750, Rousseau took part in a competition at the Dijon Academy on the topic of whether the arts and sciences benefit humanity. Rousseau answered “no” and received the prize for his brilliant proof that the development of production, culture and science brings something other than profit and benefit.

In 1762, “Emil, or On Education” was published. In his ethics, Rousseau argues that our natural feelings point us in the right direction to our actions, while reason leads us astray. Then The Social Contract (1762), containing his political theory. Both works were condemned, the first for its rationale for natural religion, the second for its democratic spirit.

Rousseau was one of those who spiritually prepared the Great French Revolution.

Denis Diderot(1713 – 1784)

Writer and philosopher, founder and one of the publishers of the Encyclopedia, foreign honorary member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences.

In the 1750s–70s. Diderot writes big number works in which he develops materialist theory. His philosophy was that of mechanistic materialism. He considered the world objective and real. Matter is the only existing reality, motion is a property of matter.

From the beginning of the 1750s, philosophical salons proper emerged. One of them was discovered by Holbach, the other by Helvetius. The soul of the Holbach salon was Diderot. The salon played the role of a kind of general headquarters of the educational movement, its think tank.

Diderot wanted to carry out abroad, before 1780, a corrected and expanded edition of the Encyclopedia, maintained “in a free spirit.” Diderot presented this project to Catherine II, in whom he passionately wanted to see the embodiment of the “enlightened sovereign”, as she tried in every possible way to present herself in public opinion Europe. The Russian Empress agreed to this project, but did everything to ensure that it was buried through delays and reservations. Diderot arrived in St. Petersburg in the fall of 1773 and lived until the spring of 1774. To make his journey easier, Catherine II ordered the construction of a carriage of such a size that one could ride in it while lying down. To help Diderot financially, Catherine bought his rich library, leaving the books to its owner for lifelong use.

Paul Henri Holbach (1723 – 1789)

The philosopher, ally of Diderot and Helvetius, took part in the creation of the Encyclopedia, foreign honorary member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. He was a materialist and an atheist. The main work “The System of Nature, or On the Laws of the Physical World and the Spiritual World” (1770) is a systematic presentation of the principles of mechanistic materialism. Nature, according to Holbach, is nothing more than a combination of various driving forces of matter. Nature is a great whole made up of a combination of various substances. Nature as a whole is subject to universal laws that manifest themselves through causes and effects.

Man, Holbach believed, is a product of nature, lives in its system and is subject to its laws and cannot free itself from it even in thoughts. Man is a purely physical being, subject to a mechanically operating chain of causes and effects.

Concepts of God arose as a result of ignorance, anxiety and disaster. “Ignorance is the first prerequisite of faith, and that is why the Church values ​​it so highly. All the religions that we see on earth give us only a tangle of fictions and nonsense that disturbs the mind. Ignorance of natural causes forced man to create gods; deception turned them into something formidable. It was not God who created man in his own image and likeness, but man has always created God in his own image, endowing him with his own mind, his own qualities, especially vices. Superstition is a transitory phenomenon; no power can last unless it is based on truth, reason and justice."(Holbach). “An enlightened person ceases to be superstitious.” In this case, Holbach confuses two concepts, faith and superstition, which are not the same thing.

Culture never stands still. She is constantly developing, in motion. Every century brings with it something new and previously unknown. So, for example, the 18th century was marked by a new, one of the main stages in the history of culture - late classicism, or, as it is also called, enlightenment. If you are interested in this topic, then continue reading.

Before characterizing this direction, it is important to decide on its definition. The Age of Enlightenment is one of the significant periods in the development of culture at the end of the 17th and mid-18th centuries. It is closely related to the perfection and development of social, philosophical and scientific thought. Its foundations are a philosophy that puts reason at the top of everything - rationalism and a movement in which there are no religious prohibitions on finding the truth - free thinking.

The history of enlightenment began back in the 17th century in England. But then it also spread to nearby territories - France, Russia, Germany. Then this trend penetrated into a number of other European countries. But, despite the fact that England is considered the progenitor of classicism, France made a huge contribution to its development. It was the French philosophers and educators who gave the movement the shape it is known today. His ideas and principles are reflected in the US Declaration of Independence and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. Also, thanks to his influence, some changes took place in the social sphere of America and Europe - slavery was abolished, the legislative system became more humane, the power of the church on various aspects of life was weakened, and the influence of the aristocracy was shaken.

As for the time frame of the Age of Enlightenment, it is difficult to say exactly about them. Some historians believe that this trend was formed in the 17th century. Others believe that only in the middle of the 18th century. The same situation is observed with the end of the era - either 1778 (the death of the greatest French philosopher Voltaire), or 1800-1815 (the start of the Napoleonic Wars).

The main idea of ​​the movement is considered to be the philosophical expression of sensationalism - “tabula rasa”, that is, “blank slate”. A person is born without any individual mental content or genetically determined capabilities and inclinations, but throughout his life he tries to accumulate as much experience, knowledge, and skills as possible, and it is this “drawing” acquired over time on a blank slate that constitutes moral and intellectual characteristics of each of us. This phrase can often be found in the works of John Locke, for example, “An Essay Concerning Human Understanding.”

Philosophy

A distinctive feature of education is the belief in a positive change in the world and people’s lives through education. That is why the main ideas are considered to be universal education, education and the resulting equality. After all, if by nature we are all as clean as slates, then there can be no caste division in society: everyone must be assessed solely by their learning. This understanding of human nature was achieved thanks to the era of geographical discoveries, the development of science, philosophy, and culture. People sincerely believed that access to knowledge and diligence could make Francis Bacon out of anyone.

Since enlightenment affects to a greater extent social life and philosophy, various speculative theories are directly related to them. The main ones are:

• theory of natural human rights
• social contract theory
• separation of powers theory
• theory of rational egoism

In this era, three dominant thoughts rule the show:

1. The first is that reason is the basis of everything. It helps a person find success and happy life. But the mind is formed together with the soul, so they are inextricably linked, and morality should be honored no less than the mind.
2. Second - God only created the world, but its further development it's already underway according to certain laws and rules that are created by people. Their level of intelligence, capabilities, and prospects depend on them. They, and not the heavenly Father, must improve themselves and work to be worthy of their almighty parent.
3. The third is an inextricable connection with natural science. The world around us needs to be studied, natural sciences are becoming in demand at the state level, they are no longer denied by the church, and scientists are no longer persecuted like magicians and sorcerers.

Also, the era of enlightenment was distinguished by its psychology. Many philosophers and educators, often called encyclopedists, denied the influence of any forces that were hidden from reason or experience on people and their actions. According to some representatives of this trend (J. La Mettrie, D. Diderot, C. Helvetius), man is nothing more than a machine that has come under the influence of the conditions of civilizations.

Speaking about this time, we should not forget about enlightened absolutism. Many scientists around the world argue about the definition of this term.

1. Some are of the opinion that this is a state policy aimed at preserving traditions and monarchical orders, but at the same time striving for scientific progress and rational management.
2. Others believe that enlightened absolutism is an innovative form of government aimed at democratizing society, and an impetus for the formation and development of the bourgeoisie, since under it the nobility loses its leading position, and talented, rather than noble people, are promoted to the political arena.
3. In addition, there is an opinion that this is one of the stages in the development of an absolute monarchy and does not bring anything new except populism.

Enlightened absolutism appeared thanks to the work of Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau and Montesquieu, namely their theories of natural law. In their opinion, in order to achieve harmony in the state, it is necessary to return rights and freedoms to every person, give everyone equality and put a sage at the head of the country. This idea was liked by many monarchs throughout Europe, in particular, crowned heads from Russia, Prussia and Austria.

In the era of enlightenment, the main directions were considered:

1. Atheistic-materialistic - it is implied that God does not exist at all, and the world was created according to one of the scenarios dictated by the rationalistic paradigm of thinking. The main representatives are D. Diderot, D. Locke, F. Voltaire, C. Montesquieu and many others.
2. Utopian-social – based on the construction ideal society, in which justice and equality occupy leading positions. Representatives: A. Saint-Simon, G. Babeuf, R. Owen.

At the end of the 17th - mid-17th centuries, a feudal crisis was observed in Europe. This was followed by clashes between different classes of people. All this led to the formation of class struggle and the formation of certain ideologies. Here are their supporting ideas and postulates, which form the basis of the philosophy of the Age of Enlightenment:

1. The main concepts are reason and enlightenment.
2. To prevent ignorance, you need to educate yourself and learn something new. This contributed to the improvement of science and philosophy.
3. The main task is to change a person for the better.
4. The formation of a secular society. The transition from rationalism to sensationalism.
5. The emergence of a new type of thinking - universalism.

Main ideologies:

1. Universalism is a multilateral, all-encompassing vision of existence. It is necessary to see the world as a whole, without separating its individual parts and without trying to explain and understand the universe by characterizing fragmented elements.
2. Sensualism is a philosophical movement that calls for trusting only sensations and experience as the primary and most reliable method of cognition.
3. Rationalism is a method of cognition according to which reason is primary. Both the behavior and thought process of people must be motivated and evaluated by reason.
4. Materialism is a paradigm of thinking, according to which matter is the primary principle in relation to secondary ideals. That is, objective reality arose first, and then only on its basis did ideal phenomena (will, consciousness, morality) appear.

List of philosophers

1. Francois Marie Voltaire (1694-1778) - founder of the French Enlightenment, philosopher, writer. His ideas are that God only created the world, but does not control it. But the main thing is consciousness, which is a property of matter. He also continued the work of D. Locke on sensationalism. Major works in the field of philosophy: “Philosophical Letters” (1733), “Philosophical Dictionary” (1764-1769) and “Metaphysical Treatise” (1734). He also wrote quite frivolous works of art, satirically ridiculing the taboos and conventions of backward and enslaved people.
2. Denis Diderot (1713 – 1784) – materialist, philosopher, educator, writer. His reasoning is full of thoughts about the material side of life, about the commonality of movement and matter, consciousness and matter. He, like Voltaire, followed Locke's sensualism. He was one of the ideological organizers of the bourgeois French revolution. Main works: “Encyclopedia” (in collaboration with Jean Baptiste D’Alembert), “Thoughts on the explanation of nature”, “D’Alembert’s conversation with Diderot”, “The Nun”, “Ramo’s Nephew”, etc.
3. Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712 – 1778) – philosopher, psychologist, idealist. The main goal of his activity is to show the sinfulness of society of that time. He believed that all evil comes from social inequality and civilization, and the modernization of science leads to changes in people's morals. He considered the ideal to be the return of man to the bosom of nature, where he would not be affected by the vices of the city: greed, pride, hypocrisy and lust. He opposed feudalism and supported bourgeois democracy and universal equality. He was also a continuer of sensationalism. Significant works: “Discourse on the origin and foundations of inequality between people”, “Did the revival of sciences and arts contribute to the improvement of morals”, “Emile, or On education” and “On the social contract, or Principles of political law”, but all the works were burned.
4. Charles Louis Montesquieu (1689 - 1755) - French writer, historian, philosopher. In his works, he criticizes the politics and system of France at that time and speaks negatively about feudalism. Montesquieu advocates a constitutional monarchy where there is a division of power. Main works: “On the Spirit of Laws” and “Persian Letters”.
5. Jean Meslier (1664 – 1729) – materialist philosopher, Catholic priest. He criticized the political system of France and advocated that people organize a revolution. He is known for only one work, “The Testament,” which was first published in England.
6. Julien Ofret de La Mettrie (1709 – 1751) – French materialist philosopher and physician. He was engaged in the development of evolutionary ideas about the progress of society, rejected cardinal decisions and radical views. He believed that the body dominates the spirit. His main job- “Man-machine” - considers a person in comparison with a clockwork.
7. Claude Adrien Helvetius (1715 – 1771) – French philosopher and writer. In his opinion, to achieve a scientific “lifestyle” it is necessary that the state, through regulation, provide people with moral, ethical and cultural education. Main works: “About the Mind” and “About Man”.
8. As for the German enlightenment, the most significant here are H. Wolf (1679 - 1754) and G. E. Lessing (1729 - 1781).

Enlightenment culture

The innovative activity of the era had big influence and on culture. Many figures discovered new opportunities for themselves and gained creative freedom. The general cultural trend is the use of previous forms, but in a new interpretation. For the most part, the use of previously opposing styles - romanticism and classicism. It was during the period of enlightenment that sentimentalism arose, which was characterized by highly moral content and sensitivity elevated to a cult.

As for fine art, here appears a new style- genre painting. An intimate portrait also occupies one of the main places.

In the first half of the 18th century, the Rococo style appeared, which is distinguished by its pomp, splendor and sophistication.

But all the innovations of the Age of Enlightenment are united by a common idea - faith in reason gives rise to the belief in the possibility of positive changes in man and a harmonious state of society.

Enlightenment in art

In literature

A distinctive feature of the literature of this particular period is a large number of philosophical discussions and various state problems in the works. The main character is usually an educated and intelligent person who is trying to change the world for the better. Often, it is he who expresses all the author’s thoughts and ideas.

All works of the Enlightenment era (most often novels) are full of calls for education and reading. It is not surprising, since the texts are dominated by reflections on many pressing topics.

Also at this time, newspapers are printed at an accelerated pace, books and encyclopedias are published. Secular circles and public organizations are formed.

The most famous works:

• Francois Marie Voltaire, “Philosophical Dictionary” is the main work of the thinker. In this work he examines many social and scientific topics, criticizes religion and gives his assessment of what is happening.
• François Marie Voltaire's Candide is the philosopher's most famous work. In this story, the author, with the help of his characters, laughs at many curious and absurd manifestations of reality, and also pronounces judgment on the cliches and patterns of behavior accepted in hypocritical and puritanical circles.
• Denis Diderot, “Dialogues” - this collection contains instructive conversations between the philosopher and many people.
• Denis Diderot, “Ramo” is one of the main works of the materialist philosopher. It presents a dialogue between the writer himself and Rameau, who discuss many philosophical and social topics.
• Charles Louis Montesquieu, "Persian Letters" is a satirical novel. Main character goes to Paris, from where he sends notes to his friends regarding life in this city.
• Jean Jacques Rousseau, “Emile, or On Education” is a psychological novel by the philosopher, in which he lays the basis for the development of a new pedagogy.
• Daniel Defoe, “Robinson Crusoe” (here you can find a detailed one) is a novel that tells about the development of man in the natural environment.
• Jonathan Swift, Gulliver's Travels is a fantasy and satirical novel. It openly talks about the vices and sins of people, although formally we are talking about the hero’s journey in the world of Lilliputians and giants.

In painting

As noted earlier, the main innovation of the Age of Enlightenment in painting was the emergence of the Rococo style. The heroines of these paintings, ancient goddesses and nymphs, were often depicted against the backdrop of luxurious palaces and incredible greenery. The main plot is love. This is most clearly noticeable in the work of the French artist Francois Boucher (“The Triumph of Venus”, “Hercules and Omphale”, “Venus asking Vulcan for weapons for Aeneas”, “Toilet of Venus”).

Engravings and frescoes occupied an important place. In this direction there was no equal to Giovanni Tiepolo (“The Angel Saving Hagar”, “Apollo and Daphne”, “The Meeting of Antony and Cleopatra”, “The Marriage Agreement”, “Mercury and Aeneas”), the last of the representatives of the great Venetian school.

Landscapes, especially urban ones, were also very popular. Francesco Guardi ("Grand Canal in the area of ​​the fish market", "Gondola in the lagoon", "View of a square with a palace", "Venetian courtyard") and Antonio Canaletto ("Colosseum, "Venice", "View of the Thames") distinguished themselves in this genre , "View of St. Mark's Bay", "View of the Grand Canal. Venice").

The most famous portraits of the Enlightenment era belong to Thomas Gainsborough (“The Lady in Blue”, “Mr and Mrs Andrews”, “Portrait of Mrs Mary Graham”).

In the theatre

The real rebirth of the theater happened in the 18th century. “Golden Age”, as some would say. They play mainly comedies, but sometimes tragedies (for example, Faust).

Many theaters are opening across Europe. There are 7 of them in Venice alone! In England, the works of Richard Sheridan are played with success - “The School for Scandal”, “The Rivals” and much more. In Venice - "The Innkeepers" by Carlo Goldoni, and all over the world Beaumarchais's play "The Marriage of Figaro" was sold out.

The Age of Enlightenment in Russia

As mentioned earlier, the era of enlightenment did not bypass Russia. Global changes began with the reign of Peter the Great. It was he who ordered the education of the population, the improvement of science, and the publication of newspapers and magazines. Thanks to these transformations, after some time the country entered the stage of Europeanization. After the death of Peter I and repeated changes of power, the work was continued by Catherine II, who followed the ideas of the great French philosophers.

The psychology of Russian education is very different from foreign ones. Despite the abundance of foreign ideas, some Russian thinkers and philosophers tried to introduce something new, to add “their own,” but at the same time not to go beyond the already accepted canon. These, for example, include A.S. Kaisarova, V.V. Popugaev and many others. Also huge contribution contributed by A.N. Radishchev (1749 – 1802). After the publication of the famous work “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow,” where the author openly criticizes serfdom, he is sentenced to death and sent into exile in Siberia.

Representatives

• M.V. Lomonosov (1711 – 1765) – Russian scientist, historian, naturalist. It was he who was an innovator in the educational environment, added to the list of compulsory subjects, began giving lectures in Russian, together with I.I. Shuvalov founded the Moscow State University. I tried to instill in people the idea of ​​patriotism and the desire to make Russia better, smarter and more progressive.
• A.N. Radishchev (1749 – 1802) – writer, philosopher, poet. He opposed serfdom and autocracy, tried to find options for the liberation of the peasants and dreamed of a society in which there would be no oppression of the working class. Also, Radishchev’s ideas helped in the transition from the noble, Decembrist human rights movement to a revolutionary national impulse.
• G.S. Skovoroda (1722 – 1794) – Russian and Ukrainian philosopher, writer, poet. He is considered the first original thinker of Russia. He was the founder of Russian religious philosophy. He made an incredibly significant contribution to East Slavic culture.

The era of enlightenment in Russia can be described with the word “new” - new rules, laws, education, art. New life! But the main features or peculiarities include:

• The belated start of change, because education in Russia began only with the second half of the XVIII century.
• Much attention is paid to fate and feelings little man(A classic example is “Poor Liza” by Karamzin), as well as history and its development (“History of the Russian State” by the same Karamzin).
• Ideas about space as the basis of everything prevail.
• Social issues come to the fore: the peasant question, savage morals, widespread ignorance, poverty.

The Age of Enlightenment most influenced literature, which glorified patriotism and a sense of moral duty towards the country. The cult of service to the motherland has become a favorite theme within high genres.

Examples of works

1. comedy (D.I. Fonvizin “The Minor”),
2. tragedy (A.P. Sumarokov “Dmitry the Pretender”),
3. ode (M.V. Lomonosov “On the day of Elizabeth Petrovna’s accession to the throne”),
4. elegy (G.R. Derzhavin “The Sea”), etc.

Directions were mixed, for example, in the comedy of D.I. Fonvizin's "Minor" made itself felt by classicism and realism.

At the end of the 18th century, sentimentalism began to emerge, which tends to pay attention to the common man and his feelings. The main work of this direction is “Poor Liza” by N.M. Karamzin.

The development of the art of words entailed the formation of original Russian lyrics, which would subsequently lead to the flourishing of the Golden Age of Russian poetry.

In this article we described in detail late classicism - the Enlightenment. We hope this era has become clearer to you!

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